Mathematics Formulas

- Basic Algebra –

Square Formulas  (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)

 (a + b)3 = a3 - 3a2b + 3ab2 - b3
 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
 (a - b)3 = a3 - b3 - 3ab(a - b)
 (a + b)2 = (a - b)2 + 4ab
 a3 + b3 = (a + b)( a2 - ab + b2)
 (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
 a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 - 3ab(a + b)
 (a - b)2 = (a + b)2 - 4ab
 a3 - b3 = (a - b)( a2 + ab + b2)
 a2 + b2 = (a - b)2 + 2ab
 a3 - b3 = (a - b)3 - 3ab(a - b)
 a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 - 2ab
 a2 - b2 = (a + b) (a - b) Others Formulas
 2(a2 + b2) = (a + b)2 + (a - b)2
 (a + b + c)2 = a2 +b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
 4ab = (a + b)2 - (a - b)2
𝑎 +𝑏 2 𝑎−𝑏 2  a2 + b2 + c2 = (a + b + c)2 - 2(ab + bc + ca)
 𝑎𝑏 = ( ) + ( )
2 2  a3 + b3 + c3 = (a + b + c)( a2 +b2 + c2 - ab - bc -
ca) + 3abc
Cubic Formulas
If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
 (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3  (1+a)(1+b) = 1 + a + b + ab

Important Observation

 if n is odd, then
an + bn = (a + b)(an-1 + an-2 b + an-3 b2 - … -abn-2 + bn-1)
 if n is even, then
an + bn = (a + b)(an-1 - an-2 b + an-3 b2 - … +abn-2 - bn-1)
an - bn = (a - b)(an-1 + an-2 b + an-3 b2 + … +abn-2 + bn-1)
 Binomial formula
(a + b)n = nC0 an + nC1 an-1 b1 + nC2 an-2 b2 +… + nCn-1 a1 bn-1 + nCn bn
𝑛!
Where, nCr = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! Are the binomial coefficient

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 Mathematics Formulas

- Logarithm -

A number ‘x’ is called the logarithm of a number ‘m’ to the ‘n’ if 𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑚 and 𝑛 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 > 0
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑁 > 0, 𝑁 ≠ 1
𝒙
𝑰𝒇 𝒏 = 𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒏 𝒎 = 𝒙. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒏 𝒎 = 𝒙 { 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 log 𝑁 𝑀 = 𝑥 { 0 ≤ 𝑀 < ∞
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 0 < 𝑥 < +∞

 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚 Other Property of Logarithm

 𝑓(𝑥) = log10 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚  log 𝑎 1 = 0

Properties of Logarithm  log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1

 log10 10 = 1
 log 𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = log 𝑎 𝑚 + log 𝑎 𝑛 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
𝑚  ln 𝑒 = 1
 log 𝑎 𝑛
= log 𝑎 𝑚 − log 𝑎 𝑛 (𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
 y = ln 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥
 𝑛
log 𝑎 𝑚 = 𝑛 log 𝑎 𝑚 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦)
 log 𝑛 𝑚 × log 𝑚 𝑛 = 1
1
 log 𝑛 𝑚 = (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦)
log𝑚 𝑛  log 𝑎 𝑚 = log 𝑎 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑛 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
log𝑎 𝑚 𝑛
 log 𝑛 𝑚 =  log 𝑎 (𝑚 + 𝑛) = log 𝑎 𝑚 + log 𝑎 (1 + 𝑚)
log𝑎 𝑛
𝑛

1
log 𝑎 𝑛√𝑚 = 𝑛 log 𝑎 𝑚  log 𝑎 (𝑚 − 𝑛) = log 𝑎 𝑚 + log 𝑎 (1 − 𝑚)


1
log 𝑎𝑛 𝑚 = 𝑛 log 𝑎 𝑚  n log 𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑚 log 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛

1
 log 1 𝑚 = log 𝑎 𝑚 Important Points
𝑎
1 1 1
 𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔)  𝑒 = 1 + 1! + 2! + 3! +. . . .
−∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 1
 log 𝑎 0 = {
+∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 1

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 Mathematics Formulas

- Trigonometry –
Representation of trigonometric function using unit circle using unit ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1)

Trigonometric Ratio – Angle & Sub-units of angle –

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) =  Plane Angle (θ) =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 1
 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
 1° = ቀ ቁ of complete revaluation.
360°

