Lab Execution Plan

Program: B. Tech. Semester: III

Course Title: Signals, Systems and Networks Course Code: EEP-002
Name of Faculty:Mr. Narendra Kumar Session: 2023-24

S.N Name of Experiment Grou Number of Execution

o p students date

1 Verification of principle of Maximum A

power transfer and superposition with dc
and ac sources.
2 Verification of Thevenin and Norton A
theorems in ac circuits.
3 Verification of Tellegen’s theorem for two A
networks.
4 Study the series resonance. A

5 Study the parallel resonance. A

6 Study the response in RLC series circuit A

with step voltage input for underdamped,
critically damp and overdamped cases.
7 Study the transient response of RC circuit A
for step input.
8 Study the transient response of RL circuit A
for step input.
9 Determination of Z and Y parameters for A
a network
10 Determination of ‘h’ and ABCD A
parameters
 LAB MANUALS
EXPERIMENT NO.1

Aim: Verification of principle of Maximum power transfer and superposition with dc and ac
sources.

Equipment required:Digitalmulti-
meter,powersupply,resistance(wirewound),ConnectingWires
Theory:

Superposition theorem states that in a linear network containing severalindependent

sources, the overall response at any point in the network equals the sum ofresponses due to
each independent source considered separately with all other independentlysources made
inoperative (short circuited). To make a source inoperative, it is short circuitedleaving
behind its internal resistance if it is a voltage source, and it is open circuited leavingbehind
its internal resistanceif it is a current source. In most electrical circuit analysis
problems,acircuit is energizedbyasingle independentenergysource.Insuch cases,itis
quiteeasytofindthe response (i.e., current, voltage, power) in a particular branch of the
circuit using simplenetwork reduction techniques (i.e., series parallel combination, star
delta transformation,etc.). However, in the presence of more than one independent source
in the circuit, the responsecannot be determined by direct application of network reduction
techniques. In such a situation,the principle of superposition may be applied to a linear
network, to find the resultant responsedueto all thesourcesactingsimultaneously.

Thesuperpositiontheoremisbasedontheprincipleofsuperposition.Theprincipl
eofSuperpositionstatesthattheresponse(adesiredcurrentorthevoltage)atanypointin the linear
network having more than one independent source can be obtained as the sum ofresponses
caused by the separate independent sources acting alone. The validity of principle
ofsuperposition means that the presence of one excitation sources does not affect the
response duetoother excitations.

Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Superposition theorem is shown in Figure on Kit NV6509A.

Procedure:

1. ConnecttheDC powersupplyto resistanceR1.Adjust voltageofsupplytoE1=10V.

2. ConnectanotherDC supplyto resistanceR2.Adjust voltagetoE2=5V.
3. ConnecttheDCammeter(mA)toresistanceR3.
4. Now remove the left-hand side of supply and measure and record the current
throughR3.I3‟‟= ma

5. Removeanothersupplyand measure andrecord thecurrent through

R3.I3‟=ma.
 6. NowapplyboththesuppliesandmeasurethecurrentinR3i.e.I3‟‟.N
ow I3=I3‟‟+ I3‟

ObservationTable:

CalculatedValues

I3 I3‟ I3‟‟

ObservedValues

V1= V2= V1=

V2= V1= V2=

I3= I3‟= I3‟‟=

CALCULATIONS:
I3(Observed)=I3‟+I3‟
I3(Calculated)= (bysolvingusingKVL)
%Error=(ObservedValue-CalculatedValue)/CalculatedValue

Result: The super position theorem is verified.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Aim:Verification of Thevenin and Norton theorems in ac circuits.
Equipment’s required:
1. Digital Multimeter
2. 2 mm patch cords
3. NV6509A Kit
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study DC Norton’s theorem is shown in Figure on NV6509A Kit.

