Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge,

EC- PHILOSOPHY 1 values, reason, mind, and language.

Descriptive title: Logic and critical thinking
The TAO (way) of Philosophy..
1. Due to lack of reasoning and critical thinking Many people have different views and attitudes on philosophy.
2. Ignorance of the law that govern our mental operation.
Telescope
Legal basis: The preamble -----Our Philosophical document-- Microscope
We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to Computers
build a just and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody AI robots
our ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our
patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of They become the instrument of truths……….
independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, Philosophy is the one discipline that holds the key so to some important purpose in
freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution. life.

Pythagoras ancient Greek - there are three types of men: Aristotle says, "All men by nature desire to know,"
A lover of pleasure, Considering claim for Aristotle
a lover of success, and
a lover of wisdom Innate Curiosity
Human Nature and Rationality
Different elements of definition… The Drive to Understand
Human Nature and Rationality
1. Philosophy is a science. Science which means scire to know

2. Philosophy is the science of things. The scientific knowledge of causes of things.. These are the reasons why critical reflections are an essential pre-condition of
philosophy.
3. Philosophy by their ultimate principles and causes. Its different from positive and
the physical sciences as Biology, physics. while philosophy ultimate principles of the
different material things.
• To philosophize is not synonymous with merely accepting without question the
already well formulated answers to certain philosophical questions
4. Philosophy as known in light of reason… the principles of natural cognition….
• To philosophize, it necessitates reflection upon what is immediately given in Logic : Logic is derived form the Greek word “logos” “the word” - the study of
experience and submit the same appraisal before conclusion reasoning..

• To philosophize, it attempts to attain not just any form of knowledge, It aims to

characterized as “DOXA”, not in the sense of a simple opinion but reasoned Aesthetics: greek word ”aisthetokos” meaning ”sense perception or harmony”
opinion. branch of philo that deals with beauty and harmony..appreciation of the arts

• To philosophize does not only satisfy itself by asking questions about specific-
Cosmology: the science of the universe
Political Philosophy: explores fundamental questions about government, justice,
being-in the world.. Rather transcend farther and poses the questions of what rights, freedom, and the role of individuals and institutions in society
does it mean to be. Philosophy of Mind: Addresses profound questions about the nature of
consciousness, mental states, and the relationship between the mind and the
TAO of Philosophy is the way to deeper and comprehensive (Weltanschauung(World- physical world.
view). It is noble task to view reality: Philosophy of Science: like the natural sciences, can be approached as a systematic,

• 1. Extensively
logical, Scientific Knowledge

• 2. Intensively
• 3. Comprehensively Human mind
As is humanly possible…. The human mind seeks not only to know but to attain a certain degree of certitude.
The human mind knows that it knows
Branches of Philosophy……
Metaphysics: the study of reality. What is the ultimate reality… It must have confidence in its own actions and operation
It must have an assurance of accomplishments
Epistemology: the science or study of knowledge. How do we know that what we It must be open to all possibilities.
perceive through our senses is correct? Just like a parachutes it functions only when it is open>

