Electrical Machines —\la Objective Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to: ‘Understand the functionality of different parts in a DC Machine. © Understand the working principle of DC Generator and DC Motor. * Derive Performance Equations of DC Machines. + Plot Characteristics of DC Generator and DC Motor. * Learn about Starting, Speed Control and Braking of DC Motor. Introduction Transformer is an example of Static Electrical Machine because it does not have any moving parts but Rotating Electrical Machines have moving or rotating parts. Rotating Electrical Machines are used for Electro-mechanical energy conversion ie. Generators convert Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy and Motors convert Electrical Energy to Mechanical Energy. All the Rotating Electrical Machines have same basic construction that is they have two parts: Stator, the part of the machine which remains stationery and Rotor, the part of machine to which mechanical energy is associated by virtue of its rotation. There are two types of windings in all Rotating Machines, Field Winding which is responsible for production of flux and Armature Winding which carries high current from the supply in motors and to the load in case of Generators. When energy is converted from Electrical Energy to Mechanical Energy or vice versa, then it is first converted to Magnetic Energy and then to Mechanical Energy and hence Magnetic Energy acts an intermediate stage between Electrical and Mechanical Energy. Flux is required to be produced in machines in order to store energy in Magnetic Domain and this requires consumption of Reactive Power and hence Reactive Power is indispensable when it comes to Electrical Machines as all machines require a flux to work upon Construction Details of DC Machines DC Machine has two parts Stator and Rotor. The field winding if DC Machines is wound on the Stator and Armature Winding is wound on the Rotor. Different parts of Stator and Rotor have been explained below: Yoke ‘© It provides path for pole flux 4 and carries half of it 2 ‘+ Itprovides mechanical support to whole machine ‘+ Cast iron is used for small DC machines and fabricated steel for large de machines ‘+ If DC machine is operated through power electronic converter then yoke is laminated else not. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 1 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la interpole Interpole winding fiold pole field winding laminated armature core, armature core base yoke (or frame ) Field Poles ‘+ Itconsists of pole core and pole shoe = Pole core is made of cast steel but pole shoe is laminated and fixed to pole core appropriately. ‘At present both pole shoe and pole core are laminated. Field Winding ‘+ The pole excited by a winding wound around pole core ‘+ The winding is made from copper ‘+ Number of turns and cross-section of field winding depend on type of DC machine © For DC shunt machine, large number of turns and small cross-section because field winding has entire terminal voltage across it so large number of turns and larger length of conductor which implies high resistance so field current is small. © For DC series machine, number of turns and large cross section as the field winding carries armature current so which is high so larger cross section area which implies low resistance so less voltage drop and hence less number of turns. © For DC compound machines, both windings are employed. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 2 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la Interpoles ‘+ Fixed to Yoke in between main poles of DC machine * Tapered with sufficient cross sectional area and wider at bottom to avoid magnetic saturation. ‘+ Inter pole winding consists of a few turns of thick wire is connected in series to armature So MMF «|, ‘Compensating winding ‘+ Placed in slots cut in poles of a DC machine * Connected in series with armature ‘© Used in large de machines only Brushes ‘+ Housed in box type brush holders attached to stator end cover or yoke ‘+ Assmall spring keeps them pressed to commutator ‘+ Made of carbon in small DC machines, electro graphite for all and copper graphite for low-voltage, high current de machines. Armature core ‘+ Serves purpose of having armature coil in slots and providing low reluctance path to 4 magnetic flux $ ‘+ Made of 0.35mm to 0.50 mm, thick lamination of Si - steel to keep down iron losses. Armature Winding ‘+ Made of copper ‘+ Large number of insulated coils, each having one or more turns ‘+ Connected in series or parallel depending on type of winding ‘+ Two coil ends of each coil are then connected to commutator. ‘Torque production in Rotating Machines Rotating Machines require a Steady torque for rotation. All Rotating Machines have two field ‘one due to Armature winding and other due to Field winding. The necessary condition for steady torque production is that both fields must be stationery with respect to each other. If there is relative motion between the two fields then the torque produced is pulsating in nature and it has the frequency corresponding to the relative speed between the two fields. The steady torque produced in any rotating machine is T sina, where ais electrical angle between the two fields. So, for maximum Torque production the angle between the two fields must be kept 90°, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 3 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines — Ma Action of commutator The ends of Armature winding are connected to Commutator which is connected to brushes which are then connected to Supply or Load. Commutator is also called as Slip Rings. It performs two important functions: i. Convert alternating quantities to direct quantities and vice versa. ji. Keep rotor or armature MME stationery in space. aay brushes. we IN | vam ‘conper segement ‘© One copper ring is split into 2 parts insulated from each other and also from the shaft on which it is mounted. ‘= Coil ends are connected to copper segments on which two carbon brushes are resting. ‘+ Alternating emf is generated in N-turn coil, which is converted from ac to de by commutator. When armature conductors are rotated in the influence of Stator Magnetic Field then there is, a relative motion between the conductors and field and hence there is a dynamically induced emf in the conductors. This is working principle of DC Generator. The dynamic emf induced in any moving conductor is given by: E=I(vx8) Where vis relative velocity between field and conductor and B is the magnetic flux density. ‘The schematics shown below show how emf is induced in coils as they rotate under the influence of Stator Field. . © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 4 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines In position (a), emf induced is zero since instantaneous direction of rotation of coil aa’ is parallel to magnetic field After 90° rotation in position (b) the coils settle under North Pole and South Pole and by Lenz Law the induced emf has polarity as shown. } s (b) s In position (c) again induced emf is zero as instantaneous direction of rotation of coil aa’ is anti-parallel to magneti¢ field. (ce) In position (d) again emf is induced as direction of rotation is perpendicular to magnetic field (d) If we consider dot as positive emf and cross as negative emf then emf induced in coil aa’ is positive for half cycle and negative for another half. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 5 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines But the brush B1 is always connected to conductor which carries dot current and brush B2 is connected to conductor which carties cross current. So, the voltage induced across the brushes does not change in polarity though the voltage is alternating in individual conductors. This is how commutator converts AC into DC for generator and vice versa for motor. Vad We (elect. rad) Yai B2 | ' ' ' ' ' W, (elect. rad) Field MME is stationery, armature MMF must also be stationery for production of electromagnetic torque. This center line of poles around which field coil is wound is called direct axis of de machine. In the above example that axis is horizontal as field poles are shown in horizontal position, By Right Hand Rule if we determine the direction of Magnetic Field produced by Armature Winding, it comes downwards that is perpendicular to the d-axis and it is called as q-axis. The magnitude of Magnetic Field is pulsating but direction is constant so Armature MMF remains stationery in space. So second function of commutator is also completed. The coils when they are short circuited lie along q-axis so we represent brushes along q-axis. Hence DC Machine can be represented in circuit as below: Ry + iad [hom When the coils are short circuited and then current is reversed in the coil, this process is called as Commutation. The instant of Commutation is the time at which the coils are short circuited and we want that emf induced in short circuited coils at instant of commutation © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 6 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines should be zero so that zero current flows and if this emf is non-zero, it can result in high current which can lead to sparking at commutator. So, it is always desirable that coils undergoing commutation should lie along MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) that is perpendicular to magnetic field so that zero emf is induced at the time of commutation. Armature Winding (optional) ‘= Armature winding is always closed and double layer type closed means all windings are connected in series to form a closed circuit. The junctions of two coils terminate on copper segment called as commutator segments. * A coil has 2 sides occupying distinct specified slots. To maximum induced emf, the spacing between two ends should be kept at 180° electrical. It means if one side is under North Pole then other should be under South Pole. Coil span Spacing between the two sides of a coil. The spacing is expressed in terms of number of slots between the sides. If Sis the total number of slots and P is the total no. of poles then coil span is S/P Eg: For 20 slots, 4poles, span=5, if one side of a coil is placed in slot 3, then other end must ‘occupy slot (3+5=8) ‘= A double layer winding means that each slot has two coil sides (belonging to 2 different oils). One coil is placed in lower portion of slot and other above it. ‘+ If S=20, P=4, coil span=5, if a coil is housed in upper deck of slot 6, then other end should lie in lower deck of slot 11. Name of coil is (6-11) Commutator pitch The separation of coil sides in terms of number of commutator segments is called as commutator pitch (Y,) Procedure to create Armature winding 1. Type of winding (lap or wave), total number of slots S and total number of poles P will be given. 2. Calculate coil span(= $/P) 3. Calculate commutator pitch Y. . as+1) P 4, We have to complete the windings showing the positions of coil sides in slots, inter connection of the coils through commutator segments using appropriate numbering of slots, coil sides and commutator segments. For lap winding, Y, 1 and for wave winding Y, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 7 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines 5. Finally to decide and place the stationery brushes on correct commutator segments. Lap Winding Assuming we want to design a lap winding for 4 pole DC machine having a total number of slots S=16 16 Coil span = "2 = 4 cil span =? Commutator pitch, ¥, = #1 Armature rotation 118 46 16 [1}2|3] 415] 6| 7] 8] 9 [10/11] 12]13]14 | 15 ‘+ The upper coil side present in slot number 1 is shown by firm line and named 1 while lower coil side is shown by a dashed line and named as". ‘Since, coil span = 4, the first coil has sides 1 and 5 and coil can be identified as (1-5'). If we terminate coil 1 on commutator segment 1, so where to terminate coil side 5. ‘+ Since commutator pitch is £1 , 5’ should be terminated on commutator segment 2(= Y, +1). In DC armature winding, all coils are to be connected in series. So naturally next coil (2-6) should start from 2 and end in slot 6. = Coil (2-6) lies in the lap of (1-5’), hence winding is called lap winding. The winding proceeds from left to right due to our assumption Y,=1 . Such a winding is called as progressive simplex lap winding. # IF Y, =-1, winding progresses from right to left, giving rise to retrogressive lap winding © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 8 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines ‘+ To place brushes assume slots (1-4) are under influence of north pole and slots (5-8) are under South pole, (9-12) are under North pole and (13-16) are under South pole. ‘Also, assume armature rotates from left to right ie. in clockwise direction Since current is shown upwards (assuming B is coming out) so by motional emf rule 1 is negative and 5" is positive (in terms of emf polarity). + In lap winding there may be circulating currents due to unbalance of emf in different parallel paths. As each parallel path undergoes different poles. * So ,1 is negative, 8' is positive, 5 is positive, 12’ is negative, 16" is positive and 9 is negative, 13 is positive and 4' is negative. Because pole pitch = 4 poles, so after each 4 commutator segments direction of magnetic field with respect of conductor rotation reverses. 16 |1]}2}3] 4/5 | 6| 7] 8] 9/10} 11] 12/1314 | 15 fd (ry ) 4) A1(-) A2(+) ‘* S02 positive brushes can be connected to 5 and 13. Two negative brushes to 1 and 9 * So for armature current there are 4 parallel paths as 2 paths originate from each commutator segment and these are set of 2 brushes for each polarity. ‘Distance between a positive and negative brush is pole pitch = S/P Each terminal carries current equal to armature current which gets equally divided into two brushes connected to that terminal. Each brush is connected to one commutator segement which itself is connected to two conductors so current gets further divided into two equal \ Parts. So current per conductor is =. So, we can say current gets divided into 4 parallel paths which is same as number of poles. Hence, number of parallel paths = number of poles (A=P) Wave winding ‘= Here Y, ¢ tbuty, = 25 /P ‘© Assume S=16 and P=4, Coil span= =S/P=4, Y,=8 © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 9 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines ‘©The first coil is (1-5') and is terminated on commutator 1 and 9. The second coil (9-13') to be connected in series with the first and to be terminated on commutator segment (9+8 7). Since there are only 16 commutator segments so 17 is identical to 1. Hence, we terminate where we started and cannot connect any more coils in series. ‘+ Our inability to complete the winding, will persist till 2S is a multiple of P. So, we modify the expression for ¥, =2(51)/p ‘+ No. of poles, P=4 ‘+ No. of slots, S=17 © Winding pitch, ¥, = © Y, =2(17#1)/4=9 * Coil span= S/P= 4 (S+1)/P choosing +1 for progressive winding 1}2}3 [4] 5] 6 | 7] 8 | 9 |10] 11] 12/13] 14] 15] 16} 17 ‘+ First segment (1-5) starts from 1 and ends at 20, where second coil starts and ends on ‘commutator segment-2 ‘+ Between any two consecutive commutator segments (P/2) coils will be present winding progresses like a wave. Hence the name wave winding, ‘+ Number of commutator segment between positive and negative brushes =5/P s 272 ‘= So, only 2 brushes core required and each brush divides coil into 2 parallel paths. ‘* Number of coils between positive and negative brushes= 5 Hence, number of parallel paths, A = 2. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 10 www.kreatryx.comWe i Electrical Machines, Back pitch: The distance between top and bottom coil sides of one coil measured at back of armature is called back pitch. We give odd numbers to top coil sides and even numbering to bottom coil sides. So, 5’ can be numbered as 10. AAs for example for lap winding: y, =10-1=9 <9 For wave = y, =10~ Front pitch: The distance between two coil sides connected to same commutator segment is called front pitch, y, For lap: y, =10-3=7 (using commutator segment 2) For wave: y, = 19-10 =9 (using commutator segment 10) Winding pitch: The distance between two consecutive similar top or bottom coil sides as winding progresses is called winding pitch. Forlap, y, =3-1=2=y, -Y, For wave y, =19-1=18=y, +y ‘Commutation Process (optional) ‘+ Just before the armature coil reaches the brush, it carries current +) in one direction a and after coil has traversed brush width, current gets reversed to(—*) . This reversal of current is called Commutation. Here, a represents number of parallel paths. = Good commutation means no sparking at brushes and commutator surface remains unaffected. hood Ie te Mente) ig 4k ke (OS800) O55 ' me —prle-iy Csrtztt —— Rotation 3 4 a Ss, Gian din Leadinabrush edge 2g ® (b) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. u www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines we, bk, doh ro05 HOOGO7 ON a ‘hi 1 : 2le Qe (c) (d) ae, b, de Jk 2g (e) + So, current in coil reduces from |, to zero and then increases in negative direction to |, again. ‘+ Under commutatior * Over commutation: Trynusan < Te Brushwidth © Commutation period, T, =2——_________ ms Commutatorperipheralspeed Resistance Commutation R, =coil resistance Resistance between bar1 and brush 1, = Resistance between bar2 and brush If no emf is induced in commutated coil, then applying KVL in brush bart and bar2, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 2 www.kreatryx.com% i Electrical Machines 2, -i)h ,-iR be =0 Re+2h, Ronen < Current in coil 1 &8 hE R, Neglecting <5 ar ne aa With rotation to right A, decreases and A, increases linearly. In fractional kW DC machines, resistance commutation provides good commutation Linear commutation Resistance commutation Delayed Commutation = During commutation period, an emf is induced in coil due to self-inductance of coil. di l cosh ge © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. B www.kreatryx.comWe i Electrical Machines, According to Lenz's law, induced emf opposes the cause so it oppose change in"i" and thus delays the commutation. Linear commutation Delayed commutation Spark Armature Reaction '* Due to relative motion between armature conductors and field mmf there is an emf induced in armature conductors. This emf causes flow of current in armature conductors which cause armature flux. This flux is produced as a reaction to field flux and hence is called as Armature Reaction GNA or MNA at no load ‘* Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA) is defined as the axis that is perpendicular to the field axis of the stator. Magnetic Neutral Axis (MINA) is defined as the axis perpendicular to the net flux that is flux due to field as well as armature mmf. The perpendicularity is taken in terms of electrical angle and net mechanical angle. ‘+ Itis well known that the brushes are placed on the MINA to collect maximum emf and also to ensure that the undergoing commutation have zero rotational voltage to prevent serious ‘commutation problems, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 14 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines lh ‘+ On no-load, the MINA coincides with the GNA because on No-Load there is no armature current and armature reaction can be neglected so net flux is same as field flux. © However, when the machine is loaded then the armature MMF that is triangular in wave shape and along the brush axis causes a cross magnetizing effect on the main field resulting in to concentration of flux on the trailing pole tips in generator action and leading pole tips in motor action. ‘= Leading Pole Tip is the tip of the pole encountered first by the armature in the direction of rotation and trailing pole tip is the tip which is encountered after the leading pole tip. ‘Generator rotation a Strengthening Weakening Trailing pole tip <2_— Leading pole tip a ) OVO TZ *Nrrating pote tp Leading pole tip 2 Weakening Strengthening ‘* Flux is strengthened where armature and field flux lie along the same direction and weakened where armature and field flux lie in opposite directions. ‘* So, magnetic field is strengthened at trailing pole tips and weakened at leading pole tips. | Generator © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 15 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines ‘+ If strengthening effect = weakening effect, the average flux under the pole remains same and therefore no demagnetizing effect of Armature Reaction. But due to saturation, strengthening effect < weakening effect so average flux under each pole reduces and hence Armature Reaction is demagnetizing. ‘+ The Phasor Diagram for Armature Reaction is shown below: GNA MNA ‘= Consequently, the MNA is no longer on the GNA but shifts in the direction of rotation for generator action and in a direction opposite to rotation for motor action. + Since, Armature Flux is perpendicular to Field Flux so the nature of Armature Reaction is cross magnetizing Effect of Cross Magnetizing Armature Reaction ‘© MINA shifts in direction of rotation in case of generator and opposite to direction of rotation in case of motor. The amount of shift 1, ‘+ The iron losses are increased because B.,,, is increased. ‘= Due to presence of air gap flux along the brush axis, an emf is induced in coil which is undergoing commutation, so commutation process is delayed, so sparking at brushes occurs + The @ is maximum under trailing pole edge, so induced emf is maximum for conductors lying under this pole edge and if this induced emf increases beyond 30-40V, the mica insulation fails, hence sparking takes place between adjacent commutator segments © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 16 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la Methods of Reducing Armature Reaction ‘If the brushes are left on GNA, then emf collected would reduce and coil undergoing commutation would no longer have zero rotational voltage leading to serious commutation problems. The immediate solution therefore, appears to shift the brushes in the new MNA. © The brush shift results into improved commutation but reduces thus resultant flux resulting into reduction in emf in generator action and increase in speed in motor action. Z/2 Base bb P 180°" A S D fale, * F, (demagnetizing ® ‘ar (demag) @ ® 2 Poec 8 S HO) ® MNA ‘+ Brush shift has serious limitations. Since, shift in MINA is proportional to Armature Current the brush has to be shifted in a new position every time the load changes, direction of rotation changes or mode of operation changes. Q © & far (craps) @ 40) > ‘+ Therefore, brush shift is limited to various small machines and there too the brushes are fixed at a position corresponding to expected load, direction of rotation and mode of operation. ‘+ In practice the brushes are moved slightly further to counter the effect of reactance voltage that would further improve commutation. ‘Brushes are shifted in direction of rotation for a generator and opposite to direction of rotation for a motor. * In larger machines, inter poles also called commutating poles are used to overcome ‘commutation problems. '* Armature reaction waveforms are shown below: © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 7 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —a GNA MNA ‘© Armature MMF from the above figure is triangular in shape and due to large air gap along g-axis the armature flux density is reduced along q-axis. ‘+ The point where total flux density is zero is defined as Magnetic Neutral Axis and where flux density due to poles is zero is defined as Geometric Neutral Axis. From above figure due to Armature Reaction there is a shift between the two. Solved Examples Problem: A 4 pole generator supplies a current of 143A. It has 492 conductors lap connected and delivering full load, brushes are given a shift of lead to 10° calculate demagnetizing ampere turns per pole? The field winding is shunt connected and takes 10A. Find no. of extra shunt turns necessary to neutralize this demagnetization. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 18 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines Ma Solution: |, = 143 +10=153A 6 Ex10=20" far (demag}= ee 8 22.75 AT/pole bxtra field tums= 22279 53 tums Interpoles ‘= Interpoles are long but narrow poles placed in inter polar region and has the polarity of succeeding (incoming) poles for generator action and preceding poles for motor action. Motor ~¥Generator Interpole winding ‘+ The inter pole winding is designed to neutralize armature MMF in interpolar region. It has an additional duty to create an interpolar flux density that induces a commutation voltage in the coil undergoing commutation such that it cancels reactance voltage of the coil. ‘+ The interpole winding carries the armature current as it is connected in series with the armature winding, The presence of inter poles ensures sparkless linear commutation ‘+ The inter pole is kept narrow so that influence is restricted to coil undergoing commutation only and does not spread to other neighboring coils. However bar is wider at bottom to prevent saturation and improve response. + Inter poles work satisfactorily irrespective of the load, the direction of rotation and mode of operation of the machine. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 19 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines Compensating Windi ‘+ The cross magnetizing armature reaction effect that causes concentration of flux under ‘one pole tip is caused mainly by the conductors that lie under the pole are ‘+ When the machines are heavily loaded, the flux density at these tips becomes very high resulting in higher than normal induced voltage between concerned adjacent commutator segments. ‘+ This may cause a spark over between adjacent commutator segments more so because these coils are physically close to the commutation zone where air temperature is high and favorable for spark over. This may lead to other segments also getting involved and resulting in fire over entire commutator segment. + Also if load is rapidly fluctuating (e.g. rolling machine), if voltage of coils may become high enough to start_a spark over between adjacent commutator segments. This phenomenon will start from the coil under the pole center and it would have maximum. ‘+ This problem is more acute when load is decreasing in generator and increasing in motor. + The above problems may be overcome by use of compensating winding. Compensating winding consists of conductors embedded in pole faces and carry armature current in a direction opposite to armature conductor current under pole arc. Compensating winding ‘+ The compensating winding may be designed to completely neutralize the armature MMF of the conductors that lie under the pole are resulting into restoration of main field flux. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 20 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines ‘+ The presence of compensating winding reduces the duty of inter pole winding to the extent of armature MMF of conductors under the pole are and therefore can be set to aid commutation. Interpole winding (d- $0) decrease + For compensated machine er VAT /pae ‘em =p“ polepitch “A Z/2 poleare 1 turns p polepitch A B, BL, polearc — FEES Be eran ATP '* Compensating winding reduces armature circuit inductance and therefore improves time response. Because it neutralizes AR under pole faces only ‘+ Itincreases cost of the machine but works satisfactorily under all conditions EME Equation > flux /pole(Wb) P numberof poles Z total numberof conductors N—rotorspeed (rpm) A Number of parallel paths A= 2 for wave winding A= P for lap winding Flux cut by conductor in one revolution = P (Wb) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 21 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines Time for one revolution = SP sec) Po _ PND at (o/ny 60 “OS Number of conductors in series per parallel path= é ‘Average induced emf in armature of DC machine Other form, 600, are ©, > mechanical rad/sec £=%: 60° 2 A (PZ =(Z}0 PZ E,=Koo,, + Where k= —— =machine constant 2m Developed Torque Developed Power, P, =, P=To,, Bl (in both cases) Eb g, T=K4l, Solved Exampl Problem: Neglecting all losses, the developed torque (T) of a dic. separately excited motor, ‘operating under constant terminal voltage, is related to its output power (P) as? 2aNT Solution: Power developed P = Esls = ——> PoNT => Ta 2 N For a given Torque speed is constant. “TOP. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 22 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines Problem: Two magnetic poles revolve around a stationary armature carrying two coil (ci C's, 2 €2) as shown in the figure. Consider the instant when the poles are in a position as shown, Identify the polarity of the induced emf at this instant in coil sides cy and c>. “2 Solution: The emf induced in DC Machine is dynamically induced emf and hence it depends on relative velocity between the armature conductors and magnetic poles. So, we can assume the poles to be stationery and armature rotating anti-clockwise. To find the polarity of induced emf we can use the relation: £, =|(vx8) where v is instantaneous velocity of conductor and B is magnetic flux density. Velocity of cis in horizontal direction and hence opposite to B as B exists from N-pole to S- pole. Hence, emf induced in c2 is zero. Instantaneous velocity of cr is vertically upwards and hence cross product with B yields the direction out of plane of paper. Problem: A 4 pole dynamo with wave wound armature has 51 slots containing 20 conductors in each slot. The induced emf is 357 volts and the speed is 8500 rpm. The flux per pole will be? Solution: For wave winding, A = 2 P=4,S=51 Number of conductors, Z = 51 x 20 = 1020 N = 8500 rpm E=357V ff £, = 22N(P 60\A a> p— OA _ _ 603572 __ 3m ZNP — 1020%8500%4 Classification of DC Machines DC Machines have been classified into multiple categories based on the connection of field winding and the armature winding. The different connections are mentioned below, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 23 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines Separately Excited Isolation between field circuit and armature circuit ——_— eee Ry + m1 a. Voltage excited Long thin wired having higher resistance is used. b, Current excited Short thin wires having low resistance is used, a constant current is wired from any other sources, Self-Excited a. Series excited In field and armature there is flow of common current. - Ree b. Shunt excited In field and armature there is common voltage across them. . Compound Excited In this type of Machine there are two field windings out of which one is Shunt Connected and other is Series connected. The flux in machine is due to both series as well as Shunt winding If both fluxes are added it is called as Cumuletively Compound and if both fluxes are subtracted it is called as Differentially Compound. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 24 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines la ‘There are two constructions for cumulative compound as well as differentially compound based on placement of series and shunt field coils 4 Short Shunt Machine Long Shunt Machine Losses in a DC Machine No-Load Rotational Losses These losses are constant even as armature current varies. These losses are composed of the following losses: 1. Friction and Windage Losses: In a DC Machine friction is present between brushes and the commutator and due to bearings also there is friction. The ventilation losses are counted as Windage Losses. 2. Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses: Similarly to Transformer in the field and armature core of the machine iron losses occur. Hysteresis Loss is proportional to speed of the machine and Eddy Current Loss is proportional to square of speed. Van The following losses depend on the current flowing in the machine and hence termed as variable losses. ble Losses 1. Stray Load Losses: These losses are proportional to square of current flowing in the armature winding and occurs in iron parts of the machine. These are usually negligible. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 25 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —lle 2. Armature Copper Loss: The copper loss in armature winding of the machine is termed as Armature Copper Losses. It is equal to I,7R,. 3. Field Copper Loss: In case of Shunt Machine as long as Terminal Voltage is constant these losses are treated as Constant Losses as they do not depend on Armature Current. But for series field winding these losses are taken as Variable Losses because in a seties machine armature current flows through the field winding. These Losses are equal to IR, 4. Brush Contact Loss: Brushes are generally made of Carbon so they have negative temperature coefficient and hence as current through the brush increases the temperature of the brush rises and resistance goes down so the product of current and resistance that is Brush Voltage Drop remains constant. So, Brush Contact Loss is given by, Vl, Power flow The flow of power from mechanical to electrical domain in a generator and electrical to mechanical domain in a motor occurs as shown in the diagram below: sgonorator Rotational Loss ‘Armature Copper Loss Field Loss For Series and Separately excited machines: | For Shunt Generator: | For Shunt Motor: | =I, + | Note: The amount of conductor and iron materials required for a Machine of given rating 1 speed of Machine © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 26 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la Maximum Power Output To achieve maximum power output in a DC Machine the following condition must be satisfied. Motor Developed Power, P, = For maximum output, dP, “1, =(V-IRM, =VI, ER, =V-2iR, =0 ‘Suppose, R, = 0.03pu for maximum output 100% 7 2x3% =17timesfull load Due to such high current, windings will be burnt immediately. Hence, maximum power output is undesirable condition, Generator Output Power, P, = VI, E, - LRM, =E,,-ER, jl aP, For maximum output power, +E, ~2,R, =0 =50% Here, also current will be high due to small Armature Resistance and it can damage the windings. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 27 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines So, the desirable condition is maximum efficiency so that maximum part of Input Power is converted to Output Power. Maximum Efficiency Assuming a Short Shunt Machine with the following parameters: Veo = Brush Drop Voltage No-Load Rotational Losses Ra= Armature Resistance # Shunt Field Resistance Rue = Series Field Resistance If Machine operates as a generator, heheh ‘Where I: is current delivered to load kis current in Shunt Field Winding Ia is Armature Current vA VIL FER, + Veal, +P, +1PR,, +17R, ny For Maximum Efficiency, a =0 V(Mla +ER, + Veo +P. +17R +R, )—Vl (V, +21R, +Vi +24R,.)=0 Substitute ls = hk + It We get, |2(R,, +R,)=IPR, +P, + Vjgh +h which implies, Constant Losses = Variable Cu Losses This can be applied to Shunt Machines by equating Res to zero and for Series Machines by equating I; and R; to zero. ‘Solved Examples Problem: A separately excited d.c. motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 ohm. It runs off a 250V dec. supply drawing an armature current of 20 A at 1,500 rpm. The torque developed for an armature current of 10 A will be for the same field current. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 28 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —lle Solution: V, =250V; R, = 0.50; N=1500rpm; |, =20A Induced EME, E, = V, -1,R, = 250-20 «0.5 = 240V Developed Power, P 240 x20 = 4800W Developed Torque, T = P - 480 __ 39.557N-m ° 1500 2nx 60 Assuming Flux remains constant, T=, Ble 10 T |, 20 T, = 0.530.557 =15.278N-m Problem: A 5 kW, 2000 V dic. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 1 ohm and shunt field resistance of 100 ohms. At no-load, the motor draws 6A from a 200 V supply and runs ‘at 1000 rpm .The rotational loss of the machine is ... W and the no load torque is ...NN-m. Solution: Under No-Load conditions there is no shaft output of the DC Machine and hence the developed power will be used to supply the Rotational Losses. 200 , 100 | -,-6-2-4A E,=V,-I.R, =200-4«1=196V Developed Power = E,|, =196x4=784W. Rotational Losses = 784 W No-Load Torque, T= P= ° =2A Problem: A DC shunt generator delivers 60 KW at 240 V and 360 rpm. The armature and field resistances are 0.015 © and 60 Q respectively. Calculate the speed of the machine running as a shunt motor and taking 60 KW input at 240 V. Allow 1 volt per brush for contact drop. Solution: The equivalent circuit for machine running as a motor and as a generator has been shown below: 08 250A, 4a > 46 254A 2468, on §—(yacoara soo| fem a 240v © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 29 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines P_ 60000 f =| Load Current of DC Generator 340 = 250A Field Current = 1, - = 242 _ aa R60 Generator Armature Current = 250 + 4 =254A Induced EMF = E, =V+LR, +V,. =240+254%0.015+2=245.81V Motor Armature Current = 250 - 4 = 246 A Induced EMF in Motor = E,, = V-I,R, ~V,, = 240 ~246%0.015-2 Since, field current is constant and hence flux will be same Hence, EN EN, 34.31V EN, 236.31 Nu = 395.q1% 360 = 345rpm Problem: A separately excited DC shunt motor is driving a fan load whose torque is proportional to the square of the speed. When 100 V are applied to the motor, the current taken by the motor is 8 A, with the speed being 500 rpm. At what applied voltage does the speed reach 750 rpm and then what is the current drawn by the armature? Assume the armature circuit resistance to be 19. Neglect brush drop and mechanical losses. Solution: E,, = V—LR, Since the motor is separately excited we can assume the flux to be constant unless mentioned otherwise. Hence, E,, 2¢N 750 Induced EMF at 750 a =92x Induced EMF at 750 rpm = E, = 9220 =138V Since, flux is constant T =I, But for fan load, TocN? Hence, |, ocN? V, =6, +R, =138 +18 x1=156V © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 30 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines Problem: A 230V, 250 rpm. 100A separately excited dc motor has an armature resistance of 0.59. The motor is connected to 230V dc supply and rated dc voltage is applied to the field winding, It is driving a load whose torque-speed characteristic is given by T: = 500 -100, where @ is the rotational speed expressed in rad/sec and 7, is the load torque in Nm. Find the steady state speed at which the motor will drive the load and the armature current drawn by it from the source. Neglect the rotational losses of the machine. Solution: V = 230V, N= 250rpm, I) = 100A; Ry = 0.52 E, = V—IaR. = 230 100 x 0.5 = 180V P= 180 x 100 = 18 kW 2 ut, p= 22NT 60 Px60 _ 18x10°x60 2nN — 2xmx250 Ti= 500-100 = 687.5 N-m 2nN 687.5 = 500-10 . steady state speed N = 179 rpm Negative sign indicates that the Torque is developed in opposite direction to direction of rotation Nay N,_ Ee, NB, 179 _E 250 180 E,, =V—le,Ro = 1288V _ 230-1288 05) I = 202.2448 Problem: The armature resistance of permanent magnet de motor is 0.8ohm.At no load, the motor draws 1.5A from a supply voltage of 25V and runs at 1500rpm. The efficiency of the motor while itis operating on load drawing a current of 3.54 from the same source will be? Solution: At No-Load Developed Power is same as Rotational Losses. ‘Ato load developed power (P) = Eb la Ep = 25-15 x 0.8 = 23.8V P= 238x1.5=35.7W © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 31 www.kreatryx.comWZ i Electrical Machines «. friction & windage Losses = 35.7W Under loaded condition Armature Cu loss = (3.5)° x 0.8 = 9.8W. . Total losses = 35.749.8=45.5W Input to motor=Vx |p = 25 x 3.5 = 87.5W input losses 999 87.5-45.5, 199 _ ap a6 input 87.5 Efficiency = Problem: A 240V de series motor takes 40A when giving its rated output at 1500rpm. Its resistance is 0.3 ohms. The value of resistance which must be added to obtain rated torque at 1000rpm is? Solution: V = 240V, ls = 40A, Rs +Ree = 030 N = 1500 rpm Ey, = Vl (Re + Ree) Ey, = 240 ~ 40 (0.3)=228 V Tool, xl? (bel,) To have same torque even at 1000rpm armature current must be same in both cases. Ne Be , (61, =constant) N, _ Ee, N, Ey, 1000 _ 240—40(0.3+r) 1500 228 The resistance to be inserted (r) = 1.90 Operating characteristics of DC Generators 1, No-Load Characteristics E, =f(|) with speed (n)= constant This is called as saturation curve, open-circuit characteristic, magnetization curve or no-load magnetization curve. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 32 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la 2. Load Characteristics V, =fil,) with both |, and n constant This is called as load magnetization curve 3. External Characteristics V, =fil) with both |, and n constant 4. Armature characteristic or Regulation Curve |, =f(,) with both V, and n constant Separately Excited Generators 1. No- Load Characteristics L ef TOOT v , ¢ R 4 1 The set-up for plotting No-Load Characteristics is shown in the above figure. By varying the field resistance we can vary the field current to change the induced emf and Armature Circuit is kept open circuited and induced voltage is measured using Voltmeter. The No-Load Characteristics is shown in the figure below: A OA = Residual Flux Density © © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 33 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines 2. Load Characteristics Ea & vy speed n & a a constant [boa characterstic ° a 1 t After load connection, |, is varied to get full load armature current and constant speed. 3. External Characteristics V, =E, -LR, =E, —IR, AB—> Voltage drop due to armature reaction BC Voltage drop due to r, (i,t, ) Internal characteristic External characteristic 4, Armature Characteristic or Regulation Curve ‘As Armature Current is increased, the voltage reduces due to Armature Reaction and to keep voltage constant field current must be increased. 