Experiment 1

Errors and Uncertainties

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are:
• to explore the concepts of random and systematic errors.
• to learn how to estimate and express uncertainties in measurements.
• to learn how to plot data points on a graph
• to draw a best-fit line.
• to understand the significance of error bars in interpreting data.

Laboratory Notes
We often compare our measurements to a standard or accepted value in our experiments.
A useful metric in this regard is the percent error, defined as:
|measured value − accepted value|
%Error = × 100 (1.1)
accepted value
Eq. 1.1 provides insight into how close our measurement is to the accepted value, allowing
us the accuracy of our experimental results.
Understanding the role of error and uncertainty in scientific experiments is critical.
Every measurement includes both random and systematic uncertainties. Although we often
refer to this uncertainty as ”error,” it is essential to clarify that a true error denotes the
difference between our measured results and the actual value we aim to ascertain. This
distinction is vital for effectively managing and interpreting measurement uncertainties.
Experimental data comprises three fundamental elements: the measured value, the as-
sociated uncertainty, and the units of measurement. For instance, if a length is recorded
as 2.6 ± 0.2 m, the actual value is expected to reside within the range of 2.4 to 2.8 m.

1
Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 2

Here 2.6 is the measured value, ± 0.2 tells the uncertainty, and m is the units (meters). By
acknowledging and addressing errors and uncertainties, scientists can draw more reliable
conclusions about the phenomena they investigate.
This inherent uncertainty must be carefully considered during the analysis of experi-
mental data, as it significantly influences the reliability of the results. Measurement errors
can arise from a variety of sources, including:

• Human error: Mistakes made when taking measurements, such as reading a scale
incorrectly. For example, misreading the liquid level in a graduated cylinder can lead
to inaccurate measurements.

• Random variations: Unpredictable changes in the experiment setup or measuring

tools that limit accuracy. For instance, small changes in room temperature can affect
the readings in a sensitive electronic experiment.

• Faulty equipment: Errors caused by defective or uncalibrated instruments, like a

thermometer that hasn’t been calibrated properly and gives slightly incorrect temper-
ature readings.

• Instrument limitations: Errors caused by limits in measuring tools’ precision. For

example, a ruler can only measure to the nearest millimeter, so measurements are not
more precise than that limit.

Several steps can be taken to quantify and control errors and uncertainties in laboratory
measurements. One important approach is to repeat the experiment multiple times and
calculate the average of all measurements. When we have a set of n measurements, denoted
x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , for a quantity x, the average value, x̄, is defined by:
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn
x̄ = (1.2)
n
The process of averaging plays a vital role in reducing random errors, as repeated measure-
ments balance out unpredictable variations. In general, the more measurements taken, the
smaller the impact of random error on the final result.
To estimate the uncertainty associated with our best estimate of x, we first examine
how the measurements scatter around the mean x̄. Specifically, we focus on the absolute
deviation of each measurement from the mean:

∆xi = |xi − x̄| (1.3)

Next, we need to quantify the extent of the random uncertainty in our measurements,
which is expressed through the standard deviation:
s
(∆x1 )2 + (∆x2 )2 + · · · + (∆xn )2
σ= (1.4)
n−1
Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 3

Eq. 1.4 informs us how far our measurements are from x̄. The uncertainty in x̄ can be
calculated as follows:
σ
U=√ (1.5)
n
With this, we can write our measurement as:

x̄ ±U(unit of measurement) (1.6)

By following these considerations, scientists can manage measurement errors effectively,

leading to more reliable experimental outcomes.
The most effective way to present and analyze experimental data is through graphs,
which depict the relationships among various variables. These graphs offer a visual sum-
mary of the data and incorporate error bars around each data point in both the x and y
directions, indicating the degree of uncertainty associated with those values.
Employing a best-fit line is essential to convey trends within the data accurately. This
line minimizes the deviations between the measured data points and the theoretical line,
briefly capturing the underlying relationship. Excel’s built-in fitting functions simplify
this process, allowing students and researchers to quickly identify the best-fit line for their
data and apply error bars that reflect measurement uncertainties. This graphical method
enhances the accuracy of data analysis and facilitates a more precise understanding by
visually representing uncertainties, ultimately leading to a more accurate interpretation of
experimental results.
Two figures below illustrate this technique: Fig. 1.1a presents a linear best-fit line, while
Fig. 1.1b displays a nonlinear best-fit curve. These examples highlight how the specific
characteristics of the analyzed data can employ different types of fittings and the respective
errors of the measurements.

Fig. 1.1. Graphs with best-fit lines and error bars. (a) Linear best-fit line for data with a linear
trend, and (b) nonlinear best-fit curve for data with a non-linear trend, showing the use of different
fitting methods based on data patterns.
Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 4

Pre-Laboratory Questions
1. Why is it important to record the units of each measurement, and how can inconsis-
tent units affect your results?

2. Provide examples of both random and systematic errors in an experiment. How does
each type of error impact the reliability and uncertainty of the results?

