Outlines

Woldia University
Woldia Institute of Technology
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Introduction to power systems
ECEG 4131

Prepared by: Tebeje T.

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 Chapter One
Fundamentals of power system
Outline
• Evolution of electric power systems

• Sources of energy

• Basic structures of power systems

• Complex Power

• Structure of a Power system

• Introduction to Power Transformers, CTs & PTs

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 Evolution of Electric Power Systems
➢An electric power system is a network of electrical
components deployed to supply, transfer, store, and use
electric power.
➢The first complete electric power system was built by
Thomas Edison- the historic Pearl Street Station in New
York City which began operation in September 1882.
• Comprising a generator, cable, fuse, meter and loads.
• It was dc system:-steam engine driven dc generator
• 59 customers in 1.5 km radius
• Load: incandescent lamps
• Underground cable system, 110 v.

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 Cont’d…
➢L. Gaulard and J.D. Gibbs of Paris, France developed
transformer and ac transmission.

➢In 1886, William Stanley developed and tested a

commercially practical transformer and ac distribution
system for 150 lamps at Great Barrington, Massachusetts.

➢In 1889, the first ac transmission line in North America was

put in to operation. It was a single phase line transmitting
power at 4,000 V over a distance of 21 km.

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 Cont’d…
➢With the development of poly phase systems by Nikola
Tesla, the ac system became even more attractive.
➢In the 1890s, there was considerable controversy over
whether the electric utility industry should be standardized
on dc or ac.
➢There were passionate arguments between Edison, who
advocate dc, and Nikola Tesla, who favored ac.

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 Cont’d…
➢By the turn of the century, the ac system had won out over
the dc system for the following reasons:
• Voltage levels can be easily transformed in ac systems,
thus providing the flexibility for use of different voltages
for generation, transmission and consumption.
• AC generators are much simpler than dc generators.
• AC motors are much simpler and cheaper than dc
motors.
➢The first three phase line in North America went in to
operation in 1893 , a 2300V, 12km line.
➢Many different frequencies were in use: 25, 50, 60, 125 and
133 Hz.
➢60 Hz was adopted as standard in North America and many
other countries use 50 Hz.
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 Cont’d…
➢The increasing need for transmitting larger amounts of
power over longer distances created an incentive to use
progressively higher voltage levels.
➢To avoid the proliferation of an unlimited number of
voltages, the industry has standardized voltage levels.
➢With the development of mercury arc valves in the early
1950s, high voltage dc (HVDC) transmission systems
became economical in special situations.
➢The cross over point beyond which dc transmission may
become a competitive alternative to ac transmission is
around 500 km for over head lines and 50 km for
underground or submarine cables.
➢ With the cost and size of conversion equipment decreasing and its
reliability increasing, there has been a steady increase in the use of
HVDC transmission.
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 Sources of energy
▪ Since electrical energy is produced from energy available in various
forms in nature, it is desirable to look into the various sources of energy.
These sources of energy are:

i. The sun

ii. The Wind

iii. Water

iv. Fuels

v. Nuclear energy

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The Sun
o The Sun is the primary source of energy. The heat energy radiated by the
Sun can be focused over a small area by means of reflectors. This heat
can be used to raise steam and electrical energy can be produced with the
help of turbine-alternator combination. However, this method has limited
application because :

a) it requires a large area for the generation of even a small amount

of electric power

b) it cannot be used in cloudy days or at night

c) it is an uneconomical method.

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The Wind
❖This method can be used where wind flows for a considerable length of
time. The wind energy is used to run the wind mill which drives a small
generator. In order to obtain the electrical energy from a wind mill
continuously, the generator is arranged to charge the batteries.
These batteries supply the energy when the wind stops. This method has
the advantages that maintenance and generation costs are negligible.
However, the drawbacks of this method are

variable output, unreliable because of uncertainty about wind pressure and

power generated is quite small.

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 Water
❖When water is stored at a suitable place, it possesses
potential energy because of the head created. This water
energy can be converted into mechanical energy with the
help of water turbines. The water turbine drives the
alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. This method of generation of electrical energy has
become very popular because it has low production and
maintenance costs.

