LECTURE-2

VECTOR SPACES

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 n
2.1 Vectors in R
 An ordered n-tuple :
a sequence of n real numbers (x1, x2, …, xn)
n
 R -space :
the set of all ordered n-tuples
n=1 R1-space = set of all real numbers
(R1-space can be represented geometrically by the x-axis)

n=2 R2-space = set of all ordered pair of real numbers ( x1 , x2 )

(R2-space can be represented geometrically by the xy-plane)
n=3 R3-space = set of all ordered triple of real numbers ( x1 , x2 , x3 )
(R3-space can be represented geometrically by the xyz-space)
n=4 R4-space = set of all ordered quadruple of real numbers ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )

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 Notes:
(1) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) can be viewed as a point in Rn
with the xi’s as its coordinates
(2) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) also can be viewed as a vector
x  ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) in Rn with the xi’s as its components
 Ex:1

x1 , x2  x1 , x2 
or

0,0
a point a vector
※ A vector on the plane is expressed geometrically by a directed line segment
whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal point is the point (x1, x2)

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 u   u1 , u2 , , un  , v   v1 , v2 , , vn  (two vectors in Rn)
 Equality:
u  v if and only if u1= v1, u2= v2,……, un= vn

 Vector addition (the sum of u and v):

u  v  u1  v1 , u2  v2 , , un  vn 

 Scalar multiplication (the scalar multiple of u by c):

cu  cu1 , cu 2 ,, cu n 

 Notes:
The sum of two vectors and the scalar multiple of a vector
in Rn are called the standard operations in Rn

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 Difference between u and v:
u  v  u  (1) v  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 , u3  v3 ,..., un  vn )

 Zero vector :
0  (0, 0, ..., 0)

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 Notes:
A vector u  (u1 , u2 ,, un ) in R n can be viewed as:
Use comma to separate components

a 1×n row matrix (row vector): u  [u1 u2 un ]

Use blank space to separate entries

or u1 
u 
a n×1 column matrix (column vector): u   
2

 
 
u n 

※ Therefore, the operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication

generate the same results as the corresponding vector operations (see the
next slide)

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 Vector addition Scalar multiplication
u  v  (u1 , u2 , , un )  (v1 , v2 , , vn ) cu  c(u1 , u2 ,, un )
 (u1  v1 , u2  v2 ,  , un  vn )  (cu1 , cu 2 , , cu n )
Regarded as 1×n row matrix

u  v  [u1 u2 un ]  [v1 v2 vn ] cu  c[u1 u2 un ]

 [u1  v1 u2  v2 un  vn ]  [cu1 cu2 cun ]
Regarded as n×1 column matrix

u1  v1  u1  v1  u1  cu1 

u  v  u  v  u  cu 
u  v   2   2   2 2 cu  c  2    2 
          
         
un  vn  un  vn  un  cu n 

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 Theorem 2.1: Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication
Let u, v, and w be vectors in Rn, and let c and d be scalars
(1) u+v is a vector in Rn (closure under vector addition)
(2) u+v = v+u (commutative property of vector addition)
(3) (u+v)+w = u+(v+w) (associative property of vector addition)
(4) u+0 = u (additive identity property)
(5) u+(–u) = 0 (additive inverse property)
(6) cu is a vector in Rn (closure under scalar multiplication)
(7) c(u+v) = cu+cv (distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector
addition)
(8) (c+d)u = cu+du (distributive property of scalar multiplication over real-
number addition)
(9) c(du) = (cd)u (associative property of multiplication)
(10) 1(u) = u (multiplicative identity property)

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 Notes:
n n
(1) The zero vector 0 in R is called the additive identity in R (see
Property 4)
(2) The vector –u is called the additive inverse of u (see
Property 5)

Theorem 2.2: (Properties of additive identity and additive inverse)

Let v be a vector in Rn and c be a scalar. Then the following
properties are true
(1) The additive identity is unique, i.e., if v+u = v, u must be 0
(2) The additive inverse of v is unique, i.e., if v+u = 0, u must be –v
(3) 0v = 0
(4) c0 = 0
(5) If cv = 0, either c = 0 or v = 0
(Since –v + v = 0, the additive inverse of –v is v, i.e., v can be expressed as –(–v).