Ethics : the study of morality of human act. What is morally right actions As moral Agent
obligation justice utility
The nature and functions of language. They maybe in the form of:
-Logic uses words which appears as terms which, in turn, are contained in - Descriptive:
propositions. To many people, music is the language of the souls but the very - Narrative:
foundation of human existence is the word, - Expressive:
-Its suggests that language, communication, and the use of words are fundamental - Questions:
to what it means to be human. It’s a foundational element of human existence. - Explanatory:
-Eg. Freedom of expression
Comes from speech and the press…… Difference from Argumentative Language:
- Non-argumentative language focuses on sharing information, expressing
The three basic functions of language: feelings, or asking questions without trying to convince or prove a specific
point.
A. Informative- Supplies data found in propositions and arguments. - Argumentative language, on the other hand, seeks to support or refute a
position using reasons, evidence, and logic.
B. Expressive- refers to the use of language to convey emotions, feelings,
thoughts, or personal experiences. Our dispostions
Logic and Truth…
C. Directive – refers to language that is used to give instructions, commands, or The Connection between Logic and Truth:
requests. - Logic provides a systematic way of evaluating arguments, ensuring that the
Non-Argumentative language- refers to language that does not aim to persuade or conclusions follow from the premises.
convince the listener or reader of a particular point of view or conclusion. Unlike
argumentative language, which presents premises to support a claim or conclusion, - Truth, on the other hand, is about whether the statements and conclusions
Eg. Non-argumentative accurately reflect reality.
- warnings
- Statement of belief or opinion - A valid logical argument does not necessarily guarantee truth, as the
- Reports premises might be false. However, if the premises are true and the reasoning
- Expository is valid, the conclusion will also be true.
- Comparison
- Illustration Logic clears our minds from rational thoughts, it enables us to see things right and
- Recommendations the right things
- Temporal sequence
Philosophical Issues Premise 1: All living organisms are made up of cells.
The great majority of these issues will have to be confronted by the new generation. Premise 2: Bacteria are living organisms.
They must reason their way through: Conclusion: Therefore, bacteria are made up of cells.
- New discovery and Ideas
- Theories
- Experiments The ten commandments of philosopher
Bertrand Russell,
The heart of the study of logic is the study of the inference. 1. Do not feel absolutely certain of anything.
Logic deals with correct inferential thinking. 2. Do not think it worthwhile to proceed by concealing evidence, for the evidence
Logic, therefore, is essentially concerned with the treatment of different inferences is sure to come to light.
and logical condition in the light of which these inferences are rendered either as 3. Never try to discourage thinking for you are sure to succeed.
correct or wrong, valid or invalid 4. When you meet with opposition, even if it is unintentional, you should not lose
your temper.
ARGUMENT OR REASONING – An argument is a reasoned attempt to persuade 5. Have no respect for the authority of others, for there is always the chance that
others by presenting evidence, reasons, or logic. you are mistaken.
3 class of arguments 6. Do not use the phrase "I feel" as a substitute for thinking.
1. Logical 7. In matters of argument, follow the advice of the late Professor John Dewey:
2. Ethical "Do not dogmatize."
3. Scientific 8. Do not feel envious of the happiness of those who live in a state of ignorance.
9. Be patient with the complexity of things.
Example 1: 10. Do not believe that you are in possession of the final answer.
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Example 2: Ethical Argument

Premise 1: It is wrong to cause unnecessary suffering to animals.
Premise 2: Factory farming causes unnecessary suffering to animals.
Conclusion: Therefore, factory farming is wrong.

Example 3: Scientific Argument

3 class of arguments • Doctor B’s Argument: “I believe we shouldn’t approve the trial yet. The
drug hasn’t been tested on humans extensively, and we might put
Logical - Reasoned process
patients at unnecessary risk. We should wait for more data to ensure its
Ethical – focus or morally right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust safety and efficacy.”

Scientific - are built on the scientific method and are aimed at understanding the Example 3: Scientific Argument
world based on observable, testable, and repeatable evidence.
Premise 1: All living organisms are made up of cells.
Eg. Logical Argument
Premise 2: Bacteria are living organisms.
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Conclusion: Therefore, bacteria are made up of cells.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Process of thinking
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
A. Deductive Logic is one in which premise flow into a conclusion.
Example 2: Ethical Argument
Universal to particular or from more to the less universal by way of middle
Premise 1: It is wrong to cause unnecessary suffering to animals. form

Premise 2: Factory farming causes unnecessary suffering to animals. Eg.

Conclusion: Therefore, factory farming is wrong. All Filipinos are studious

• Ethical Argument in Medicine But, Jean is a Filipina

• Context: A hospital ethics committee is discussing whether to approve a Therefore, Jean is studious
new experimental drug for use in a clinical trial.
B. Inductive - is one in which the argument flows from specific to general to
• Doctor A’s Argument: “We should approve the clinical trial because it particular to universal. Implies a sense of probability. May provide some
could potentially save lives. Even though the drug is still experimental, it evidences of truth” Scientific method of inquiry.
shows promising results in animal models, and further research could
Eg. All bodily objects fall … law of gravity
lead to breakthroughs.”
Two Branches of Logic A valid, that is, acceptable argument is one which is true in its matter and
correct in its form…. This is in a form of syllogism
A. Formal Logic is a branch of logic concern with the form of structured
arguments regardless of whether or not the contents of such argument Syllogism
agree with reality…
• Is an oral is an oral or written discourse expressive of an argument. It
Examples : Peter is a student is the logical form of argument