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 Fuel

❖The main sources of energy are fuels, solid fuel as coal, liquid

fuel as oil and gas fuel as natural gas. The heat energy of these

fuels is converted into mechanical energy by suitable prime

movers such as steam engines, steam turbines, internal

combustion engines etc. The prime mover drives the alternator

which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

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Nuclear energy
❖Towards the end of Second World War, it was discovered that large
amount of heat energy is liberated by the fission of uranium and other
fissionable materials. It is estimated that heat produced by 1 kg of
nuclear fuel is equal to that produced by 4500 tonnes of coal. The heat
produced due to nuclear fission can be utilised to raise steam with
suitable arrangements. The steam can run the steam turbine which in turn
can drive the alternator to produce electrical energy. However, there are
some difficulties in the use of nuclear energy. These are:
a) high cost of nuclear plant
b) problem of disposal of radioactive waste and dearth of trained
personnel to handle the plant.
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 Comparison of energy sources
❖ The chief sources of energy used for the generation of electrical energy
are water, fuels and nuclear energy. Below is given their comparison in a
tabular form :

No. Particular Water power Fuels Nuclear energy

1 Initial cost High Low Highest
2 Running cost Less High Least
3 Reserves Permanent Exaustible Inexaustible
4 Cleanliness Cleanest Dirtiest Clean
5 Simplicity Simplest Complex Most complex
6 Reliability Most Reliable Less reliable More reliable

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 Basic structure of power systems

➢The study of electric power systems is concerned with the

generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of
electric power
➢ An electric power system consists of three principal
components:
▪ The generation stations

▪ The transmission lines

▪ The distribution systems

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 The generation stations
➢ The generation of electric power involves the conversion of energy from
a nonelectrical form (such as thermal, hydraulic, or solar energy) to
electric energy.
➢ Electric power is generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is
increased by stepped up transformer to the main transmission voltage (11
kV to 400 kV or higher)
➢ Sources of Power System Generation are:
Non conventional and
Conventional Energy sources
o Conventional energy: - a source of energy that has been widely used for
many years.
o Thermal (coal, oil), nuclear and hydro generations are the main
conventional sources of electric energy.
o They are more traditional and more commonly used sources of electrical
energy.
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 Thermal power station
➢A generating station which converts heat energy of coal
combustion into electrical energy is known as a steam/thermal
power station.
➢In thermal-electric power plants, electrical energy is produced by
burning coal, oil, or natural gas (Coal, oil, and natural gas are
concentrated sources of chemical energy called fossil fuels)
➢The heat released by the combustion of coal produces steam in a
boiler at high pressure and temperature, which when passed
through a steam turbine gives off some of its internal energy as
mechanical energy and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into
the boiler again.
➢The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical
energy of the turbine into electrical energy.
➢This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are
available.

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 Heat water to Steam turns Turbine turns
Burn fuel
make steam turbine generator

Electrical
power
generated

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▪ Advantages
i. The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap
ii. Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
iii. It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of
coal. The coal can be transported to the site of the plant by rail or
road easily.
iv. It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power
station.
v. The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power
station.
vi. It can be constructed in minimum time compared to Hydro and
Nuclear power stations.
▪ Disadvantages
i. It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount
of smoke and fumes.
ii. High running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant.
iii. The response is very low to supply the increasing in load
iv. It has low efficiency ( 25 - 40 %)
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 Hydro electric power station
❖A hydro-electric power station utilises the potential energy of water at a
high level for the generation of electrical energy.
❖ In a hydro-electric power station, water head is created by constructing a
dam across a river or lake. From the dam, water is led to a water turbine
through the penstock.
❖ As the water falls through a certain height, its potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy and this kinetic energy is converted to the
mechanical energy by allowing the water to flow through the hydraulic
turbine runner.
❖ The water turbine is the prime mover which captures the energy in the
falling water and changes the hydraulic energy (i.e., product of head and
flow of water) into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft.
❖ The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
❖ Hydro-power now accounts for about 20% of world’s electric
generation. Output depends on rainfall and the landscape.
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❖Advantages
a. It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical
energy.
b. It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
c. It requires very small running charges because water is the source
of energy which is available free of cost.
d. It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less
maintenance.
e. It does not require a long starting time like a steam power station.
In fact, such plants can be put into service instantly.
f. It is robust and has a longer life.
g. Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the generation of
electrical energy, they also help in irrigation and controlling
floods.
h. Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled
persons at the time of construction, yet for operation, a few
experienced persons may do the job well.

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❖ Disadvantages
a. It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.

b. There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount of

water due to dependence on weather conditions.

c. Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the plant.

d. It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is located in

hilly areas which are quite away from the consumers.