 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥) =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
 1° = 60 minutes = 60’
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥) =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒  1’ = 60 seconds = 60”
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 180
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒  1 rad = ≈ 57° 16’
 sec(𝑥) = 𝜋
𝜋
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒  1° = 180 rad = 0.01746 𝑐
Trigonometric Functions in the Unit Circle  𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥) =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟

Trigonometric Function and There Properties –

Function (𝒇(𝒙)) Relation Domain 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) Range 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) Period Curve

1
Sine (𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙) 𝑥∈ℝ 𝑦 ∈ [−1, 1] 2𝜋
csc(𝑥)

1
Cosine (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙) 𝑥∈ℝ 𝑦 ∈ [−1, 1] 2𝜋
sec(𝑥)

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) 𝜋
Tangent (𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙) 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {(2𝑛 + 1) } 𝑦∈ℝ 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 2

1
Cosecant (𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙) 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {𝑛𝜋} 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, −1]⋃[1, ∞) 2𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)

1
Secant (𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙) 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {𝑛𝜋} 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, −1]⋃[1, ∞) 2𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)

Cotangent 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝜋
𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {(2𝑛 + 1) } 𝑦∈ℝ 𝜋
(𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) 2

General Solution of Sine and Co-sine –

Function f(x) 0 1/2 1/√2 √3/2 1 -1/2 -1/√2 -√3/2 -1

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛
6
𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛
4
𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛
3
2𝑛𝜋 + 𝑛𝜋 − (−1)𝑛
6
𝑛𝜋 − (−1)𝑛
4
𝑛𝜋 − (−1)𝑛
3 2𝑛𝜋 +
2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
2𝑛𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋 ± 2𝑛𝜋 ± 2𝑛𝜋 ± 2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋 ± 2𝑛𝜋 ± 2𝑛𝜋 ± 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝜋
2 3 4 6 3 4 6

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 Mathematics Formulas

- Trigonometry –
Angle in Terms of π
Pythagorean Triples – Pythagorean Identities – 𝛑 π π π
= 30° = 45° = 60° = 90°
𝟔 4 3 2
 3, 4, 5  2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥) = 1 𝟐𝛑
= 120°
4π
= 135°
5π
= 150° π =180°
𝟑 3 6
 5, 12, 13  𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥) + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑥) 𝟕𝛑
= 210°
5π
= 225°
4π
= 240°
3π
= 270°
 8, 15, 17  𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝑥) + 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑥) 𝟔
𝟓𝛑
4
7π
3
11π
2

= 300° = 315° = 330° 2π = 360°

 7, 24, 25 𝟑 4 6

Angle Identities – Negative Angle – Half Angle –


𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ቀ – 𝑥ቁ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)  𝑠𝑖𝑛(– 𝑥) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) 
𝑥
sin2 ቀ ቁ =
1−cos(𝑥)
2 2 2
 𝑐𝑜𝑠(– 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝑥 1+cos(𝑥)

𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ቀ 2 – 𝑥ቁ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)  cos2 ቀ ቁ =
 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (– 𝑥) = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥) 2
𝑥
2
1−cos(𝑥)

𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ቀ 2 – 𝑥ቁ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥)  𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(– 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥)  tan2 ቀ2ቁ = 1+cos(𝑥)
𝜋  𝑠𝑒𝑐(– 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥)
 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ቀ – 𝑥ቁ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥)
2  𝑐𝑜𝑡(– 𝑥) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥) Triple Angle –
𝜋
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ቀ 2 – 𝑥ቁ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥)  sin(3x) = 3sin(x) - 4sin3(x)
Double Angle –

𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 ቀ 2 – 𝑥ቁ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥)  cos(3x) = 4cos3(x) - 3cos(x)
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)  tan(3x) =
3 tan(𝑥) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 (𝑥)
1−3tan2 (𝑥)
Supplementary Angle –  𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) =
2𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥)
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥)

Important Observation –
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋– 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)  cos (2x) = cos2(x) – sin2(x)
 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 – 𝑥) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥)– 1 𝑥 𝑥
 sin(x) = 2 sinቀ 2 ቁ cosቀ 2 ቁ
 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝜋 – 𝑥) = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥) = 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)
 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝜋 – 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥)  [sin(x) - cos(x)]2 = 1 - sin(2x)
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥)
 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝜋 – 𝑥) = − 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥)  𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) =  sin(x) + cos(x) = √2 sinቀ4 + 𝑥ቁ
𝜋
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥)
 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝜋– 𝑥) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥)  𝑡𝑎𝑛(2𝑥) =
2𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥)
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥)