Theory:
Thevenin’sTheorem
Thevenin’s Theorem is a very powerful tool for simplifying a linear two-terminalnetwork of fixed
resistances and voltage sources by replacing the network with a singlevoltage source in series with
single resistor. When the circuit is simplified, the single voltagesource is called the Thevenin voltage
source (providing Thevenin voltage (VT)) and VT isequal to the open circuit voltage (VOC) at the
terminals (a-b) of the original network. Thesingle resistor is called the Thevenin resistance (R TH) and is
equal to the open circuit voltage(VOC) at the terminals divided by the short circuit current (ISC) between
the terminals of theoriginalnetwork.

Therefore,VTH=VOC
and
RTH=VOC/ISC

Theshortcircuitcurrent(ISC)ismeasuredbyconnectinganamperemeterbetweenthe
terminals(a-b)oftheoriginalnetworkandrecordingthecurrentreading.Theshortcircuit
current(ISC)iscalculatedbydrawingashortbetweentheterminalsoftheoriginalnetworkandcalcul
atingthecurrent in theshort.
An alternate method of determining the Thevenin resistance (R TH) is by replacing allvoltage
sources with ashort circuit and all current sources with an open in the
originalnetworkanddeterminingtheequivalentresistance
isequaltotheTheveninresistance(RTH). The strength of the Thevenin theorem lies in the fact
that, although the Theveninequivalent circuit is not the original circuit, it acts like the
original circuit in terms of thevoltage and current at theterminals.

Norton’sTheorem
Norton’s Theorem states that any linear two-terminal network of fixed resistances
andvoltage sources may be replaced with a single current source in parallel with a single
resistor.The single current source is called the Norton current source (providing Norton
current (IN))and IN is equal to the short circuit current (ISC) between the terminals of the
original network.The single resistor is called the Norton resistance (RN) and is equal to the
 Thevenin resistancein the Thevenin equivalent circuit. It is found by following the same
procedure that was usedtofind Thevenin resistance(RTH).
WhenaresistanceRLoadisconnectedbetweentheterminalsa-boftheoriginalnetwork, the voltage
across the terminals (VAB) will be the same as the voltage across theterminals of the
Thevenin equivalent circuit if the same value resistance (RLoad) is connectedacross the
terminals of Thevenin equivalent circuit. The same statement can be made for
theNortonequivalent circuit.

Procedure:
1.SetupthecircuitinFig.4.1:

Figure4.1.LinearCircuittoStudyTheveninandNorton

R1=1.2kΩR2= 10 k ΩR3=5.6 kΩR4= 10 k ΩR5= 2.7 k ΩR6=4.7kΩ

Rload=1.8kΩVS1=10VVS2=6V

2.Measure the current (IL),through RLoad and the voltage (VL),across RLoad.
3.Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen by RLoad (i.e. the equivalent circuit betweennodes A & B,
with RLoad removed from the circuit). To get the equivalent circuit,followthesesteps:
a.Remove RLoad from the circuit.
b.Measure VAB(opencircuitvoltage=TheveninVoltage =VT).
c. Set all the voltage sources to zero volts, and use the ohmmeter to measure
theequivalentresistancebetweennodes A&B(This istheTheveninResistance=R T).
d. CanRTbedetermined usingonlythemeasurements in(2)and (3b)?How?

4.Find the Norton equivalent circuit seen by R Load. For this part, DO NOT physicallyapply a
short to measure ISC =IN . Instead, use the load line method to measure I SC =IN.Thisworks as
 follows:

e. SetthepotentiometertotheoriginalloadvalueandconnectitbetweennodesA&B.
f. Varythepotentiometer,andmeasurethevoltage(VP)acrossit,andthecurrent(IP)throughit.
g. Obtainfivedatapoints(preferablyhavinguniformvoltagespacingbetweenthem)andplot
VPvs.IP.
h. Fromtheplotin(c),findIN,VT,andRT.Or,youcanmeasureIPandRPinsteadofIPand VP.Thiscan
be easierto handleinlab. Why?

