Radiation Heat Transfer

Any surface (solid or liquid) with temperature>0 K emits energy in form of

thermal radiation
Gases also, under certain circumstances, emits radiation
Rate of radiation per unit surface area, 𝑞′ ∝ 𝑇 4 (in W/m2)

Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic wave that travels is speed of light, .

Three parameters characterize electromagnetic wave propagation:
i. frequency, ν, ii. Wavelength, λ, and iii. Speed of propagation, c
where, c= λ ν
Speed of electromagnetic wave propagation is same as speed of light or speed
of photons in any medium and is also given as c= c0 /n
where, c0 is the speed of light in vacuum and n is the refractive index of the
given medium

Wavelengths of thermal radiation are in the range of 0.3-50 μm.

This includes visible light (wavelength 0.4-0.7 μm), infrared (wavelength > 0. 7
μm) and ultraviolet (wavelength < 0.4 μm) rays
Related with changes of
internal energy or thermal
state of the material
concerned
 Spectral and Directional Nature of Radiation

Spectral nature of radiation implies that radiation is depends on the wavelength.

The intensity of radiation is a function of the wavelength
Wavelength ranges from zero to infinity. Integral of the radiation intensity over all
wavelengths is known to as the total intensity of radiation
𝜆
Total intensity, 𝐸 = ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 where 𝐸𝜆 is the spectral intensity of emission for
wavelength λ

Directional nature of radiation implies that a surface may emit preferentially

more in certain directions.
If it emits equally in all direction, it is called a diffuse surface
 Laws of Thermal Radiation
Second law of thermodynamics states that there is a maximum rate of radiant
energy that may be emitted from a surface at a given temperature at a specified
wavelength.
Emitter of such radiation is known as a black body.
Blackbody may not be black in colour, but it is thermally black in a sense that it
emits or absorbs the maximum energy.

Energy emission per unit time per unit area by a blackbody at a wavelength λ is
given as Eλ,b by Planck distribution :

In a non-vacuum medium, speed of light c= c0 /n replaces c0 in the Planck

distribution equation given above
Important Aspects of Planck Distribution
 Stephan Boltzmann Law

Blackbody emissive power is defined as the total hemispherical emissive power

of a blackbody, which is the radiation emitted per unit area at all possible
wavelengths (total) over all possible direction (hemispherical):
∞

𝐸𝑏 = න 𝐸𝜆,𝑏
0
Or,

Stephan Boltzmann Law

Where σ=5.667x10-8 W/m2-K4 – Stephan Boltzmann constant

 Radiation Heat Fluxes

Maximum heat flux that may be emitted by a body due to radiation is known as
blackbody emissive power, 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4
For a real surface, emission heat flux is less than blackbody emissive power,
𝐸 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 = 𝜖𝜎𝑇 4 with 𝜖 ≤ 1 (emissivity)

Irradiation

Radiation from the surroundings (which may consist multiple surfaces at various
temperature) reaches a surface.
This incident radiation is known as irradiation.
Irradiation is quantified as incident heat flux rom other surfaces of the surroundings
and is given as G in W/m2

Part of the irradiation is absorbed by the medium below the surface and another part
is reflected black. For semi-transparent medium, rest is transmitted.
By energy balance, irradiation= reflection+absorption+transmission
 = 𝜌𝐺

= 𝛼𝐺

= 𝜏𝐺

Fraction of irradiation that is reflected is reflectivity, 𝜌.