Product to Sum Identities – Angle Addition Identities –

 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵)
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵)
 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵)
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐵) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵)
 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵)
 cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos(𝐴) cos(𝐵) − sin(𝐴) sin(𝐵)
 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵)
 cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos(𝐴) cos(𝐵) + sin(𝐴) sin(𝐵)
Sum to Product Identities –  tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴)+tan (𝐵)
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴) tan(𝐵)
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ቀ ቁ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ቀ ቁ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴)−tan (𝐵)
2 2  tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴) tan(𝐵)
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ቀ 2
ቁ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ቀ
2
ቁ
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
 cos(𝐴) + cos(𝐵) = 2 cos ቀ ቁ cos ቀ ቁ
2 2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
 cos(𝐴) − cos(𝐵) = 2 sin ቀ ቁ sin ቀ ቁ
2 2
sin(𝐴+𝐵)
 tan(𝐴) + tan(𝐵) =
cos(𝐴) cos(𝐵)
sin(𝐴−𝐵)
 tan(𝐴) − tan(𝐵) = cos(𝐴) cos(𝐵)

Max value & Min value –

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙. = √𝑎 + 𝑏
 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) + 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = {
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙. = √𝑎 + 𝑏

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 Mathematics Formulas

- Limit -
The limit of a function f(x) exists at (𝑥 = 𝑎) if and only if the one sided limits of the function are equal. lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→𝑎
𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥).Where lim− 𝑓(𝑥) is called Right Handed Limit (RHL) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
called left handed limit (LHL). lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ lim 𝑓(𝑎 − ℎ) = lim 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 ℎ→0 ℎ→0

Determinate & Indeterminate forms [𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝜖 ℝ − {0}]

𝑎 0 𝑎
Determinate forms (⟶ 0)∞ = 0
(⟶ 0)
=∞ =0 𝑎0 =1 ±∞ ± ∞ = ±∞ ∞∞ = ∞ =0
(⟶ 0) ±∞
Indeterminate forms 0 ±∞
∞−∞ 0∙∞ 00 ∞0 1∞
0 ±∞

Algebra of Limit –

 lim (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

 lim 𝑐 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 ∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

 lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

 lim = 𝑥→𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 (𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛
 lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑛 = ቀlim 𝑓(𝑥)ቁ (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

 𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ቀlim 𝑔(𝑥)ቁ = 𝑓(𝑏) (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖 𝑓𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
 lim 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥→𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 > 0, 𝑛 ≠ 1
𝑥→𝑎

L’Hospital’s Rule –
Suppose the function f(x) and g(x) is defined on an open interval ‘I’ in the neighborhood of ’a’ and both are
differentiable in the neighborhood of ’a’. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) are both either 0 or ±∞ and 𝑔 ′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 for all x
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
in ‘I’ interval with 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) exist then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Method to Solve Limits –

1.Factorization 4. Binomial Theorem

2.Rationalization 5. Sandwich Theorem
3.Double Rationalization 6. Expansion
Standard Limits Result –
0, |𝑎| < 1, 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑒𝑥 − 1
 lim =1
1, |𝑎| = 1 𝑥→0 𝑥
 lim (𝑎) 𝑥 = {
𝑥→∞ +∞, 𝑎 > 1 𝑎𝑥 − 1
 lim = ln 𝑎, 𝑎 > 0
−∞, 𝑎 < −1 𝑥→0 𝑥
ln(1+𝑥)
1, 𝑎 = 1  lim =1
 lim (𝑎)−𝑥 = { | | 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 0, 𝑎 > 1
(1+𝑥) 𝑛 −1
 lim
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1  lim =𝑛
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 − 𝑎
1 𝑥
𝑎0
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 = 𝑞  lim ቀ1 + ቁ = 𝑒
𝑏0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑝 +𝑎1 𝑥 𝑝−1 +⋯+𝑎𝑝−1 𝑥+𝑎𝑝
 lim = { 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 < 𝑞 𝑎 𝑏𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑞 +𝑏1 𝑥 𝑞−1 +⋯+𝑏𝑞−1 𝑥+𝑏𝑞
∞, 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 > 𝑞  lim ቀ1 + ቁ = 𝑒 𝑎𝑏
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

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 Mathematics Formulas
1 sin(𝑥°) 𝜋
 lim(1 + 𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑒  lim 𝑥
= 180°
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
tan(𝑥)

𝑏
 lim(1 + 𝑎𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑏 lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→0
cos(𝑥) −1
 lim
sin(𝑥)
=1  lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin−1 (𝑥) 𝑧𝑛
 lim =1  lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑛!