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 Nuclear power station
➢ A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical
energy is known as a nuclear power station.
➢ In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as Uranium (U-235) or Thorium
(Th-232) are subjected to nuclear fission (The breaking up of nuclei of heavy
atoms into two nearly equal parts with release of huge amount of energy is
known as nuclear fission) in a special apparatus known as a reactor.
➢ The heat energy thus released is utilized in raising steam at high temperature and
pressure. The steam runs the steam turbine which converts steam energy into
mechanical energy.
➢ The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
➢ The most important feature of a nuclear power station is that huge amount of
electrical energy can be produced from a relatively small amount of nuclear fuel
as compared to other conventional types of power stations.
➢ It has been found that complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium (U235) can produce
as much energy as can be produced by the burning of 4,500 tons of high grade
coal.
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Advantages
❖The amount of fuel required is quite small.
❖A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to any other type
of the same size.
❖ It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used for
producing bulk electrical energy.
❖This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power.
❖ It can be located near the load centers because it does not require large
quantities of water and need not be near coal mines. Therefore, the cost
of primary distribution is reduced.
❖There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the world.
Therefore, such plants can ensure continued supply of electrical energy
for thousands of years.
❖ It ensures reliability of operation.

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Disadvantages
❖The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.
❖The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other
types of plants.
❖The erection and commissioning of the plant requires greater technical
know-how.
❖The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a
dangerous amount of radioactive pollution.
❖Maintenance charges are high due to lack of standardization.
❖Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying loads as the reactor
does not respond to the load fluctuations efficiently.
❖The disposal of the by-products, which are radioactive, is a big problem.
They have either to be disposed off in a deep trench or in a sea away
from sea-shore

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 Non conventional energy sources
❖Solar Energy
❖Wind Energy
❖Tidal Energy
❖Biogas Energy
❖Geothermal Energy

Solar Energy
❖Solar energy is the main constituent of all the available energy sources.
❖Solar energy refers the direct use of the energy contained in sunlight (in
the form heat)
❖The heat energy is used in solar heating devices like solar cooker, solar
water heater, solar furnaces etc.

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Advantages
➢ It is abundant (non –exhaustible)

➢ It is environmentally friendly (pollution free)

➢ It is convenient to install

➢ free of cost
Disadvantages
➢ Energy density per unit area is very low

➢ It is unpredictable (it is available for only a part of the day, and

cloudy and, hazy atmospheric conditions greatly reduce the energy
received)

➢ High initial cost

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 Wind Energy
o All moving objects contain kinetic energy
o The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other forms of
energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy through wind
turbine generators.
o How is electricity generated by wind turbine?
o Wind blows over the angled blades and results in a turning force.
o The force will turn the shaft gearbox and generator, which are all
connected. The gearbox increases the rotational speed, enabling the
generator to produce electricity

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 Tidal(Waving) energy
• The periodic rise and fall of sea level due to gravitational attraction of the
moon causes tides.
• A dam (barrage) is constructed at a narrow opening between the land and
sea. The movement of water during high tide and low tide can be used to
rotate the turbines of generators to produce electricity.

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Advantages of tidal energy
➢ Renewable
➢ Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of worlds energy.)
➢ Pollution free (except during construction)
➢ Relatively consistent(unlike wind that is in consistent and is highly concentrated
in certain areas depending on the topography.)
➢ Water is a free resource
Disadvantages of tidal energy
➢ Disturbance/Destruction to marine life (effect wave climate that effects
shallow/shore plant life)
➢ Expensive to construct
➢ Reliability ( have not been around long so we do not know long-term reliability
is.)
➢ Recreational costs (sport fishing, swimming, etc.)
➢ Cost of Maintenance Higher
➢ Power quality (waves fluctuation)

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 Biogas energy
➢ Biogas is the name applied to a gaseous product released from anaerobic
decomposition of different bio-wastes.
➢ In this process, organic wastes are anaerobically fermented by
microorganisms.
➢ The gas thus produced contains about 60% methane and 40% CO2.
➢ Biogas can be produced from cow dung, leaf litter mixtures, animal
excreta particularly dairy cattle, pig and sheep etc.

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 Geothermal energy
❖ The deeper regions of the earth’s crust is very hot. This heat melts rocks and
forms magma. The magma moves up and collects below at some places called
Hot spots.
❖ The underground water in contact with hot spot gets heated into steam at high
pressure.
❖ By drilling holes into hot spots the steam coming out can be used to rotate
turbines of generators to produce electricity.