2. Comparetheresultsfrompart(4)totheresultsfrompart(3).

3. SetVS1tozero, andmeasuretheThevenin equivalentvoltage(VT1)seenbyRLoad.

4. SetVS2tozero(restoreVS1)andmeasureVT2.

5. WhatistherelationshipbetweenVT1,VT2,andVT.Why?

6. SetupthecircuitinFig.3.4,andmeasurethevoltageVRL,andthecurrentIRL.(Usethevalues
measured in step 3 forVTand RT).

7. CompareVRLand IRLtothosemeasured in step2.

Figure3.4

Result:
 Theoretical value of Norton’s equivalent current IN = ………….
 Practical value of Norton’s equivalent current IN =……………..
 Theoretical value of Norton’s equivalent resistance RN = ……...
 Practical value of Norton's equivalent resistance RN = ………… current is flowing
through the load resistance of(Yes/No), the value of linear circuit and load
resistance of equivalent circuit. In both the cases value of IL will be approximately equal.
Hence Norton’s theorem is verified.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Aim: Verification of Telogen’s theorems for two networks of the same topology.
Equipment’s required:
1. Digital multimeter
2. 2 mm patch cords
3. Kit NV6509A.

Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to verify AC Reciprocity theorem is shown in Figure on Kit NV6509A.

Theory:
Tellegen’stheorem:

“Inanyliner/nonlinear,active/passive,timevariant/invariantnetwork,thesummationofpower
ofeachbranch(instantaneouspowerincaseofACnetwork)isequaltozero” So for a

circuit having “n” no of branches

n

vKiK0
K1

Another extension is when the branch voltage v Kis from one network and branch current i K is
from an entirely different network, so long as the two networks have the same topology (same
incidence matrix) Tellegen's theorem remains true.

SoiffornetworkN

Branchvoltages:v1,v2,v3,...vnBranch

currents:i1,i2 ,i3,...in

AndfornetworkN'
Circuits:Followingtwonetworksaretopological
2Ω 6Ω 2Ω

4Ω 5Ω 9Ω
8V 2A
i

Calculations:

Procedure:
1. Connect 12V AC supply between terminal 24 and terminal 28.
2. Connect terminal 25 with terminal 29 and terminal 26 with terminal 30.
3. Connect multimeter between terminal 27 and 31 to measure current flowing through branch GH
in the
Presence of single voltage source 12V AC supply in branch AB.
4. Interchange the position of supply and multimeter i.e., remove 2mm patch cord between
terminal 1
and 24, 2 and 28, and multimeter from terminals 27 and 31 and connect 2mm patch cords
between
terminals 1 and 27, 2 and 31, 25 and 29, 26 and 30.
5. Connect an multimeter between terminals 24 and 28 to measure current flowing through branch
AB in
presence of 12V AC supply in branch GH.
6. Repeat above steps for the measurement of current flowing through any branch in the presence
of
voltage source of 6V AC supply in other branch also. Measure the current flow after
interchanging
 position of supply and multimeter, as done above.
7. Compare the current flowing in first branch, when the source is in second branch, with the
current
flow in second branch when the source is in first branch.

Result: (Yes/No), the current flowing in branch one, when the source is in the second
branch is equal to the current flowing in second branch, when the source and multimeter are
interchanged.
EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM:To study frequency response of series R-L-C circuit and determine

resonancefrequency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: CRO, Audio frequency generator, Multimeter

andconnectingwires.

THEORY: Intheseriesresonancecircuit,thenetreactance
X=XL-XC

Soimpedanceof thecircuitis
2 2
Z=√(R +(XL-XC) )

attheresonancefrequencythe capacitive reactancebecomes equaltotheinductivereactance.

XL=XC
w0L=1/
w0Cf0=1/2π√LC
 CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

i.Maketheconnections showninfig.
ii.Frequencyisgiven byaudio frequencygenerator.
iii.Changethefrequencyandnote thereadingcarefully.
iv. At certain frequency the voltage becomes maximum after which the voltage
decreases.Thisis the resonancefrequency.
v. Plotagraphbetweenfrequencyand voltage.
OBSERVATIONTABLE:

S.NO FREQUENCY(KHz) CURRENT(AMP)

RESULT:Theresonancefrequencyisfoundto be……kHz
CONCLUSION:Impedanceisminimum atresonancefrequency.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM:Tostudyfrequencyresponse ofparallel R-L-Ccircuit anddetermineresonancefrequency.