tan−1 (𝑥)
 lim 𝑥
=1
𝑥→0

Some Useful Expansions -

𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
 sin(𝑥) = 𝑥 − + + +⋯∞  𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + + +⋯∞
3! 5! 7! 1! 2! 3!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥2 𝑥3
 cos(𝑥) = 1 − + + +⋯∞  𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ ∞, −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
2! 4! 6! 2 3
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3
 𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + + +⋯∞  𝑙𝑛(1 − 𝑥) = −𝑥 − − − ⋯ ∞, −1 < 𝑥 ≤
1! 2! 3! 2 3
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 1
 𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 − + − +⋯∞
1! 2! 3! (𝑥 ln 𝑎)2
 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑥 ln 𝑎 + 2!
+⋯∞

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)… (𝑛+𝑟−1)

 (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 +
2!
𝑥2 + 3!
𝑥3 + ⋯ 𝑟!
𝑥𝑟 + ⋯ ∞
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)… (𝑛+𝑟−1) 𝑟
 (1 − 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 − 𝑛𝑥 +
2!
𝑥2 − 3!
𝑥 3 + ⋯ (−1)𝑟 𝑟!
𝑥 + ⋯∞

Important Points to Remember -

1
1. In lim 𝑓(𝑥) type question if the function f(x) contains 𝑒 𝑥 at both Nominator and Denominator then take
𝑥→0
1
𝑒 common.
𝑥
1
2. In lim 𝑓(𝑥) type question if the function f(x) contains 𝑒 −𝑥 at both Nominator and Denominator then
𝑥→0
1
never take 𝑒 −𝑥 common.
1 1
3. If lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] is (∞ − ∞) then always take LCM.
𝑥→0

4. whenever (√𝑓(𝑥) − √𝑔(𝑥)) from or (√𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐) is given use Rationalization method to solve limit
5. If limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) is given, then always try to take Maximum degree or Maximum term common.
𝑥→∞
6. When lim 𝑓(𝑥) is given, then we can apply (𝑥 → 𝑐 + ℎ ) or (𝑥 → 𝑐 − ℎ ) to solve limit.
𝑥→𝑐
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7. 𝑥∙𝑦
= 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. [𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 − 𝑏𝑖𝑔 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥∙𝑦∙𝑧
= 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. [1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 − 2𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 ]

Page - 6
 Mathematics Formulas

- Derivative –
The derivative of a function is the rate of change of one variable with respect to another. It can also be thought
of as the slope of a tangent line to a point on a curve.
𝑑
Derivatives by Definition –  𝑑𝑥
[𝑒 𝑥 ] = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)  [𝑎 𝑥 ] = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)  [ln 𝑥] = , 𝑥 > 0
 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
= lim 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑥
1
ℎ
ℎ→0
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
 𝑑𝑥
[log 𝑎 𝑥] =
𝑥 ln 𝑎
,𝑥 > 0
 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
= lim 𝑑
ℎ→0 ℎ
 [sin(𝑥)] = cos(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Prosperities of Derivatives –  𝑑𝑥
[cos(𝑥)] = − sin(𝑥)
𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑  [tan(𝑥)] = sec 2(𝑥)
 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] =
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑  [csc(𝑥)] = − csc(𝑥) cot(𝑥)
 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑑  [sec(𝑥)] = sec(𝑥) tan(𝑥)
 [𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
+ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)  [cot(𝑥)] = − csc 2(𝑥)
 [ ]= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑑 1
𝑑  [sin−1 (𝑥)] = , −1 < 𝑥 < 1
 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))
∙𝑔 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 1
 [cos−1(𝑥)] = − , −1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
Derivatives of Standard Function – 𝑑 1
 𝑑𝑥
[tan−1 (𝑥)] =
1+𝑥 2
,𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑑
 [𝑐] = 0 
𝑑
[csc −1 (𝑥)] = −
1
, |𝑥| > 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥 |√𝑥 2 −1
𝑑
 [𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
(power function) 
𝑑
[sec −1 (𝑥)] =
1
|𝑥| > 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 1
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥 |√𝑥 2 −1
 [ ]=− 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2  𝑑𝑥
[cot−1 (𝑥)] = −
1+𝑥 2
,𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑑 1
 [√𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥

Newton-Leibnitz theorem -
The Newton-Leibnitz theorem is the theorem that as its result gives us the formula using which we can calculate
the differentiation of a definite integral of which limits are functions of a differential variable.
𝑑 𝑔(𝑥)
ቀ∫ℎ(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡ቁ = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) ∙ 𝑔 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(ℎ(𝑥)) ∙ ℎ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Page - 7