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 AC and DC Transmission system
❖A transmission system is used to deliver bulk power from power station
to load/substation and large industrial consumers.
❖Where as distribution system is used to deliver power from power
stations or substation to various consumers
❖The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers
premises is known as Electric supply system.
❖An electric supply system consists of three principal components
▪ The power station
▪ The transmission lines and
▪ The distribution systems
❖An electric supply systems can be broadly classified as:
▪ d.c. or a.c. system
▪ Overhead or underground systems

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❖Now a days, 3-phase, 3- wire a.c. system is universally adopted for
generation and transmission of electric power as an economical
proposition.
❖However, distribution of electric power is done by 3- phase, 4-wire a.c.
system

❖The underground system is more expensive than the overhead systems.

Therefore, in our country, overhead system is mostly adopted for
transmission and distribution of electric power

❖The electric supply system can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or

a.c. each system has its merits and demerits

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 Comparison b/n d.c. and a.c. system for Transmission
➢ Transmission of electric power by high voltage d.c. system is superior to
that by high voltage a.c. system in many respects:
i. It requires only two conductors for transmission as compared to three
for a.c. transmission.
ii. No inductance, capacitance and phase displacement problem in d.c.
transmission.
iii. There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross section
of the line conductor is utilized
iv. A d.c. line has less corona loss
v. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is
less in case of d.c. system than that in a.c. system. Therefore, a d.c.
line requires less insulation
vi. In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronizing
difficulties

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Disadvantage
I. Electric power can not be generated at high d.c. voltage due to
commutation problems
II. The d.c. voltage can not be stepped up for transmission of power at
high voltage
III. The d.c. switches and ckt breakers have their own limitations
o A.C. Transmission: nowadays, electrical energy is almost
exclusively, generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.
Advantages
i. The power can be generated at high voltages
ii. The maintenance of a.c. substations is easy and cheaper

iii. The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformer

with ease and efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high
voltages and distribute it at safe potentials

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Disadvantages
i. An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line
ii. The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a
d.c. transmission line
iii. Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line
is increased
iv. An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of
power due to charging current even when the line is open
❖Distribution by a.c. system is undoubtedly superior to that by d.c.
system as in a.c. system voltage control is easy by means of transformers
❖The best way is to employ a.c system for generation and distribution and
d.c. system for transmission

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 Complex Power
❖For circuits operating in sinusoidal-steady-state, real and reactive power
are conveniently calculated from complex power, defined below.

❖Let the voltage across a circuit element be V∠ẟ, and the current into the
element be I∠β. Then the complex power S is the product of the voltage
and the conjugate of the current:
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = [V∠ẟ][I∠β]∗ = 𝑉𝐼 ∠(ẟ − β)
𝑉𝐼 cos ẟ− β + 𝑗𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛(ẟ− β)
P Q
where (ẟ−β) is the angle b/n the voltage and current
So S is recognized as
𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄
P = real power
Q= reactive power and cos ẟ− β power factor

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❖The magnitude 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 of the complex power S is called the apparent
power, it signifies the rating of equipments (generators,Transformers,
etc).
❖Relationships between real, reactive and complex power

▪ Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

What are f (power factor angle), Q and ∣S∣ ?
ф = − cos −1 0.85 = −31.8°
100𝐾𝑊
∣𝑆 ∣= = 117.6KVA
0.85
𝑄 = 117.6 sin(−31.8°) = -62.0KVar

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❖From these complex power expressions, the following can be stated:
𝑉2
• A resistor absorbs (positive) real power, 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑊, and zero
𝑅
reactive power, QR = 0 var.
• An inductor absorbs zero real power, 𝑃𝐿 = 0 W, and positive reactive
𝑉2
power, 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟.
𝑋𝐿
• A capacitor absorbs zero real power, PC = 0 W, and negative
𝑉2
reactive power, 𝑄𝐶 = − 𝑣𝑎𝑟.
𝑋𝐶
𝑉2
• Alternatively, a capacitor delivers positive reactive power,
𝑋𝐶

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 Structures of power system
➢ Generation, transmission and distribution are the main components of an
electric power system

➢ The large network of conductors between the power station and the
consumers can be broadly divided into two parts viz.
❖Transmission system and
▪ Primary transmission
▪ Secondary transmission
❖Distribution system
▪ Primary distribution system
▪ Secondary distribution system
➢ Transmission lines implies the bulk transfer of power by high voltage
links b/n main load centers
➢ Distribution system is mainly responsible for the conveyance of this
power to the consumers by means of lower voltage networks

