Computer Communication

Networks
EC106203EC
Dr. Ajay Singh Raghuvanshi
Electronics & Communication Engineering,
NIT, Raipur
 Syllabus for EC106203EC
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
Semester: 6
Codes: EC106203EC
Subject: Computer Communication Networks
Credits: 3 Departmental Elective
Pre-requisites: EC104105EC- Analog Communication,
EC105101EC-Digital Communication,
CS10I010CS-Computer Programming

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Course Content UNIT-I
Introduction to Data Communications, Components, Representations, Data Flow, Networks, Physical
Structures, Network Types, Switching, Types of switching, Circuit switching, packet switching, virtual
circuit switching, their advantages and disadvantages. Introduction to Internet.
Network Models: Protocol Layering: Scenarios, Principles, Logical Connections, ISO-OSI Model and
Layered Architecture, Layers in TCP/IP suite, Description of layers, Encapsulation and Decapsulation,
Addressing, Multiplexing and Demultiplexing, The OSI Model: OSI Versus TCP/IP.
UNIT- II
Data-Link Layer: Nodes and Links, Services, Categories of link, Sublayers, Link Layer addressing: Types of
addresses, ARP. Data Link Control (DLC) services: Framing, Flow and Error Control, Practical Error control,
Data Link Layer Protocols: Simplex Protocol, Stop and Wait protocol, sliding window protocols
Piggybacking. MAC Sublayer, Types of Media Accessing Schemes, Random Access schemes: ALOHA, CSMA,
CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA. Controlled Access Schemes: Reservation, Polling, Token Passing Ethernet Protocol:
IEEE802.3 Ethernet Evolution, Standard Ethernet: Characteristics,, Access Method, Efficiency,
Implementation, Fast Ethernet: Access Method, Physical Layer, Gigabit Ethernet: MAC Sublayer, Physical
Layer, 10 Gigabit Ethernet Wireless LANs: Introduction: Architectural Comparison, Characteristics, IEEE
802.11 Architecture, MAC Sublayer, Addressing Mechanism, Physical Layer Connecting Devices: Hubs,
Switches, Virtual LANs: Membership, Configuration, Communication between Switches, Advantages.
Network Layer.
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 Unit- III
Network Layer services: Packetizing, Routing and Forwarding, Other services, Packet Switching:
Datagram Approach, Virtual Circuit Approach, IPV4 Addresses: Address Space, Classful
Addressing, Classless Addressing, DHCP, Network Address Resolution, Forwarding of IP
Packets: Based on destination Address and Label Network Layer Protocols: Internet Protocol
(IP): Datagram Format, Fragmentation, Options, IPv4 Datagrams, ICMPv4: Messages,
Debugging Tools, Mobile IP: Addressing, Agents, Introduction, Routing Algorithms: Distance
Vector Routing, Link State Routing, Shortest Path vector routing, Internet Routing , Routing
Information Protocol, Open Shortest Path First, Border Gateway Protocol.

Unit- IV
Transport Layer: Introduction: Transport Layer Services, Connectionless and Connection oriented
Protocols, Transport Layer Protocols: Simple protocol, Stop and wait protocol, Go-Back-N
Protocol, Selective repeat protocol, User Datagram Protocol: User Datagram, UDP Services,
UDP Applications, Transmission Control Protocol: TCP Services, TCP Features, Segment,
Connection, State Transition diagram, Windows in TCP, Flow control, Error control, TCP
congestion control.

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 Recommended Books for course
■ Text Books :
1. Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan, 5th
Edition, McGraw Hill, 2016 ISBN: 1-25-906475-3
2. Communication Networks, A Leon-Garcia, I Widjaja,
McGraw Hill Education India.
3. Data and Computer Communications, William
Stallings, Pearson Higher Education.
4. Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tanenbaum, David j.
Wetherall, Pearson Higher Education.

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■ Reference Books :
1. Computer Networking: A top-down approach, J F
Kurose, K W Ross, Pearson Education.
2. Data Networks, 2 ed, D P Bertsekas, R G Gallagar,
Prentice Hall.
3. Computer Networks and Internets with Internet
Applications, Douglas E. Comer Pearson Higher Education.
4. Internetworking With TCP/IP: Principles, Protocols, and
Architecture (Volume 1), Douglas E. Comer Pearson Higher
Education.