Fraction that is absorbed is absorptivity, 𝛼.
And, the remaining fraction that is transmitted is transmissivity, 𝜏.

with 𝜌 + 𝛼 + 𝜏 = 1
For opaque medium, 𝜌 + 𝛼 = 1
 Radiosity
Any surface emits radiation energy as 𝐸 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 = 𝜖𝜎𝑇 4
Also, it reflects back the part of incident energy or irradiation

Therefore, the radiation energy, that leaves a surface, consists of reflection and
emission by the surface itself.
This energy (reflection of irradiation+ own emission) is known as radiosity, J

𝐽 = 𝐸 + 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝐸 + 𝜌𝐺
𝐽𝑖 𝐴𝑖

Therefore, incident energy to the surface is

irradiation energy 𝐺𝐴
The energy that leaves the surface is irradiation
𝐽𝐴
So, the net energy that leaves the surface is the
difference between radiosity and irradiation, 𝐽𝐴 −
𝐺𝐴
Net radiative heat flux that leaves the surface is the difference between radiosity
(leaving) and irradiation (incident) heat fluxes

Net radiative heat flux, 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 " = 𝐽 − 𝐺

or, 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 " = 𝐸 + 𝜌𝐺 − 𝐺 = 𝐸 − (1 − 𝜌)𝐺

For an opaque surface, the incident energy is absorbed and reflected, i.e., 𝜌 + 𝛼 = 1
So, for a real emissive opaque surface,
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 " = 𝐸 − (1 − 𝜌)𝐺 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 − 𝛼𝐺 = 𝜖𝜎𝑇 4 − 𝛼𝐺
 Maximum value of Emissive Power- Wien’s Displacement Law

Planck’s law can be re-written using Stephan- Boltzmann law as:

𝐸𝜆.𝑏 𝑐1 /𝜎
= 𝑐2 with
𝜎𝑛3 𝑇 5 5 (𝑒 𝑛𝜆𝑇 −1)
𝑛𝜆𝑇 𝑐1 = 2𝜋ℎ𝑐02
c2 = hc0/k

n: refractive index of the

medium, for vacuum, n=1

𝐸
Hence, 𝜆.𝑏 is a function of 𝑛𝜆𝑇 only and a maximum value of emissive power is
𝜎𝑛3 𝑇 5
obtained at a given 𝑛𝜆𝑇

Wein’s displacement law tells that maximum value of spectral emissive power is
obtained for 𝑛𝜆T 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2898 × 10−6 𝑚 − 𝐾

For a specific temperature emission through a specific medium, maximum emission

intensity is associated with a specific wavelength following this law.
 Wein’s Displacement Law
For radiation through vacuum (n=1), maximum emission shows
𝜆T 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2898 × 10−6 𝑚 − 𝐾

Hence, the wavelength of the emission specific to the temperature of the surface may
2898×10−6
be obtained as: 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚
𝑇

Color of emitter, hence, depends on it temperature

Application of Wien’s Displacement Law in Finding Temperature of Objects

Sun and earth have respective surface temperatures of 5762 K and 290 K.
Find the respective wavelengths corresponding to maximum emissive power
for each of these.

Ans:
For Sun:
2898 × 10−6
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚 = 0.5 𝜇𝑚
5762
- Visible light

For Earth:
2898 × 10−6
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚 = 10 𝜇𝑚
290
- Infrared
Following Wein’s displacement law, a body may change colour when
heated.
As the body is heated, its temperature increases and wavelength of
highest intensity emission changes from longer to shorter as
red→yellow→blue so on.
 Intensity of Radiation

Radiation is emitted in all directions. It may be of interest to find directional

distribution of radiation and/or the manner in which a surface responds to the
incoming radiation from surfaces at different directions.

We introduce the concept of solid angle here.

Consider the radiation that reaches the

small area dAn at a distance r from the
emitter.

The same radiation will pass through

another small area dAn1 at a distance r1
from the emitter.

Therefore, this radiation passes through the

solid angle, dω, given as
𝑑𝐴𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑛1
= 2 = 𝑑𝜔
𝑟2 𝑟1
How much of the radiation emitted from one surface reaches another surface
depends on the distance between the surfaces, as well as the area of the
receiving surface.
This may be expressed by solid angle.
So, it will be of interest to find out how much radiation emitted from a surface
through unit solid angle
Therefore, we need to obtain measurement of solid angle.
The unit of solid angle is steradian (Sr)

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑑𝐴𝑛 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙 × 𝑟𝑑θ

= 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

𝑑𝐴𝑛
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑑𝜔 =
𝑟2
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝜔 = =s𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝑟2
 Spectral Intensity of Radiation
Spectral intensity of radiation is defined the radiant energy emitted at the
wavelength λ in the (θ,ϕ) direction, per unit area of the emitting surface
normal to this direction, per unit solid angle about this direction, and per unit
wavelength dλ about λ.

