Experiment -1

Aim :- To study (a) binary fission in Amoeba and (b) budding in yeast with the help ofprepared slides.

Theory :- Reproduction: Plants and animals reproduces (i.e., create new individuals) either by asexual

Materials Required

1. Prepared slides of Amoeba showing binary fission with different stages.

2. Prepared slides of yeast showing budding with different stages.

3. Compound microscopes 2-4.

(A) Binary Fission in Amoeba Procedure

1. Place the prepared slides of Amoeba showing different stages of reproduction on the stage of the
microscope.

2. Adjust the mirror of the microscope to focus maximum light on the slide. Adjust the eye-piece of the
microscope so that the slide is clearly focussed and seen.

3. Draw diagrams of the stages of binary fission in Amoeba.

Observations

1. Amoeba is a protozoa that lives in water and has irregular shape.

2. In the centre of Amoeba dense nucleus is seen.

3. In second stage, Amoeba shows the nucleus division, i.e., karyokinesis.

4. In third stage, we can see the cell body division, i.e., cytokinesis.

5. In the fourth stage, two daughter cells of Amoeba are formed.

The given slides showed the division of a single cell body into two equal halves. The division of nucleus
and cell body are seen which led to the formation of two daughter cells. Hence, the kind of reproduction
seen in Amoeba is binary fission.

(B) Budding in Yeast

Procedure

1. Place the permanent/prepared slides of yeast showing different stages of reproduction on the stage of
microscope.

2. Make the adjustments in mirror of the microscope for focussing maximum light on the slide.

3. Adjust the eye-piece so that the slide is clearly seen.

4. Draw diagrams of the stages of budding yeast cells.

Observations

1. Yeast is oval or spherical in shape.

2. It is a unicellular organism.

3. In the second stage, yeast shows a small growth on it called ‘bud’.

4. In the third stage, yeast shows that in some situations many such chain of buds is seen on the parent
cell. This process is called ‘budding’.

5. On maturity the buds get separated from parent cell to form and grow’ as a new organism. This
process is called budding.

Conclusion

The given slides showed the small growth (bud) on yeast. These buds on maturity separates from parent
cell and grow as a new organism, hence, yeast shows budding.
Precautions

1. Use microscope very carefully. Do not disturb its adjustments.

2. The slides shown under the microscope should not be disturbed.

3. Set the mirror of the microscope for better focus of light on the slide.

4. The slide can be seen under low power or high power of the microscope. These adjustments should be
done very carefull

Experiment -2

Aim :- To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the
result.

Materials Required

A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a scale, a pencil
and thumb pins.

Procedure

1. Take a soft drawing board. Fix a white sheet on it with the help of thumb pins.

2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the centre of the white paper and draw its outline boundary with
pencil.

3. Mark this rectangular figure obtained as ABCD.4. On one side of this figure, i.e., AB take one point E,
draw a perpendicular EN and label it as normal ray.

5. With the help of a protractor draw one angle of 30° with the EN. Fix two pins P and Q on the ray of
this angle, the distance between the pins should be more than 4-5 cm.

6. Put the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.7. See through the glass slab from side CD and fix
pin R and S such that when seen through the glass slab allthe pins lie in straight line, [i.e., Pins P, Q, R
and S should lie in straight line when seen through the glass slab], ‘

8. Now, remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around the pin points.

9. Remove the glass slab.

10.Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F. Draw perpendicular to CD at point F as N’M’.
11.Join points E and F with the pencil.

12.Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e., the incident angle, refracted angle and emergent angle.

13.Extend ray PQ with scale and pencil in dotted line. It will be parallel to ray FRS. The distance
between these two parallel rays is called lateral displacement (d).

14.Measure the lateral displacement.

15.Repeat the above procedure for angles 45° and 60°.

1. The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.

2. The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from rarer to denser
optical medium.

3. The lateral displacement remains the same for different angles of incidences.

4. When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser medium (glass) the light
bends towards the normal.

Experiment -3

Aim :- To study saponification reaction for preparation of soap.