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(6) –(–v) = v Note that v and –v are the additive inverses for each other)
2.2 Vector Spaces
 Vector spaces:
Let V be a set on which two operations (addition and scalar
multiplication) are defined. If the following ten axioms are
satisfied for every element u, v, and w in V and every scalar (real
number) c and d, then V is called a vector space, and the
elements in V are called vectors

Addition:
(1) u+v is in V
(2) u+v = v+u
(3) u+(v+w) = (u+v)+w
(4) V has a zero vector 0 such that for every u in V, u+0 = u
(5) For every u in V, there is a vector in V denoted by –u

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such that u+(–u) = 0
 Scalar multiplication:
(6) cu is in V
(7) c(u  v)  cu  cv
(8) (c  d )u  cu  du
(9) c(du)  (cd )u
(10) 1(u)  u

※ This type of definition is called an abstraction because you abstract a

collection of properties from Rn to form the axioms for defining a more
general space V
n
※ Thus, we can conclude that R is of course a vector space

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 Notes:
A vector space consists of four entities:
a set of vectors, a set of real-number scalars, and two operations

V: nonempty set
c: scalar
(u, v)  u  v : vector addition
(c, u)  cu : scalar multiplication
V , ,  is called a vector space
※ The set V together with the definitions of vector addition and scalar
multiplication satisfying the above ten axioms is called a vector space

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 Four examples of vector spaces are introduced as follows. (It is
straightforward to show that these vector spaces satisfy the above ten axioms)
(1) n-tuple space: Rn
(u1 , u2 ,un )  (v1 , v2 ,v2 )  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 ,un  vn ) (standard vector addition)
k (u1 , u2 ,un )  (ku1 , ku2 , kun ) (standard scalar multiplication for vectors)

(2) Matrix space : V  M mn

(the set of all m×n matrices with real-number entries)
Ex: (m = n = 2)
u11 u12  v11 v12   u11  v11 u12  v12 
u u   v v   u  v u  v  (standard matrix addition)
 21 22   21 22   21 21 22 22 
u11 u12   ku11 ku12 
k    (standard scalar multiplication for matrices)

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 21 22   21
u u ku ku22 
(3) n-th degree or less polynomial space : V  Pn
(the set of all real-valued polynomials of degree n or less)
p( x)  q( x)  (a0  b0 )  (a1  b1 ) x    (an  bn ) x n (standard
addition)
polynomial

kp( x)  ka0  ka1 x    kan x n (standard scalar multiplication for

polynomials)
※ By the fact that the set of real numbers is closed under addition and
multiplication, it is straightforward to show that Pn satisfies the ten
axioms and thus is a vector space
(4) Continuous function space : V  C (, )
(the set of all real-valued continuous functions defined on the
entire real line)
( f  g )( x)  f ( x)  g ( x) (standard addition for functions)
(kf )( x)  kf ( x) (standard scalar multiplication for functions)

※ By the fact that the sum of two continuous function is continuous

and the product of a scalar and a continuous function is still a

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continuous function, C (, ) is a vector space
  Summary of important vector spaces
R  set of all real numbers
R 2  set of all ordered pairs
R 3  set of all ordered triples
R n  set of all n-tuples
C (, )  set of all continuous functions defined on the real number line
C[a, b]  set of all continuous functions defined on a closed interval [a, b]
P  set of all polynomials
Pn  set of all polynomials of degree  n
M m ,n  set of m  n matrices
M n ,n  set of n  n square matrices
※ The standard addition and scalar multiplication operations are considered if there is
no other specifications

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※ Each element in a vector space is called a vector, so a vector can be a real number,
an n-tuple, a matrix, a polynomial, a continuous function, etc.
 Notes: To show that a set is not a vector space, you need
only find one axiom that is not satisfied
 Ex 2: The set of all integers is not a vector space
Pf: 1V , and 12 is a real-number scalar
( 12 )(1)  12 V (it is not closed under scalar multiplication)
  noninteger
scalar

integer

 Ex 3: The set of all (exact) second-degree polynomial functions is

not a vector space
Pf: Let p( x)  x 2 and q( x)   x 2  x  1
 p( x)  q( x)  x  1V
(it is not closed under vector addition)