Man is a being Eg. All men are rational being - (major Premise)

Some dogs are black But, John McYntire is a man -(minor premise)

B. Material Logic is a branch of logic that is concerned with the contents of Therefore, John McYntire is a rational being (conclusion)
the proposition that made up the argument. SUBJECT MATTER.
Reasoning- is formally valid if it conforms to all the rules of logic, and
Example: Peter is a man becomes formally invalid if one or many of the rules are violated.. It is
materially true if there is conformity with reality.
All roses are flowers
What is good reasoning? One that is formally valid and at the same time,
All that shines is gold
materially true.
Matter – refers to the thoughts contents of the propositions. It belongs to
A proposition is a statement or assertion that can be either true or false. It's
the content of the propositions
essentially the content or idea that a sentence expresses. In logic, a
Form - is referred to the structure of argument. It is the function of formal proposition is often a declarative sentence that makes a claim about
logic to determine when the pattern or structure is correct (Pinon) something.

For example:

An argument is a statement or a series of statements that are meant to "The sky is blue" is a proposition because it can be true or false.
convince someone of something or to support a particular point of view. It
"2 + 2 = 4" is also a proposition, and it happens to be true.
typically consists of a claim (the main point) and evidence or reasons that
back up that claim. "The moon is made of cheese" is a proposition, though it’s false.
All philosophers are broad-minded people e.g

All logicians are philosophers; All film stars are celebrities

Therefore, all logicians are broad-minded people. But, Bruce Lee is a film star

This is a sound argument because both form and the material are correct Therefore, Bruce Lee is a celebrity
and true
Some film stars are men

But, Angel Locsin is a film start

3 mental acts:
Therefore, Angel Locsin is a man
1. Simple apprehension
The premise does not support or imply the conclusion.. It is not good one.
2. Judgment
• Inference- Related to the concept of arguments and statements are
3. Reasoning those of interference and propositions. It is the reasoning process
expressed by argument.

• Inference is the process of drawing conclusions or making judgments

Statement- Sentence that either true or false, typically a declarative
based on evidence, reasoning, or prior knowledge, rather than from
sentence or a component that could stand as a declarative sentence…
direct observation.
The following sentences are statements:
• In the other sense of the term, inference is used interchangeably with
Eg. No wives ever cheat on their husbands. argument. analogously, a proposition, it is the meaning or information
content of statement.
Premise- Statement made up of argument are divided into one or more
premises and one conclusions. Conclusion

The premise is the statement that set forth the reason or evidence, and the • A conclusion is the final decision or judgment you reach after
conclusion is the statement that evidence is claimed to support or imply. considering the facts, evidence, or reasoning.
 Kinds of induction Contrast with Perfect Induction:
• Perfect Induction: The reasoning is based on a comprehensive,
• Perfect
complete set of observations.
• Imperfect • Imperfect Induction: The reasoning is based on a limited set of
observations.
• Scientific Method

3. The Scientific or inductive method is a type of reasoning in

1. Perfect induction in logic refers to a method of reasoning in which general conclusions or principles are derived from
which a conclusion is drawn based on a set of observations specific observations or examples.
assuming that if a statement holds true for all individual cases • It is a key approach in logic and the scientific method, and it involves
or instances, it must be true universally.. moving from particular instances to broader generalizations or
theories
Example
• Example of the Inductive Method:
Let's consider a scenario involving birds:
“Observing Birds”
(e.g., a crow, sparrow, and eagle) and notice that each of them can fly.
Observation:
Based on these observations, you generalize that all birds can fly.
You observe several birds: a sparrow, a robin, and a crow. Each of these
2. Imperfect induction (also known as inductive generalization) is birds has feathers, beaks, and can fly.
a type of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn based on a
limited number of observations , but the observations may not Pattern Recognition:
be sufficient or fully representative of the entire set. All the birds you’ve observed share certain characteristics: feathers, beaks,
Example of Imperfect Induction: and the ability to fly.
Let’s say you observe three swans at a park.
Generalization:
Observation 1: The first swan is white.
Observation 2: The second swan is white. You conclude: "All birds must have feathers, beaks, and the ability to fly."
Observation 3: The third swan is white.
Conclusion: All swans must be white.