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 Course Evaluation Theory, 3 Credits
■ Midterm Examination : 30 marks
■ Teachers Assessment : 20 marks
◻ Quizzes /class test/ : 5 marks
◻ Assignments : 10 marks
◻ Attendance : 5 marks
■ Attendance above 80% : 5 marks(4-5)
■ Semester Examination : 50 marks
■ Total for 3 credit subject : 100 marks

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 Objective of the course
In this course, you will:
• Learn CCN identify different components needed to form
network
• Learn different types of switching's used in CCN
• Learn layered architecture
• Learn basic concepts of digital communication and apply them
to networking
• Learn security and cryptographic schemes used in CCN
• Get practical hands-on experience CCN system employed in
campus and see its working.

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 Need of this Course
■ Communication networks have entered an era of fundamental change where market and
regulatory forces have caught up with the relentless advance of technology,
■ The explosive growth of multimedia personal computing and the World Wide Web,
demonstrating the value of network-based services.
■ The deregulation of the telecommunications industry opening the door to new access network
technologies (digital cellular systems, cable modems, high-speed DSL modems, direct
broadcast satellite systems, satellite constellation networks, broadband wireless cable) that will
cause telecommunications infrastructure to migrate towards a flexible packet-based backbone
network technology.
■ The explosion in available bandwidth due to optical transmission technology and the entry of
new national and global backbone service providers.
■ The emergence of the Internet suite of protocols as the primary means for providing ubiquitous
connectivity across the emerging network of networks.
■ The predominance of data traffic over voice traffic dictating that future net works will be designed
for data, and that telephone voice service must eventually operate possibly may be solely over
the Internet

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 Prerequisite
■ Preliminary course on Analog & Digital
Electronics
■ Preliminary course on Analog and Digital
Communications
■ Desirable : Knowledge of C-Programming or any
programming language

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Data Communications, Data Networks, and
the Internet
■ The fundamental problem of communication is that
of reproducing at one point either exactly or
approximately a message selected at another point
- The Mathematical Theory of Communication,
Claude Shannon

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A Communications Model

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 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
■ The term telecommunication means
communication at a distance.
■ The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data.
■ Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.
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Communications Tasks in Data Communication
Transmission system utilization Addressing

Interfacing Routing
Signal generation Recovery

Synchronization Message formatting

Exchange management Security

Error detection and correction Network management

Flow control
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Data Communications Model

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 Five components of data communication

1. Sender
2. Message
3. Protocol
4. Medium
5. Receiver

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 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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Transmission Medium
■ selection is a basic choice
◻ internal use entirely up to business
◻ long-distance links made by carrier
■ rapid technology advances change mix
◻ fiber optic
◻ wireless
■ transmission costs still high
■ hence interest in efficiency improvements

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 DATA NETWORKS
■ A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected
by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
■ Links, Nodes, and Clouds
◻ We call physical medium connecting nodes as link
◻ We refer to the computers or special hardware it connects
as nodes.
◻ a set of independent networks is referred as clouds

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Types of connections between nodes

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Network Topology
Network topology refers to the manner in which the links
and nodes of a network are arranged in relation with each
other.

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A fully connected mesh topology
For N users to be fully
connected directly requires
N(N – 1)/2 connections
This requires too much
space for cables Inefficient
& costly since connections
not always on. But it is an
ideal Topology that can be
considered to compare all
other topologies

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 One big disadvantage of a star
A star topology topology is the dependency of
the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub
goes down, the whole system is
dead. Although a star requires
far less cable than a mesh,
each node must be linked to a
central hub. For this reason,
often more cabling is required in
a star than in some other
topologies (such as ring or bus).

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A bus topology

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.

Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then
connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this
way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies

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A ring topology

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to

only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). Ring topology
was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today,
the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular with
wires but popular with optical fibers
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 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub for a room

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 Types of data networks
■ BAN: Body Area Networks Sensor Networks attached to person
■ PAN: Personal Area Networks are used for communication among various devices, such as telephones,
personal digital assistants, fax machines, and printers, that are located close to a single user.
■ LAN: Local Area Networks cover a small physical area, like a home, office, or a small group of buildings, such
as a school or airport. WLAN: Wireless Local Area Networks enable users to move around within a larger
coverage area, but still be wirelessly connected to the network.
■ MAN: Metropolitan Area Networks are very large networks that cover an entire city.
■ WAN: Wide Area Networks cover a broad area, like communication links that cross metropolitan, regional, or
national boundaries. The Internet is the best example of a WAN.
■ GAN: Global Area Networks support mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs and
satellite coverage areas.4G, 5G etc.
■ SAN: Storage Area Networks help attach remote computer storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries,
and optical jukeboxes, to servers in such a manner that that they appear to be locally attached to the operating
system (Remote drives).
■ CAN: Controller Area Networks allow micro controllers and devices to communicate with each other without a
host computer (IoT).
■ INTERNETWORK: Internetworking is the process of connecting two or more distinct computer networks or
network segments through a common routing Technique,
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 Switched Communications Networks
■ Long distance transmission between stations (called “end devices”) is
typically done over a network of switching nodes.
■ Switching nodes do not concern with content of data. Their purpose is
to provide a switching facility that will move the data from node to node
until they reach their destination (the end device).
■ A collection of nodes and connections forms a communications
network.
■ In a switched communications network, data entering the network from
a station are routed to the destination by being switched from node to
node