1 f © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 34 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines la ‘Shunt Generator 1. No-Load Characteristics ‘Same as that of separately excited generator because small current in armature which is field current under no-load conditions does not impact much on the no-load characteristic 2. Load Characteristics ‘Also same as separately excited DC generator but there is small difference as in shunt Generator because for a Shunt Generator L=h+h In separately excited generator 3. External Characteristics C= I, drop DF= armature reaction drop FG= Drop due to fall in |, Terminal voltage falls due to CD and DF due to which , decreases which leads to further decrease in V, As load is increased (|, increased), V, decreases till B and if | is further increased, |, increases ° so more armature reaction is produced which reduces V,and |, . The reading in V, is so large that | decreases. OH= current due to residual flux voltage 4, Armature Characteristics Obtained by running shunt generator as separately excited generator. Voltage build up in Shunt Generator For developing a voltage in a Shunt Generator we require field current and field current in a Shunt Generator is derived from Armature Current. For the flow of Armature Current we need Induced emf across the generator windings. So, the voltage build up in Shunt Generator requires some residual flux and emf for voltage build up. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 35 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la * Due to residual flux, emf OC is induced in 4 Armature. © Due to this Induced emf a field current OD flows in the circuit. + This causes an emf DE to be induced as per Open Circuit Characteristics. + This further causes a current FG to flow in field winding. Field resistance line This effect goes on till the Field Resistance line intersects the Open Circuit Characteristics. Necessary Conditions for Voltage Build up ‘+ There must be residual flux ‘+ Correct polarity of field winding with respect to armature winding, so that filed flux aids residual flux, for a given direction of rotation so that net flux increases and induced emf alo increases, * Field resistance R, must be less than critical value. For Voltage to build-up to a steady state value @ there must be an intersection of field line with the Open Circuit Characteristics. In case, the field line is tangential to open circuit characteristics the field resistance is called as Critical Resistance. a, OA and OB are field resistance lines. R, R,, , voltage build up will not take place Curve 3 is obtained by adding |,r to curve 2where r= R, +R,. I E & Ve ise 1. No-Load Characteristics 2. Load Characteristics a : 3. Internal Characteristics L 3. External Characteristics ‘As Load Resistance is reduced, Armature Current increases and since it is same as field current also increases which leads to increase pmo in flux and hence induced voltage also increases. - Now, the terminal voltage V=E, -I,(R, +R,,), F evo. increases until breakdown point is reached and after that machine enters saturation aR and } becomes constant, so E, becomes constant and due to increase in armature Eee current terminal voltage reduces. Booster we "990" onsinteurant regen © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 37 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines The circuit shown below indicates how Series Generator is used in a line to increase the voltage or act as a booster. series generator shunt generator Armature Characteristics will be straight line as Field Current is same as Armature Current or Load Current. Compound Generator Cumulatively Compound Generator are more common as compared to Differentially Compound Generator as they have almost constant voltage from No-Load to Full Load. 1. No Load Characteristics For long shunt, due to lesser number of turns in series field winding, series MMF does not impact the no-load characteristics. For short shunt, series field winding does not carry any current and this no-load characteristics is same as that of shunt generator. Hence, in both cases no-load characteristics are same as that of a Shunt Generator. 2. External Characteristics In cumulatively compounded generator, series flux aids shunt flux and depending upon number of series field tums, its classified as \ 1 ‘+ Under- compounded: ¥, falls with load t '* Flat- compounded : \, is practically constant a ‘+ Over-compounded : V, rises with load In differentially compounded generator, series, flux opposes shunt flux and thus ¥, falls more rapidly with load. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 38 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines If we plot the characteristics of different generator keeping the No-Load Voltage same in all the cases, v over compounded(Nce very large) v, rated Flat compounded Differentially compounded. under compounded generator Shunt (Nse= 0) Constant current ' FL region Differentially compounded generators are not impacted by SC as can be seen from characteristics that under Short Circuit conditions the current is limited and hence it is used for welding purposes. If common operating point is V,, andl, Voltage FU fe 1 Series 5 seperately existed 2- Over compound 6 - Shunt 3- level compound 7 - Differentially compounded 4 under compound Parallel operation of cumulatively compound generator Equalizer connection is used to avoid run away of load to any single generator which means ‘one generator should not handle large amount of load. The circuit is shown below: © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 39 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la ‘ R . Operating characteristics of DC motor The following characteristics are plotted in case of DC Motors: ‘+ Speed- Armature current characteristics ‘* Torque- Armature current characteristics = Speed- Torque characteristic ‘Separately excited DC motor ‘The set-up of a Separately Excited motor is shown in the figure below: Torque-Armature Current Characteristics Developed Torque in a DC Machine depends ‘on Armature Current as shown below. We assume that field excitation is kept constant and hence flux is constant. decreasing 41,1, if 6= Constant © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 40 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines Speed-Armature Current Characteristics The performance equation of a separately excited DC Motor is given by, & =(V-IR.) decreasing > a8) % fp ( kp Ko, Ky at trop Speed-Torque Characteristics In the Speed Current Characteristics Armature Current can be replaced by Torque as shown below, o, -¥- RT mk kOe Due to AR, flux reduces and so drop in ©, increases speed AR neglected T Note: For Shunt Excited DC Motor all characteristics are same as that of Separately Excited DC Motor. Series Excited DC Motor ‘Speed Current Characteristics In a series excited DC Motor, field current is same as Armature Current and so flux in the machine is proportional to Armature Current. So, flux © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 4l www.kreatryx.comWe i Electrical Machines, For large values of |, , due to saturation and Armature Reaction remains constant. So ©, VS |, approaches a straight line at high |, as per equation given below, Ve _lalts +6) "ko kyo speed (sat. & AR neglected) a Torque- Current Characteristics Ina Series Excited DC Motor, flux is proportional to Armature Current as given below, =Cl, T.=kol, “k, CR=GE Again for large |,, =const so T=, 1 ‘Speed-Torque Characteristics a ‘Armature Current can be expressed as a function of Torque as shown below, VK C ‘Substituting this value in Speed Armature Current Characteristics, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 42 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —lle MS th — Rate When saturation sets in ¢ = constant My t+n) Ke T speed (sat & AR included) Toque ‘+ Ideally suited for traction load, locomotives ‘+ Series motors are never belt loaded or chain loaded it must be directly coupled to load. ‘= Series Motors must never be run under No-Load conditions else speed can be dangerously high. Dc Compound Motor Cumulatively Compound Motor Torque-Armature Current Characteristics The flux in @ cumulatively compound machine will be function of sum of field flux and armature flux. T=kOl, = kl, FN, +N) There can be two cases depending upon whether series flux dominates or Shunt Flux dominates. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 4B www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la T rise is more ~ slope = KPo (for strong field flux) (for weak field flux) For Strong Shunt Field, the machine behaves as a Shunt Machine but at higher values of Armature Current the series flux dominates and characteristics become similar to Series Excited Machine. For Weak Shunt Field, series flux dominates and machine behaves as a Series Excited DC Motor. ‘Speed-Armature Current Characteristics V, -L(R, +R) Koo, =V-LR, +R.) FNL +N) Again for weak Shunt Field, the characteristics are similar to Series Excited Machine and for ‘Strong Shunt Field, the characteristics will be similar to Shunt Excited Machine. (for weak field flux) (for strong field flux) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 44 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines Speed-Torque Characteristics The Speed Torque Characteristics for a Cumulatively Compound Machine looks like as shown. below, T (for weak field flux) (for strong field flux) 7 Differentially Compounded Motor In a differentially compounded motor the series flux will oppose the shunt field flux and thus the flux varies with armature current as shown below, f Ih ta For higher values of Current the flux may even become negative that is it will reverse its direction which will cause reversal in direction of rotation and torque. Torque-Armature Current Characteristics For weak shunt field the flux reversal takes place at small armature current itself and for strong field flux the flux reversal requires larger amount of Armature Current as shown below, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 45 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la T (for weak fieid flux) (for strong field flux) Hence, for differentially compounded machine the characteristics are similar for Strong Shunt Field and Weak Shunt field and the only difference lies in Armature Current required for flux reversal. ‘Speed-Armature Current Characteristics Initially, for low values of Armature Current the Shunt Flux dominates and speed decreases as Armature Current increases due to decrease in induced emf but as armature current increases above a certain value series field dominates. This causes reduction in flux and thus speed increases as speed is inversely proportional to flux. Unstable run away 'g This is only DC motor which can have zero speed regulation. But because of unstable runaway, we do not use this motor. W, Speed-Torque Characteristics These characteristics are similar to Speed-Armature Current Characteristics t © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 46 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines — | Important Points * When a differentially compounded motor is started, the starting current may be high enough to reverse the flux polarity and thus the motor would start in reverse direction. However, since reverse field is weak, the acceleration may be low and thus starting current would remain high for long time and can thus damage the machine. So, series field winding is shorted while starting and when motor acquires normal speed, shorting may be removed. + Sometimes, due to sudden overload in uncompensated shunt machine, the demagnetizing effect may be dominant and can cause sudden runaway. This is prevented by providing a few series turns to neutralize AR and hence make it cumulatively compounded. Starting of DC Motors At Starting, the speed of DC Motor is zero and hence the induced emf which is proportional to speed of Motor is also zero. Due to which, V, =I,1, for shunt motor and Separately Excited Motor V, =I, (f, +f.) for series and compounded motor Vv Fae Which is very high as r, andl, +1) are very small ‘Such heavy current may cause, ‘© Sparking at commutator Damage to armature winding and insulation. High starting torque and acceleration Large dips in supply voltage So this current must be limited by inserting a resistance in the armature circuit, But this resistance must be cut off as rotor accelerates else ‘+ Operating speed of motor will be reduced Losses will be higher and efficiency will be less For shunt and compound motors, field excitation must be maximum at starting, as large flux results in less operating speed. Also, since Td, , for a given load torque, requirement of |, is reduced at higher . ‘Shunt and Compound Motors ‘The simplest type of starter is a rheostat inserted in series with the armature circuit. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 47 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la ‘The other method which is more commonly used is Four Point Starter. Four Point Starter ‘+ There are four terminals LNF and A and hence it is called as Four Point Starter. ‘+ Initially, all the resistances are connected in series with the armature so that starting current is low. As the motor speeds up the resistances are cut out with the help of starter handle. + Finally, the soft iron piece attached to Starter Handle is attracted by No Volt Coil which is excited by Supply Voltage so that handle is kept static. In case supply voltage is removed this coil gets demagnetized and spring connected to handle brings the handle back to its original position, ‘In case of overload the overload piece attracts the lever and triangular iron piece short Circuits the holding coil causing release of starter handle and thus turning off the motor. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 48 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la Electrical Braking of DC Motors Regenerative Braking ‘In this form of braking, an attempt is made to return the stored Kinetic Energy of rotor back to source as much as possible. ‘+ Braking can be achieved by keeping E, >V either by increasing excitation or by reducing terminal voltage. ‘© This would result in reversal of armature current and reversal of direction of torque and sends the machine to generator mode but machine cannot keep running as there is no Prime Mover to supply mechanical power. ‘+ But armature current must be kept within limits and as soon as |, =0 , machine must be switched off. Plugging ‘In this technique, supply to armature terminals is reversed while field is left undisturbed. '* The current reverses resulting in to negative torque that brings the rotor quickly to rest and the supply in the motor should then be switched off to prevents its rotation in reverse direction ‘+ During plugging armature current should be maintained within safe limits by inserting an external resistance in the armature circuit or by adjusting the value of supply voltage. ‘Armature Current under Plugging condition is given by, V, +E Ras Ro El’ ‘The expression for Plugging Torque is given by, Tu ysig = : EA, The Load Torque under normal running condition is given by, T,.., = VE Where, |, = “= is the armature current before plugging. The net Braking Torque on motor is given by, Tyaeng = Trugging * Tie ‘= During plugging, electrical power is taken from the mains and mechanical power is derived from shaft and sum of these 2 powers dissipates as heat in the rotor. Precaution must be taken so that developed heat may not destroy the rotor. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 49 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines Dynamic (Rheostatic) Braking ‘+ Armature supply is replaced by a resistor ‘+ So machine goes into generator mode and extracts mechanical power from the shaft bringing the motor to stand still + Braking can be made faster by increasing R, or decreasing |, or both. Speed control of DC motor For variable speed DC drive the speed control of DC Motor is necessary. The speed of a DC Motor is given by, Make ko Based on above expression, there are 3 methods of speed control * Variation of resistance in armature circuit + Variation of field flux ‘© Variation of armature terminal voltage Important Terms Base speed Speed of motor at rated armature voltage and rated field current. Speed Regulation If A@,, is speed charge from NL to FL A Regulation = “> 100 0,,= base speed Constant Power Drive In this type of drive, shaft power of the motor remains constant. Motor shaft power = Shaft Torquex Speed = Constant Constant Torque Drive Motor Shaft Torque remains constant. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 50 www.kreatryx.comWe i Electrical Machines, Field Control The setup for Field Control Method of Speed Control of DC Motor is shown below. This method is not applicable for Series Motor as we cannot vary field current by keeping Armature Current constant in case of Series Motor. ‘ag | 1 vy @ ) Field Control Setup for (a) Separately Excited Motor (b) Shunt Excited Motor For constant Tjyaq if Rag increases * Field Current, |, reduces which causes reduction in Flux. R, +R Due to Flux reduction, induced emf (E, =k }o,,) also reduces. ¥ak + Armature Current, |, ==" increases ‘* Increase in Armature Current is larger as compared to decrease in field current and hence developed Torque, T=k¢l, increases and becomes more than Load Torque. * | increases much larger than ¢ reduces because, koe, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 5 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines — Ma © @, increases di,> {un ES 3) after that, |, decreases with decrease in Induced Emf, E, =k6(w,,) now increases with increase in Speed. V-E, Armature Current, |= “=! reduces due to increase in Induced EMF. Developed Torque, T =k ¢l, reduces due to reduction in Armature Current. After sometime, T= T,,., again at higher w,, Speed Regulation v fv LR _Noloadspeed—full load speed _ ke [ke kb | _1LR, Full load speed | v §] ko ke By this method, speed above base speed can be obtained as flux can only be reuced and cannot be increased beyond rated value else field windings will be destroyed. Armature Resistance Control adj fa) (b) ‘Armature Resistance Control Setup for (a) Separately Excited Motor (b) Shunt Excited Motor R.._ increases the resistance in Armature Circuit for @ constant load torque J... decreases. ‘* Due to increase in External Resistance the Armature Current, | F eR ‘+ Decrease in Armature Current leads to decrease in Developed Torque, T=k@l, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 52 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines ‘+ Then, developed torque which was earlier equal to Load Torque becomes less than Load Torque, T< T, (T Tosa) <0 + ie.o, decreases + Due to decrease in speed, the induced emf, E, =k e,, also reduces. V-E, ‘= Due to decrease in Induced EMF armature current again increases, |, = ‘+ Therefore, the developed Torque also increases, T=k6l, ‘+ Developed Torque increases until, T=... again at lower w,, ‘Speed-Armature Current Characteristics for this method of speed control will be as shown below, E,=V-I,(R, +R.) ko, =V-IJR, +R.) Ry + Rec Jy ow} Armature efficiency n, Esk 6 _ koe _ Wy _ fullloadspeed Me VL Vib Wa, no-loadspeed |, la ‘a(stad) ‘aster v0) ‘Terminal Voltage Speed Control Method Cy oo @ ©) Terminal Voltage Control Set-up for (a) Separately Excited Motor (b) Shunt Excited Motor In this method of Speed Control, the terminal Voltage is reduced by means of a DC chopper and Voltage cannot be increased as then it would exceed rated value. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 53 www.kreatryx.comWr i Electrical Machines Decrease in Terminal Voltage causes reduction in Armature Current and rest of the process remains same as Armature Resistance Control Method. Note: Field Control is used to control the speed of DC Motor above base speed and Armature Resistance and Terminal Voltage Control are used for speed control below base speed. Ward- Leonard System 3- AC surely © Above base speed, maximum allowable speed is 2:1 and 4:1 rarely (in machine with inter poles and compensating winding) and minimum allowable speed ratio is 10:1 so speed range is 40:1 © This method employs both Terminal Voltage Control as well as Field Control for the Speed Control of DC Motor, © Field Winding of motor has a variable resistance connected to it to reduce the field current to reduce flux and hence increase the speed above base speed. © Induction Motor acts as Prime Mover to the DC Generator whose field current can be varied to vary the terminal voltage of the generator which is connected to Motor Terminals and hence implement Terminal Voltage Control Method. © If DC Motor is braked using Regenerative Braking then Induction Motor is made to behave as an Induction Generator. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 54 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines ‘The speed control characteristics for Ward Leonard Method look like as shown below, ‘Armature voltage control Torque Motor field control Base speed Max speed Below Base Speed Machine acts as Constant Torque Drive and above base speed machine acts as Constant Power Drive, ‘Speed Control of DC Series Motor Series Resistance Control In this method a rheostat is connected in series with Armature change the induced emf and control the speed of Series Motor. For constant Torque, Armature Current remains same and hence, E,=V,-1,(R, +R, +R,,) So emf is reduced with increase in External resistance and hence speed also reduces. Diverter Control The diverter resistance is connected across field winding and it is varied to vary the current through the field winding and thus change the field current in a DC series Motor and by reducing field current we can reduce flux and hence increase the speed of the motor. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 55 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la Tapped Field Control : In this method number of series field turns are varied to vary the field mmf and hence vary the flux and thus control the speed of the motor. y Rearrangement of Field Coils The field coils instead of being connected in series can be connected in parallel to change the effective flux and control the speed of the motor. ‘The four field coils shown in the figure below can be connected in two parallel groups of two coils each and thus the ratio of flux becomes, The other way of connecting the coils could be to arrange all the coils in parallel as shown in the figure below. The ratio of flux in second case would be, obs /4 oy © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 56 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la Solved Examples Problem: Common Data Question ‘A 240V,de motor draws 15A while supplying the rated load at a speed of 80 rad/s. The armature resistance is 0 Sohm and the field winding resistance is 80ohm. 1. The net voltage across the armature resistance at the time of plugging will be? Solution: Field Current oe 3A Armature Current = |, =| =|, =15-3=12A Induced EMF = £, =V, -IR, =240-12x0.5=234V ‘At the time of plugging voltage across Armature Resistanc: E, +V, = 2344-240 = 474V 2. The external resistance to be added in the armature circuit to limit the armature current to. 125% of its rated value is? Vi+E, 474 R,,+R, 05+R Solution: Armature Current, |, = =1.25x12=158 External Resistance, R 1.10 Testing of DC Machines ‘Swinburne’s Method ‘+ In this test the DC Machine is run under No-Load Conditions and hence it cannot be performed on DC Series Motor as No-Load Speed of DC Motor is dangerously high. ‘+ No- load rotational loss, W,, = Vay “Eo) ‘5, includes Brush Contact Resistance + Shunt field loss =(V,\, ) ‘* Machine run at no- load, at rated speed and with rated terminal voltage V, Ww, +ER, +hy, V+ W, ER, +1, ‘+ If Machine is run as a generator, the efficiency is given by, n, Ww, +ER, +4, Vi ‘If Machine is run as a motor, the efficiency is given by, n,, = © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 57 www.kreatryx.comElectrical Machines —\la Regenerative or Hopkinson’s Method bc supply ‘* 2 identical DC machines both electrically and mechanically are tested simultaneously ‘* Machine | is started as a DC shunt motor and brought to rated speed with switch ‘S' open. Both machines run at same speed as both are mechanically coupled. |, >ly Machine 2 acts as generator and machine 1 as motor (E,, >E,,) ‘+ M1 drives M2 and M2 supplies electrical power to M1 and hence a regenerative method ‘+ Power drawn from supply = P.,. + Input to motor armature = V1, © If motor efficiency = ny, © Motor output = 11,Vh =Pan * Generator output= VI, © If generator efficiency = n, Mb © Generator input= =P, Ne If Rotational Losses are neglected between the two machines then mechanical output of motor will be equal to electrical input to the generator. VI Pag = Phy => Vi My = Ny ony! if ngenen i, i, [generator armature current \ motor armature current © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 58 www.kreatryx.comVv i Electrical Machines Applications of DC Machines DC generators are not much used due to the advent of rectifiers so that DC Supply can be generated from AC with a much higher efficiency. The applications of different DC Motors are listed below, ‘Shunt Motors ‘+ Constant speed drive but cannot compete with constant speed SCIM as cost is more * For low speed, DC motor is preferred over SCIM as construction of IM with large no. of poles is difficult ‘+ Application where wide range of speed control is required. Series Motors * Driving hoists, train, excavators, trains etc as starting torque is high. For battery driven automobiles, de motor with chopper is a preferred choice. + Can be used for permanent connected load e.g. fan where To}. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 59 www.kreatryx.com