Materials Required

Beakers, a glass rod, red litmus paper strip, knife, tripod stand, bunsen burner, wire

gauze and pair of tongs.Chemical required: Sodium hydroxide solution, plant oil

(Use castor oil + oleic acid)

and common salt.

Procedure

1. Take a beaker and add 20 mL of castor oil into it. Heat the oil by constant stirring.

2. Take 20 mL of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution in another beaker.

3. Add the sodium hydroxide solution into the beaker containing hot castor oil. Heat the mixture slowly
to boil for about 10 minutes.

4. Dip the red litmus paper strip into this reaction mixture.
5. Now, add 5 g of sodium chloride into this mixture with constant stirring and then allow it to cool.
Addition of common salt decreases the solubility of soap. The soap molecules get separated from the
solution and floats on the surface. This is called salting out of soap.

6. On cooling the beaker, a crust is formed on the surface of the liquid. This crust is called soap.

7. Remove the soap cake and cut it into desired shapes and sizes.

8. The castor oil will produce a soap molecule named sodium oleate (C17H33COONa).

Chemical Equation

Observations

1. The heated mixture of oil and caustic soda forms a pale yellow thick liquid.

2. The red litmus turns blue in this soap solution.

Conclusion

The reaction mixture of (oil) carboxylic acid with sodium or potassium hydroxide

produces a soap molecule.

1. Be careful while handling concentrated sodium hydroxide as it is corrosive in nature.

2. Do not overheat the beaker while heating.

3. Stir the soap solution carefully so that it does not spill out.

4. Add very small amount of common salt for salting out of soap.

Experiment - 4

Aim :- To show experimentally that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials Required

A healthy potted plant, beaker, a pair of forceps, tripod stand, wire gauze, bunsen burner, black paper,
paper clips, iodine solution, alcohol, water bath etc.

Procedure

1. Take a healthy potted plant and keep it in a dark room for 48 hours so that all the starch gets used up.

2. Now cover one leaf of a plant with a black paper using paper clip.

3. Keep this plant in sunlight for about six hours.

4. Pluck two leaves from the plant, one that is covered and the other one that is uncovered.

5. Dip the leaves in boiling water for a few minutes.

6. Now immerse the leaves in a beaker containing alcohol.

7. Carefully place this beaker in water bath and heat it till the alcohol begins to boil.

8. Observe the colour of the leaves and solution.

10.Now dip the leaves in iodine solution for a few minutes.

11.Now observe the colour of leaves and compare them.

Observations

1. When leaves are boiled in alcohol, the alcohol solution becomes green and the leaves become
colourless.

2. When iodine solution is added on the leaves

(a) a leaf covered with black paper showed no colour changes with iodine solution.

(b) another leaf which was not covered with black paper when dipped in dilute iodine solution, the colour
of leaf changed to blue-black.Inference

c .During photosynthesis plants prepare starch.

d. When the leaf is covered, it is not allowed to take sunlight and hence, no starch

was prepared in the leaf.

f. Whereas the uncovered leaf got sunlight for 6 hours and when iodine solution was added to it, the
colour changed to blue-black.

g. This proves that sunlight is required for photosynthesis.

Procedure II

1. Select a potted plant, keep it in dark room for 48 hours.

2. Select a healthy leaf and clip a portion of it with dark colour paper using clips.

3. Keep this plant in sunlight for 6 hours.

4. Then do the same steps (4-11) as in procedure

Important Note

1. When you cover a portion of leaf with dark paper the results are not clearly visible.

There is a possibility of translocation of food from uncovered leaf to a covered part of leaf.