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switching technologies
■ Two different switching technologies
◻ Circuit
switching
◻ Packet switching

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 Circuit Switching
■ Circuit switching:
◻ There is a dedicated communication path between two stations
(end-to-end)
◻ The path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes.
On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection.
■ Communication via circuit switching has three phases:
◻ Circuit establishment (link by link)
■ Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)
◻ Data transfer
◻ Circuit disconnect
De-allocate the dedicated resources
■
■ The switches must know how to find the route to the destination and how to
allocate bandwidth (channel) to establish a connection.
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 Circuit Switching Properties
■ Inefficiency
◻ Channel capacity is dedicated for the whole duration of a connection
◻ If no data, capacity is wasted
■ Delay
◻Long initial delay: circuit establishment takes time
◻Low data delay: after the circuit establishment, information is
transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than the
propagation delay. The delay at each node is negligible.
■ Developed for voice traffic (public telephone network) but can also
applied to data traffic.
◻ For voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy a high percentage of
utilization because most of the time one party or the other is talking.
◻ But how about data connections?

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Public Circuit Switched Network

Subscribers: the devices that attach to the network.

Subscriber loop: the link between the subscriber and the network.
Exchanges: the switching centers in the network.
End office: the switching center that directly supports subscribers.
Trunks: the branches between exchanges. They carry multiple voice-frequency circuits using
either FDM or synchronous TDM.
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 Packet Switching Principles
■ Problem of circuit switching
◻ designed for voice service
◻ Resources dedicated to a particular call
◻ For data transmission, much of the time the connection is idle
(say, web browsing)
◻ Data rate is fixed
■ Both ends must operate at the same rate during the entire
period of connection
■ Packet switching is designed to address these problems.

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 Basic Operation of Packet Switching
■ Data are transmitted in short packets
◻ Typically at the order of 1000 bytes
◻ Longer messages are split into series of packets
◻ Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some control info
■ Control info contains at least
◻ Routing (addressing) info, so as to be routed to the intended
destination Recall the content of an IP header!
■ store and forward
◻ On each switching node, packets are received, stored briefly
(buffered) and passed on to the next node.

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Use of Packets

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 Advantages of Packet Switching
■ Line efficiency
◻ Single node-to-node link can be dynamically shared by many packets over
time
◻ Packets are queued up and transmitted as fast as possible
■ Data rate conversion
◻ Each station connects to the local node at its own speed
■ In circuit-switching, a connection could be blocked if there lacks free
resources. On a packet-switching network, even with heavy traffic,
packets are still accepted, by delivery delay increases.
■ Priorities can be used
◻ On each node, packets with higher priority can be forwarded first. They will
experience less delay than lower-priority packets.

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Packet Switching Technique
■ A station breaks long message into packets
■ Packets are sent out to the network sequentially, one at a
time
■ How will the network handle this stream of packets as it
attempts to route them through the network and deliver them
to the intended destination?
◻ Two approaches
■ Datagram approach
■ Virtual circuit approach

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 Datagram Approach
■ Each Packet or Datagram is treated independently, with no
reference to packets that have gone before.
◻ Each node chooses the next node on a packet’s path.
■ Packets can take any possible route.
■ Packets may arrive at the receiver out of order.
■ Packets may go missing.
■ It is up to the receiver to re-order packets and recover from
missing packets.
■ Example: Internet

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Datagram

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 Virtual Circuit
■ In virtual circuit, a preplanned route is established before any
packets are sent, then all packets follow the same route.
■ Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of
destination address, and each node on the pre-established
route knows where to forward such packets.
◻ The node need not make a routing decision for each packet.
■ Example: X.25, Frame Relay, ATM

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Virtual Circuit
A route between stations is set
up prior to data transfer.
All the data packets then follow
the same route.
But there is no dedicated
resources reserved for the
virtual circuit!
Packets need to be
stored-and-forwarded.