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▪ Power Generation system:
▪ electric power (11 kV- 25 kV) is
produced 3-phase alternators
▪ operating in parallel
▪ Conventional energy conversions
and Renewable resources
▪ The generation voltage is stepped up to
the main transmission voltage
▪ Power transmission system
▪ Primary and secondary transmission
▪ AC/DC and HV/EHV
▪ Long, medium, short lines (sub
transmission systems )
▪ Double/single circuits
▪ On grid and off grid system
▪ In the range of 66kV to 400 kV (higher)

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▪ Power substation
• Connection b/n various components are made (e.g. lines &
transformers )

• Switching of these components are carried out

• Primary and secondary substations

• Indoor and outdoor substations

▪ Power distribution system

• Primary and secondary distribution system (15kV/380V/220V)

• cable distribution system

• Radial and ring system

• Pole mounted and enclosure /indoor distribution substation

• Public and industrial–MV/LV distribution system

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❖In our country, networks operate at 400kV, 230kV, 132kV, 66kV, 33kV
or15kV and supply the final consumer feeders at 380 volt three phase,
giving 220 volt per phase

❖The general structure or topology of the distribution system is different

and the number of branches and sources is much higher

❖Most of the distribution networks operate radially for less short ckt
current and better protective coordination

❖A typical distribution system consists of a step down transformer ( e.g.

132/15kV or 66/15kV or 33/15kV) at a bulk supply point feeding
a number of lines with varying length from a few hundred meters to
several kilometers

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❖ Figure below shows a typical distribution system

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Reason for interconnection
▪ Generating stations and distribution systems are connected through
transmission lines
▪ The transmission system of a particular area (e.g. state) is known as a
grid
▪ Different grids are interconnected through tie-lines to form a regional
grid (also called power pools)
▪ Different regional grids are further connected to form a national grid
▪ Interconnected operation is always economical and reliable
• Economic advantage of interconnection is to reduce the reserve
generation capacity in each area

• If there is a sudden increase of load or loss of generation in one area,

it is possible to borrow power from adjoining interconnected area

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▪ Cooperative assistance is one of the planned benefits of interconnected
operation
▪ Interconnected operation also gives the flexibility to meet unexpected
80 emergency loads

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Introduction to Power Transformers, CTs & PTs
Power transformers
❖A transformer is a static electrical device, involving no continuously
moving parts, used in electric power systems to transfer power between
circuits through the use of electromagnetic induction.

❖The term power transformer is used to refer to those transformers used

between the generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually
rated at 500 kVA and above.

❖Power transformers are available as single-phase or three-phase

apparatus.

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Instrument transformers
❖ Instrument Transformer (IT) - A high precision transformer designed to provide
input into measurement and/or control equipment
❖ In dc circuits for current and voltage measurement we use ammeters and voltmeters.
❖ For measurement of high current ,it is usual to use low range ammeter with suitable
shunt.
❖ For measurement of high voltage, low range voltmeter are used with high resistance
connected in series.
❖ But for measurement of high A.C. current and voltage we cannot use these methods.
❖ We use specially constructed instrument transformers.
❖ Instrument transformers are primarily used
▪ to provide isolation between the main primary circuit and the secondary
control and measuring devices. This isolation is achieved by magnetically
coupling the two circuits.
▪ besides to isolation, levels in magnitude are reduced to safer levels
❖ Instrument transformers are divided into two categories:
current transformers (CT) and voltage transformers ( VT)

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Current Transformers (CTs)
o An instrument transformer used to reflect a primary current into a
secondary current through a magnetic medium.
o Current transformer is a step up transformer ( as the voltage increases the
current decreases).
❖C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in
series with the line whose current is to be measured
❖The secondary consist of large number of turns of fine wire, is connected
across the ammeter terminals

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o If we know the current ratio I1/I2 and the reading of a.c. ammeter, the
current can be calculated.

Current = ratio × ammeter reading

o Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works

short circuited.

o If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the
secondary winding must be short ckted with the help of short ckt switch s.

o If this is not done, then due to high m.m.f. will set up high flux in the
core and it will produces excessive core loss which produce heat and
high voltage across the secondary terminals

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 Potential transformer
o A PT is a step down transformer having many primary turns but few
secondary turns.
o In step down the voltage decreases and current increases, thus voltage
can be easily measured by using low range voltmeter.
o The voltage is stepped down in known ratio called voltage ratio
o Primary terminals are connected across the line to which the voltage is to
be measured.
o The voltmeter gives the transformed value of voltage at secondary.
o The deflection of voltmeter when divided by transformed ratio gives the
actual voltage at primary.
o Line voltage = deflection/trasf. Ratio

Where transformation ratio =V2/V1

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Thank you!!

Chapter Two

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