APPARATUS:CRO,Audiofrequencygenerator,Multimetersandconnectingwir
es.

THEORY:FortheparallelR-L-
CcircuitIC=ILSinΦL

IL=V/Z,
SinΦL=XL/Z

V/Z*XL/Z=V/XC
2
OrXL*XC=Z
2
orL/C=Z
2 2
L/C=R +X L
2 2
fo=1/2π*√1/LC-R /L

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
 PROCEDURE:
 Maketheconnectionsshowninfig.
 Frequencyisgiven byaudio frequencygenerator.
 Changethefrequencyand note thereadingcarefully
 Atcertainfrequencythevoltagebecomesminimumafterwhichthevoltage increases.This is
theresonancefrequency

OBSERVATIONTABLE:
SR.NO FREQUENCY(KHz) CURRENT(AMP)

GRAPH:

CURRENT

fr
FREQENCY

RESULT:Theresonancefrequencyisfound tobe……kHz.

CONCLUSION: Impedanceismaximumatresonancefrequency
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM:Tostudyfrequencyresponse ofparallel R-L-Ccircuit

anddetermineresonancefrequency.

APPARATUS:CRO,Audiofrequencygenerator,Multimetersandconnectingwir
es.

THEORY:FortheparallelR-L-
CcircuitIC=ILSinΦL

IL=V/Z,
SinΦL=XL/Z

V/Z*XL/Z=V/XC
2
OrXL*XC=Z
2
orL/C=Z
2 2
L/C=R +X
2 2
fo=1/2π*√1/LC-R /L

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
a) Maketheconnectionsshowninfig. Frequencyisgiven byaudio frequencygenerator.
b) Changethefrequencyand note thereadingcarefully
c) Atcertainfrequencythevoltagebecomesminimumafterwhichthevoltageincrea
ses.This is theresonancefrequency
d) Plotagraphbetweenfrequencyand voltage.

OBSERVATIONTABLE:

SR.NO FREQUENCY(KHz) CURRENT(AMP)

CURRENT

fr
FREQENCY
RESULT: The resonance frequency is found to be……kHz.

CONCLUSION: Impedance is maximum at resonance frequency.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

AIM: -To study and plot the transient response of RC circuit.

APPARATUSREQUIRED:PowerSupply,
CircuitBoardKit.,CRO,FunctionGenerator,ConnectingLeads.

BRIEF THEORY:A capacitor has the ability to store an electrical charge and energy.
Thevoltage across the capacitor is related to the charge by the equation V=Q/C for steady state
values,orexpressed as an instantaneous value, dv=dq/C
By definition i = dq/dt or dq = idt. Therefore

The derivation of the transient responses of both the capacitor current and voltage in an RC
circuitwhen a source voltage is suddenly applied to that circuit is shown below. Note that the
timeconstant (t = τ = RC). The step response of an RC circuit can be analyzed using the
followingcircuit:

Immediately after the switch closes, KVL requires thatIf we differentiate (1) with respect to t,
weget

Theothertwo terms dropoutbecause theyareconstants. Now dividethru byR-

Thevoltageacrossthe capacitorat t=0(Vo)will bezero becausetherecannotbe

aninstantaneouschangeinvoltage acrossthecapacitor.Therefore,
theinitialcurrentinthecircuitwillbeasfollows

Normalized current=i(t)/Io, versus Normalized time=t/RC.