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 Virtual Circuits v Datagram
■ Virtual circuits
◻ Network can provide sequencing (packets arrive at the same order) and error
control (retransmission between two nodes).
◻ Packets are forwarded more quickly
■ Based on the virtual circuit identifier
■ No routing decisions to make
◻ Less reliable
■ If a node fails, all virtual circuits that pass through that node fail.

■ Datagram
◻ No call setup phase
■ Good for bursty data, such as Web applications
◻ More flexible
■ If a node fails, packets may find an alternate route
■ Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the network
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Comparison of
communication
switching
techniques

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 THE INTERNET
An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or more
networks that can communicate with each other. The
most notable internet is called the Internet (upper case
letter I)
A collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of
interconnected networks. Private individuals as well as various
organizations such as government agencies, schools, research
facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries
use the Internet. Millions of people are users

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THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has
affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our
leisure time. The Internet is a communication system that has brought
a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Internet evolved from ARPAnet (Advanced Research Projects

Agency Network) first operational packet network applied to
tactical radio & satellite nets also had a need for interoperability
led to standardized TCP/IP protocols and www (word wide
web)
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Brief History of the Internet
■ 1957- USSR launched Sputnik-I United States were shocked
■ 1958-ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) was created in February 1958
by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to executes research and development
projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, Latter known as
DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)
■ 1968 – DARPA contracts with BBN (Bolt, Beranek & Newman) to create
ARPAnet(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)
■ 1970 - First five nodes: ARPAnet
◻ UCLA
◻ Stanford
◻ UC Santa Barbara
◻ U of Utah, and
◻ BBN

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From ARPANET to Internet
■ 1972 – ARPANET went ‘public’
◻ ICCC (International Computer Communications Council)
◻ First program for person-to-person communication (e-mail) was
introduced
■ 1973- 75% of all ARPANET traffic was e-mail
◻ First international connection (University College of London) was
established.
■ 1974 – TCP specification by Vint Cerf led to development of TCP/IP
■ 1984 – On January 1, the Internet with its 1000 hosts converts en
masse to using TCP/IP for its messaging
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From Internet to WWW
■ 1989 – WWW concept introduced by Tim Berners-Lee
■ 1990 – ARPANET was wound up
■ 1990 – first search-engine (Archie)
■ 1991 – NSF removed restrictions on private access
■ The web exploded with .com (dot.com)
◻ 1994 – 3,2 million hosts and 3,000 websites
◻ 1995 – 6,4 million hosts and 25,000 websites
◻ 1997 – 19,5 million hosts and 1,2 million websites
◻ January 2001 – 110 million hosts and 30 million websites

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Some facts with Internet
◻ 1994 – Hotmail starts web based email
◻ 1994 – World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded
◻ 1995 – JAVA source code was released
◻ 1996 – Mirabilis (Israel) starts ICQ, (I Seek you) the first
stand-alone Instant Messenger (IM) Chat
◻ 1998 – Google is founded ,
◻ Post 1999 number of Internet Explores, search engines,
mail services providers, social networking flooded the
Internet

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 Internet Growth Trends
■ 1977: 111 hosts on Internet
■ 1981: 213 hosts
■ 1983: 562 hosts
■ 1984: 1,000 hosts
■ 1986: 5,000 hosts
■ 1987: 10,000 hosts
■ 1989: 100,000 hosts
■ 1992: 1,000,000 hosts
■ 2001: 150 – 175 million hosts
■ 2002: over 200 million hosts
■ 2010: about 80% of the planet is on the Internet
■ 2020: More and more services and Information available Online, Entire service
industries, business, banking etc online
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 Internet Architecture
■ The Internet today is made up of thousands of overlapping hierarchical networks, an
overview of the common, general characteristics can be made.

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■ See hosts grouped into LANs, linked to an an Internet
service provider (ISP) through a point of presence
(POP). The connection is made in a series of steps starting
with the customer premises equipment (CPE). ISPs can
be classified as regional or backbone, with peering
links between.
■ A Network Access Point (NAP) a public network
exchange facility where Internet service
providers (ISPs) connected with one another in
peering arrangements.
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Hierarchical Service Providers of the Internet

■ International Internet Service Providers

■ National Internet Service Providers
■ Regional Internet Service Providers
■ Local Internet Service Providers

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 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