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 Ex 4:
V=R2=the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers
vector addition: (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 )  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
scalar multiplication: c(u1 , u2 )  (cu1 ,0) (nonstandard definition)
Verify V is not a vector space
Sol:
This kind of setting can satisfy the first nine axioms of the
definition of a vector space (you can try to show that), but it
violates the tenth axiom
1(1, 1)  (1, 0)  (1, 1)
 the set (together with the two given operations) is
not a vector space

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 Theorem 2.3: Properties of scalar multiplication
Let v be any element of a vector space V, and let c be any
scalar. Then the following properties are true
(1) 0v  0
(2) c0  0
(3) If cv  0, either c  0 or v  0
(4) (1) v   v (the additive inverse of v equals ((–1)v)
※ The first three properties are extension of Theorem 2.2, which simply
considers the space of Rn. In fact, these four properties are not only
valid for Rn but also for any vector space, e.g.., for all vector spaces
mentioned on the previous slide.
Pf:
(8) (9) (5)
(1) 0v  (c  (c)) v  cv  (c) v  cv  ((cv))  0

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 (4) (7)
(2) c 0  c ( 0  0)  c 0  c 0
 c0  (c0)  (c0  c0) + (c0) (add (–c0) to both sides)
(3)
 c0  (c0)  c0  [c0 + (c0)]
(5) (4)
 0 = c 0  0  0 = c0
(3) prove by contradiction: suppose that cv  0, but c  0 and v  0
(10)
 1  (9) 1 1
v  1v   c  v   cv    0   0 (By the second property, c0 = 0)
c  c c
   if cv =0, either c  0 or v  0
(8)
(4) 0 v  (1  (1)) v  1v  (1) v
 0  v  (1) v (By the first property, 0v = 0)
(5)
 (1) v   v (By comparing with Axiom (5), (–1)v is the additive inverse of v)
※ The proofs are valid as long as they are logical. It is not necessary to follow

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the same proofs in the text book.
 2.3 Subspaces of Vector Spaces
 Subspace:
(V , , ) : a vector space
W  
 : a nonempty subset of V
W V
(W , , ) : The nonempty subset W is called a subspace if W is
a vector space under the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication defined on V
 Trivial subspace:
Every vector space V has at least two subspaces
(1) Zero vector space {0} is a subspace of V (It satisfies the ten axioms)
(2) V is a subspace of V

※ Any subspaces other than these two are called proper (or nontrivial) subspaces

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 Examination of whether W being a subspace
– Since the operations defined on W are the same as those

defined on V, and most of the ten axioms are inherited

from the properties for operations, it is not needed to
verify these axioms
– Therefore, the following theorem tells us it is sufficient to

test for the closure conditions under vector addition and

scalar multiplication to identify that a nonempty subset of
a vector space is a subspace
 Theorem 2.4: Test whether a nonempty subset being a subspace
If W is a nonempty subset of a vector space V, then W is
a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold
(1) If u and v are in W, then u+v is in W

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(2) If u is in W and c is any scalar, then cu is in W
Pf:
1. Note that if u, v, and w are in W, then they are also in V.
Furthermore, W and V share the same operations.
Consequently, vector space axioms 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are
satisfied automatically
2. Suppose that the closure conditions hold in Theorem 2.2, i.e.,
the axioms 1 and 6 for vector spaces are satisfied
3. Since the axiom 6 is satisfied (i.e., cu is in W if u is in W), we
can obtain
3.1. for scalar c  0, cu  0 W   zero vector in W
 axiom 4 is satisfied
3.2. for scalar c  1, (  1)u W    u  (  1)u
st. u +(  u )  u +(  1)u  0
 axiom 5 is satisfied

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 Ex 5: A subspace of M2×2
Let W be the set of all 2×2 symmetric matrices. Show that
W is a subspace of the vector space M2×2, with the standard
operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication
Sol:
First, we knon that W , the set of all 2  2 symmetric matrices,
is an nonempty subset of the vector space M 22
Second,
A1 W, A2 W  ( A1  A2 )T  A1T  A2T  A1  A2 (A1  A2 W )
c  R, A W  (cA)T  cAT  cA (cA W )
The definition of a symmetric matrix A is that AT = A

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Thus, Th. 2.4 is applied to obtain that W is a subspace of M 2x2
 Ex 6: The set of singular matrices is not a subspace of M2×2
Let W be the set of singular (noninvertible) matrices of
order 2. Show that W is not a subspace of M2×2 with the
standard matrix operations

Sol:
1 0  0 0
A  W , B    W
0 0 0 1 

1 0 
A B     I W (W is not closed under vector addition)
0 1 
W is not a subspace of M 22

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 2
 Ex 7: The set of first-quadrant vectors is not a subspace of R
Show that W  {( x1 , x2 ) : x1  0 and x2  0} , with the standard
operations, is not a subspace of R2

Sol:
Let u  (1, 1) W
  1u   11, 1   1,  1W
(W is not closed under scalar multiplication)

W is not a subspace of R2

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 Ex 8: Identify subspaces of R2
Which of the following two subsets is a subspace of R2?
(a) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=0
(b) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=1
Sol:
(a) W  ( x, y) x  2 y  0  (2t , t ) t  R
(Note: the zero vector
(0,0) is on this line)

Let v1   2t1 , t1  W and v 2   2t2 , t2  W

v1  v 2   2  t1  t2  , t1  t2  W (closed under vector addition)

cv1   2  ct1  , ct1  W (closed under scalar multiplication)

W is a subspace of R2

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 (b) W   x, y  x  2 y  1 (Note: the zero vector (0, 0) is not on this line)

Consider v  (1,0) W
 1 v   1,0 W W is not a subspace of R2

 Note: Subspaces of R2
(1) W consists of the single point 0   0, 0 
(2) W consists of all points on a line passing through the origin
(3) R 2

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 Ex 9: Identify subspaces of R3
Which of the following subsets is a subspace of R 3?
(a) W  ( x1 , x2 ,1) x1 , x2  R (Note: the zero vector is not in W)
(b) W  ( x1 , x1  x3 , x3 ) x1 , x3  R (Note: the zero vector is in W)
Sol:
(a)

Consider v  (0,0,1) W
(1) v  (0,0, 1) W
W is not a subspace of R3

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(b)

Consider v  (v1 , v1  v3 , v3 ) W and u  (u1 , u1  u3 , u3 ) W

v  u   v1  u1 ,  v1  u1    v3  u 3  , v3  u3  W
cv   cv1 ,  cv1    cv3  , cv3  W
W is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication,
so W is a subspace of R3

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 Note: Subspaces of R3
(1) W consists of the single point 0   0,0,0 
(2) W consists of all points on a line passing through the origin
(3) W consists of all points on a plane passing through the origin
(The W in problem (b) is a plane passing through the origin)
(4) R3

※ According to Ex. 8 and Ex. 9, we can infer that if W is a subspace of a

vector space V, then both W and V must contain the same zero vector 0

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 Linear Combination in a Vector Space
 Linear combination:
A vector u in a vector space V is called a linear combination of
the vectors v1 , v 2 , , v k in V if u can be written in the form

u  c1v1  c2 v 2   ck v k ,

where c1 , c2 , , ck are real-number scalars

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 Ex 10: Finding a linear combination
v1  (1,2,3) v 2  (0,1,2) v 3  (  1,0,1)
Prove (a) w  (1,1,1) is a linear combination of v1 , v 2 , v 3
(b) w  (1,  2,2) is not a linear combination of v1 , v 2 , v 3
Sol:
(a) w  c1v1  c2 v2  c3 v3
1,1,1  c1 1,2,3  c2 0,1,2  c3 1,0,1
 (c1  c3 , 2c1  c2 , 3c1  2c2  c3 )

c1  c3 1
 2c1  c2 1
3c1  2c2  c3 1

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 1 0  1 1 1 0  1 1 
 2 1 0 1  0 1 2  1
G.-J. E.
 
3 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 

 c1  1  t , c2  1  2t , c3  t

(this system has infinitely many solutions)

t 1
 w  2 v1  3v 2  v 3
t 2
 w  3v1  5v 2  2 v 3

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