2. The above experiment can be done by covering a portion of leaf with black paper.
Precautions

1. Select a small healthy, herbaceous potted plant.

2. Do not destarch the plant for more than 48 hours.

3. Choose a leaf and clip it carefully so that it does not break or crack from the stem.

4. Alcohol is highly inflammable, be careful while boiling leaf in alcohol using water bath.

5. Wash the alcohol from the leaves and then do the iodine test.

6. Satisfactory results will not be obtained if the plant is not completely de-starched.

Experiment -5

Aim :- To find the image distance for varying object distances in case of a convex lens and draw
corresponding ray diagrams to show the nature of image formed.

Materials Required

A convex lens of a short focal length (12-20 cm), measuring scale, optical bench and a needle or a candle.

Procedure

1. Fix a thin convex lens on a lens holder and place the screen on the other side of the lens.

2. Focus a sharp, clear and inverted image of the distant object on the screen. This is the rough focal
length, measure it with the help of a metre scale.

3. Mark the position of lens on optical bench or on a table. Fix the lens at this point, label it as ‘O’.

4. Mark a point ‘F’ at both the sides of the lens as focus of the lens by knowing the focal length as
calculated in first step.

5. Mark a point 2F at both the sides of the lens, the distance of 2F from the lens is

double the focal length of the lens.

6. Place a candle on the table or needle on optical bench at distance beyond 2F and
adjust the height of the centre of lens nearly equal to the height of the flame of the candle.

7. To locate a sharp image of the candle flame in the convex lens from the other side of the lens, adjust
the position of the screen and record your observations.

8. Now, place the object, e., the lighted candle or the needle at 2F and record your observations.

9. Now, shift the object between F and 2F and record the observations.

10.Now, place the object at F and record the observations.

11.Place the object between O and F of the lens and record your observations.

12.Draw ray diagrams for all the positions of the object.

_.
Precautions

1. The focal length of the convex lens must be between 15 to 20 cm.

2. Use thin convex lens of small aperture.

3. Perform this experiment in calm air to avoid the flicker

4. To obtain distinct and sharp image of the candle flame, perform this experiment in a dark room.

5. The optical bench or the bench holding the lens, object and image screen should not be shaky
 Experiment -6

Aim :- To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator.

(a) Dilute hydrochloric acid

(b) Dilute NaOH solution

(c) Dilute ethanoic acid solution

(d) Lemon juice

(e) Water

(f) Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution

Materials Required

Six test tubes, six droppers, white tile, pH paper (with coloured chart strip of pH scale) and test tube stand.

Set up of test the pH of different samples

Chemicals required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute solution of sodium hydroxide, dilute ethanoic acid,
lemon juice, distilled water and dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate.
Procedure

1. Take six test tubes, wash them with distilled water and place them on test tube stand.

2. Mark these test tubes as A, B, C, D, E and F.

3. Take 2 mL each of the above chemicals and add them to the test tubes marked.

Test tube A – add 2 mL of dil. HCI acid Test tube B – add 2 mL of dil. NaOH solution

Test tube C – add 2 mL of dil-. ethanoic acid Test tube D – add 2 mL of lemon juice

Test tube E – add 2 mL of distilled water Test tube F – add 2 mL of dil. sodium bicarbonate solution

4. Take a white tile and place small strips of pH paper on it, mark them as A to F.

5. Take clean droppers rinsed with distilled water.

6. Use each dropper to suck the contents present in the test tubes A to F and pour a drop of each content
on marked pH paper respectively.E.g., the contents of test tube A to be placed on the pH paper with label
A.

7. Observe the colour change in the pH paper and match it with the colour pH chart given. Record your
observations.

Observations
Precautions

1. The test sample solutions should be freshly prepared and the firuit juice samples should also be fresh.

2. Use clean and rinsed droppers.

3. Use clean test tubes and mark them carefully.

4. Rinse the test tubes and droppers with distilled water only.

5. Use clean tile.

Sources of Error

1. Be careful while using the dropper, ensure that everytime you use a clean dropper.

2. Do not use tap water for rinsing, the pH may go wrong.