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Internet Elements

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The key elements that comprise the Internet, whose
purpose is to interconnect end systems, called hosts;
including PCs, workstations, servers, main-frames,
Laptops, PDA, Smart Phones and so on. Most hosts
that use the Internet are connected to a network, such
as a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network
(WAN). These networks are in turn connected by
routers. Network edge can be treated as user or the
node of interest.
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 What is Web?
■ The Web (World Wide Web) consists of information
organized into Web pages containing text and graphic
images.
■ It contains hypertext links, or highlighted keywords and
images that lead to related information.
■ A collection of linked Web pages that has a common theme
or focus is called a Web site.
■ The main page that all of the pages on a particular Web site
are organized around and link back to is called the site’s
home page.
 How to access the Internet?
■ Many organizations and business houses have direct
access to the Internet using special high-speed
communication lines and equipment.
■ Students and employees can access through the
organization’s local area networks (LAN) or through
their own personal computers.
■ Another way to access the Internet is through Internet
Service Providers (ISP).
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
■ A commercial organization with permanent
connection to the Internet that sells temporary
connections to subscribers.
■ Examples:
■ AirTel, NIC, BSNL, Reliance, Microsoft
network, AT&T Networks etc.
Client/Server Structure of the Web
■ Web is a collection of files that reside on computers,
called Web servers, that are located all over the
world and are connected to each other through the
Internet.
■ When you use your Internet connection to become
part of the Web, your computer becomes a Web
client in a worldwide client/server network.
■ A Web browser is the software that you run on your
computer to make it work as a web client.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
■ The public files on the web servers are ordinary text
files, much like the files used by word-processing
software.
■ To allow Web browser software to read them, the text
must be formatted according to a generally accepted
standard.
■ The standard used on the web is Hypertext markup
language (HTML).
 Addresses on the Web: IP Addressing
■ Each computer on the internet does have a unique
identification number, called an IP (Internet Protocol)
address.
■ The IP addressing system currently in use on the
Internet uses a four-part number.
■ Each part of the address is a number ranging from 0
to 255, and each part is separated from the previous
part by period,
■ For example, 106.29.242.17
 IP Addressing
■ The combination of the four IP address parts provides
4.2 billion possible addresses (256 x 256 x 256 x 256).
■ This number seemed adequate until 1998.
■ Members of various Internet task forces are working to
develop an alternate addressing system that will
accommodate the projected growth.
■ However, all of their working solutions require
extensive hardware and software changes throughout
the Internet.
 Domain Name Addressing
■ Most web browsers do not use the IP address t locate Web
sites and individual pages.
■ They use domain name addressing.
■ A domain name is a unique name associated with a specific
IP address by a program that runs on an Internet host
computer.
■ This program, which coordinates the IP addresses and
domain names for all computers attached to it, is called DNS
(Domain Name System ) software.
■ The host computer that runs this software is called a domain
name server.
 Domain Name Addressing
■ Domain names can include any number of parts separated by
dots, however most domain names currently in use have only
three or four parts.
■ Domain names follow hierarchical model that you can follow
from top to bottom if you read the name from the right to the
left.
■ For example, the domain name http://nitrr.ac.in/ is the
computer connected to the Internet at NIT Raipur which is an
academic unit (.ac) national institution in India (.in)
■ No other computer on the Internet has the same domain
name.
 Uniform Resource Locators (URL)
■ The IP address and the domain name each identify a particular
computer on the Internet.
■ However, they do not indicate where a Web page’s HTML document
resides on that computer.
■ To identify a Web pages exact location, Web browsers rely on Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).
■ URL is a four-part addressing scheme that tells the Web browser:
What transfer protocol to use for transporting the file
The domain name of the computer on which the file resides
The pathname of the folder or directory on the computer on which the
file resides
The name of the file
Structure of a Uniform Resource Locators

pathname
protocol

http://nitrr.ac.in/downloads/syllabus/sem%204.pdf

filename
Domain name

http => Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTP
■ The transfer protocol is the set of rules that the
computers use to move files from one computer to
another on the Internet.
■ The most common transfer protocol used on the
Internet is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
■ Two other protocols that you can use on the
Internet are the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and
the Telnet Protocol
 Assignment : 1
Date of Submission : 27th Jan 2024
Exercise web search and find
1. Find who invented WWW
2. Write brief history of Development of WWW
3. Find who wrote the TCP/IP
4. Determine who is the real founding father of Internet
5. Which is the regulatory Authority/ Authorities of WWW
6. What Is RFC?
Helpful Sites : Do visit and go through the content
www.acm.org/sigcomm/sos.html
www.ietf.org/
www.ietf.org/rfc.html

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