Notethatthe timeconstant (t=τ=RC)occurs at36.8%of Ioor 0.368Vs/R. Wealso knowthat
Substitutingifrom(7) andIo from (8)into(9),Puttinginlimitsandsimplifyinggives:

Plottingnormalized voltage ( Vc/VS )versusnormalizedtime (t/RC )

Notethat thetimeconstant (t=τ =RC) occurs at0.632 Vs

PROCEDURE:
a) Connectthecircuitaccordingtothefig.&switch'ON'thesupply.
b) Feedsquarewave fromfunctiongeneratortothe Inputterminalofthecircuit.
c) ConnecttheCRO totheO/Pterminal&notedownthe O/P wave
d) DrawtheInput&Outputwaveonthe graphpaper.

RESULT/CONCLUSIONS:Transient response of RC circuit has been studied

and the resultsobtainedareshown on thegraph.
DISCUSSION:Thecapacitorchargesanddischargeswithinone minute.
PRECAUTIONS:
a) Maketheconnectionsaccordingtothecircuitdiagram. Power supplyshould
beswitched off.
b) Connectionsshouldbetight.
c) HandletheCROcarefully
d) Notethereadingscarefully.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

AIM:To studyandplot the transient responseofRLcircuit

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Power Supply, Circuit Board Kit., CRO, Function
Generator,ConnectingLeads.

INTRODUCTION: The Transient Response (also known as the Natural Response) is the
waythe circuit responds to energies stored in storage elements, such as capacitors and
inductors. If aninductorhasenergy storedwithinit,thenthat energy canbe dissipated/absorbedby
a resistor.Howthat energyisdissipated is thetransient Response.

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

THEORY:Inan R-Lcircuit,voltageacrossthe inductor decreaseswithtime.

Theexpressionforthecurrentbuild-upacrosstheInductorisgivenby

where, Vistheappliedsourcevoltagetothe circuitfort≥0.Theresponse curveisincreasing.

Theexpressionfor thecurrent decayacrosstheInductoris givenby:

TheTimeConstant,(τ)
oftheLRseriescircuitisgivenasL/RandinwhichV/Rrepresentsthefinalsteadystatecurrentvalue
afterfive timeconstant values.Oncethecurrent reachesthis maximum steady state value at 5τ,

the inductance of the coil has reduced to zero acting more like ashortcircuit and
effectivelyremovingit from thecircuit.

Since the voltage drop across the resistor, VR is equal to I*R (Ohms Law), it will have the
sameexponentialgrowthandshapeasthecurrent.However,thevoltagedrop across
theinductor,VLwillhaveavalueequalto:Ve(-Rt/L).Thenthevoltageacrosstheinductor,VLwillhave an
initial value equal to the battery voltage at time t = 0 or when the switch is first closed
andthendecaysexponentiallyto zero asrepresented inthe abovecurves.
The time required for the current flowing in the LR series circuit to reach its maximum steady
statevalueisequivalenttoabout5timeconstants or 5τ.Thistimeconstantτ,ismeasuredbyτ= L/R,in
seconds, where R is the value of the resistor in ohms and L is the value of the inductor
inHenries. This then forms the basis of an RL charging circuit were 5τ can also be thought of
as“5*(L/R)”or thetransient time ofthe circuit
 PROCEDURE: -
a) Connectthecircuitaccordingtothefig.&switch'ON'theSupply.
b) Feedsquarewave fromfunctiongeneratortotheI/Pterminalofthecircuit
c) ConnecttheCROto theO/P terminal &notedown theO/P wave.
d) DrawtheInput&Outputwaveonthe graphpaper.

RESULT:TransientresponseofRLcircuithasbeenstudiedandtheresultsobtained areshown on
the graph.