𝑑𝑞
𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙 =
𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜆𝑑𝜔

Spectral intensity has unit of W/m3-Sr

It is measured in an angle θ with the normal to dA1

So, using the above equation, the spectral emission flux

from a surface can be found as:
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑞𝜆 " = = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜔 Now, 𝑑𝜔 = s𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝐴𝑑𝜆
⇒ 𝑑𝑞𝜆 " = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
 Spectral Emissive Power
We try to find out the entire emissive flux at a particular wavelength by integrating
the heat flux over unit solid angle at (θ,ϕ) over the entire hemisphere above the
surface

This is known as spectral hemispherical

emissive power (W/m2-m), Eλ:
2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐸𝜆 = න න 𝑑𝑞𝜆
𝜙=0 𝜃=0

2𝜋 𝜋/2
Or,𝐸𝜆 = ‫=𝜙׬‬0 ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

For a diffuse emitter surface, emission rate is same in

all directions, i.e., 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙 = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆
2𝜋 𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜋/2
So,𝐸𝜆 = ‫=𝜙׬‬0 ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆 ‫=𝜙׬‬0 ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

= 𝜋𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆
 Total Radiation Heat Flux

By integrating spectral intensity over the entire hemisphere above the surface, we
got, spectral hemispherical power for emission, 𝐸𝜆 𝜆 = 𝜋𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆

Now, the total radiation heat emission flux, E, may be found by integrating the
spectral power over all wavelengths, varying from 0 to∞
∞
𝐸 = 𝑞" = න 𝑞𝜆 "𝑑𝜆
0
∞
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝜋 න 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝜋𝐼𝑒
0

Where, Ie is the total directional emissive power (flux per unit steradian)
This power multiplied with solid angle and normal area gives the amount
of emission power reaching that area

𝜎𝑇 4
For a blackbody, 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4, So: 𝐼𝑒 =
𝜋
Blackbody at
temperature, T
dA1

𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝜔𝑑𝐴1𝑛
𝐸𝑏
= 𝑑𝜔𝑑𝐴1𝑛
𝜋
𝜎𝑇 4
= 𝑑𝜔𝑑𝐴1𝑛
𝜋
Spectral hemispherical emission power is given as: 𝐸𝜆 = 𝜋𝐼𝑒,𝜆 (𝜆)

Total emission heat flux is given as: 𝐸 = 𝜋𝐼𝑒

Similarly, for irradiation: 𝐺𝜆 = 𝜋𝐼𝑖,𝜆 𝜆 and 𝐺 = 𝜋𝐼𝑖

For radiosity: 𝐽 = 𝐸 + 𝜌𝐺 = 𝜋(𝐼𝑒 + 𝐼𝑖 )

 A small surface of area A1 = 10-3 m2 is known to emit diffusely as a blackbodu, at a
temperature T=600 K. Radiation emitted from the surface is intercepted by three other
surfaces of area A2 = A3 = A4 = 10-3 m2 , which are 0.5 m from A1 and are oriented as
shown. What is the rate at which radiation emitted by A1 intercepted by the three
surfaces?

Solution
For Temperature, T=600 K. The total hemispherical emissive power for a blackbody
is 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4
So, 𝐸𝑏1 = 𝜎𝑇14 = 5.667 × 10−8 × 6004 𝑊/𝑚2

The total intensity of emission from A1 can be found as:

𝐸𝑏1 5.667×10−8 ×6004
𝐼1 = = 𝑊 𝑚−2 𝑆𝑟 −1
𝜋 𝜋
𝑊
= 2337 2
𝑚 −𝑆𝑟

This intensity is same in all directions due to diffuse nature of emitter surface, A1
We can ensure that the areas are small compared to their
distance from the emitter source