3. What is the significance of including error bars in the analysis of your measurements?

Materials
• Analog Thermometer • Weighing Scale • Excel/Google Sheet
• Digital Thermometer • Marble
• Stopwatch • Hot Water

Activity 1: Temperature Reading

1. Pour hot water into a cup and place it on a stable surface.

2. Place the analog thermometer in the hot water.

3. Ensure the bulb is fully submerged but does not touch the sides or bottom of the cup.

4. Wait until the thermometer needle stabilizes, then record the temperature reading as
the measured value.

5. Remove the analog thermometer and place the digital thermometer. Ensure it is fully
submerged but does not touch the sides or bottom of the cup.

6. Wait for the digital thermometer to display a stable reading, then record this temper-
ature as the accepted value.

7. Calculate the percent error between the two measurements using Eq. 1.1.

8. Identify the sources of errors.

Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 5

Activity 2: Event Timing

1. Set up a 1-meter height from which to drop the marble. Use a measuring tape or ruler
to ensure the height is precisely 1 m.

2. Hold the marble at the set height and prepare to start the stopwatch as you release it.

3. Drop the marble and start the stopwatch simultaneously. Stop the stopwatch as soon
as the marble reaches the ground.

4. Record the time for this trial. Repeat the timing procedure for five trials, recording
each time.

5. Calculate the average using Eq. 1.2.

6. Compute the deviation of each reading using Eq. 1.3 and the standard deviation with
Eq. 1.4.

7. Using Eq. 1.5, compute the uncertainty.

8. Write down your final time measurement following the format of Eq. 1.6.

9. Identify the sources of errors.

Activity 3: Mass Measurement

1. Gently place the marble on the weighing scale. Record the mass displayed for Trial
1.

2. Continue this process until you have recorded the mass of the marble for a total of 5
trials. Make sure to let the scale reset to zero each time before taking the subsequent
measurement.

3. Calculate the average mass using Eq. 1.2.

4. For each measurement, calculate the deviation by Eq. 1.3 and compute the standard
deviation using Eq. 1.4.

5. Write down your final time measurement following the format of Eq. 1.6.

6. Identify the sources of errors.

Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 6

Time Distance Uncertainty in Uncertainty in

Trial (s) (m) Time (±s) Distance (±m)
1 1.0 0.52 0.5 0.3
2 2.1 1.08 0.7 0.4
3 2.9 1.63 0.4 0.5
4 4.0 2.07 0.6 0.2
5 5.1 2.51 0.8 0.4
6 6.0 3.03 0.5 0.3
7 6.9 3.60 0.6 0.6
8 8.1 4.12 0.7 0.5
9 9.0 4.71 0.5 0.3
10 9.8 5.28 0.6 0.4

Table 1.1. Measurements of Time and Distance with corresponding uncertainties.

Activity 4: Best-Fit Line Analysis

1. Open Excel and enter data from Table 1.1 in two columns: ”Time (s)” in one column
and ”Distance (m)” in the adjacent column.

2. In the next columns, enter the corresponding uncertainties: ”Uncertainty in Time

(±s)” and ”Uncertainty in Distance (±m)”.

3. Highlight the columns with your ”Time (s)” and ”Distance (m)” data.

4. Go to the ”Insert” tab on the Excel ribbon.

5. Select ”Scatter” and choose the ”Scatter with only Markers” option. This will create
a scatter plot of your data points.

6. Click on any data point on the scatter plot to highlight them.

7. Right-click on one of the highlighted data points and select ”Add Trendline.”

8. In the Trendline options, choose ”Linear.”

9. Check the box for ”Display Equation on chart” to show the equation of the best-fit
line.

10. Click on any data point on your scatter plot to highlight them again.

11. Go to the ”Chart Tools” tab on the ribbon.

12. Select ”Add Chart Element,” then ”Error Bars,” and choose ”More Error Bars Op-
tions.”
Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 7

13. For the vertical error bars (Distance), select ”both” for the Direction and ”cap” for
End style. Under the Error Amount, select ”Custom,” then click ”Specify Value.” In
the ”Positive Error Value” and ”Negative Error Value” fields, select the range of cells
that contain the uncertainties in distance.

14. For the horizontal error bars (Distance), click on the ”Error Bar Options” and choose
”Series 1 X Error Bars”. Repeat the process for the horizontal error bars, selecting
the corresponding range for distance uncertainties.

Post-Laboratory Questions
1. How did the variations in your timing measurements affect the calculated average
time and the estimated uncertainty? Discuss any sources of random error that may
have contributed to these variations.

2. How consistent were your mass measurements, and what do the variations in your
data suggest about the precision of your balance? How would you differentiate be-
tween random and systematic errors in this context?

3. After analyzing the best-fit line and error bars, how confident are you in the accuracy
of the relationship between time and distance? Were any data points significantly
deviating from the best-fit line, and how did these deviations influence your final
analysis?
Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 8

Name: Date Performed:

Section: Date Submitted:
Group Number: Score:

Activity 1: Temperature Reading

Measured Accepted
% Error
Value Value

Causes of
Errors

Activity 2: Event Timing

Trial Measurement Deviation

1
2
3
4
5
Average
Measurement
Standard
Deviation
Final
Measurement
Causes of
Errors
Experiment 1: Errors and Uncertainties 9

Activity 3: Mass Measurement

Trial Measurement Deviation

1
2
3
4
5
Average
Measurement
Standard
Deviation
Final
Measurement
Causes of
Errors

Activity 4: Best-Fit Line Analysis

(Place your graph here)