PRECAUTIONS:
a) Maketheconnectionsaccordingtothecircuitdiagram.Powersupplyshouldbeswitched off.
b) Connectionsshouldbetight.
c) HandletheCROcarefully.
d) Notethereadingscarefully.
 EXPERIMENT NO-9
AIM:-Determination of Z and Y parameters for a network.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Name Of The Range Type Quantit
Equipment y
1 Voltmeter (0-20) V Digital 1
2 Ammeter (0-20) mA Digital 1

3 RPS 0-30V Digital 1

4 Resistors 2.2k Ω ---------- 1

1k Ω ---------- 1
680 Ω ----------- 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

1. GIVEN CIRCUIT:

PRACTICAL CIRCUITS:
2. When I1 = 0:
3. When I2 = 0:

4. When V1 = 0:

5. When V2 = 0:

THEORY:
A pair of terminals between which a signal may enter or leave the network is known as port. If a
network has one such type pair of terminals it is known as One-Port Network and that have two
such type of ports is known as Two-Port Network. If we relate the voltage of one port to the
current of the same port, we get driving point admittance. On the other hand, if we relate the
voltage of one port to the current at another port, we get transfer admittance. Admittance is a
general term used to represent either the impedance or the admittance of a network. We will
consider a general two-port network composed of linear, bilateral elements and no independent
sources. The voltage and current at port -1 are V1 and I1 and at port -2 are V2 and I2. The position
 of V1 and V2 and the directions of I1 and I2 are customarily selected. Out of four variables only
two are independent. The other two are expressed in terms of the independent variable of network
parameters. The relation between the voltages and currents in terms of Z and Y parameters are as
follows.

V1=Z11 (I1) +Z12 (I2)

V2=Z21 (I1) +Z22 (I2)
I1=Y11 (V1) +Y12 (V2)
I2=Y21 (V1) +Y22 (V2)

𝑍11 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 / I2 =0
Z-PARAMETERS:

𝑍12 = 𝑉1 𝐼2 / I1 =0
𝑍21 = 𝑉2 𝐼1 / I2 =0
𝑍22 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 / I1 =0

Y-PARAMETERS:
𝑌11 = 𝐼1 𝑉1 / 𝑉2 = 0
𝑌12 = 𝐼2 𝑉1 / 𝑉1 = 0
𝑌21 = 𝐼2 𝑉1 / 𝑉2 = 0
𝑌22 = 𝐼2 𝑉2 / 𝑉1 = 0

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Open circuit the port – 1 i.e., I1=0, find the values ofV1, I2 and V2.
3. Short circuit the port-1 i.e. V1 =0, find the values of V2, I1and I2.
4. Open circuit the port – 2 i.e., I2=0, find the values of V1, I1 and V2.
5. Short circuit the port-2 i.e. V2 =0, find the values of V1, I1and I2.
6. Find the Z and Y parameters of the given two port networks.

THEORITICAL VALUES:
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Initially keep the RPS output voltage knob in zero volt position.
2. Avoid loose connections.
3. Avoid short circuit of RPS output terminals.

RESULT
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

AIM:Determination of transmission and hybrid parameters of a two-port network.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:The relation between the voltages and currents of a two port network in terms of ABCD and
h–parameters is given as follows.
ABCD PARAMETERS:
V1=AV2-BI2
I1=CV2-DI2

H-PARAMETERS
V1=h11I1+h12V2
I2=h11I1+h22V2

ABCD PARAMETERS:
𝐴 = 𝑉1 𝑉2 / I2 =0
𝐵 = −𝑉1 𝐼2 / 𝑉2 =0
𝐶 = 𝐼1𝑉2 / I2 =0
𝐷 = −𝐼1𝐼2 / V2 =0

H-PARAMETERS:
ℎ11 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 / V2 =0
ℎ12 = 𝑉1 𝑉2 / I1 =0
ℎ21 = 𝐼2 𝐼1 / V2 =0
ℎ22 = 𝐼2 𝑉2 / I1 =0

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Open circuit the port – 1 i.e., I1=0 find the values ofV1, I2 and V2.
3. Short circuit the port-1 V1 =0 find the values of V2, I1and I2.
4. Open circuit the port – 2 i.e., I2=0 find the values of V1, I1 and V2.
5. Short circuit the port-2 i.e. V2 =0 find the values of V1, I1and I2
6. Find the ABCD and h-parameters of the given two port networks from the above data.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Initially keep the RPS output voltage knob in zero-volt position.
2. Avoid loose connections.
3. Avoid short circuit of RPS output terminals.

RESULT: