2025

Pe : Jan 03
, Lec-02

amical metric
· System :
(X d) ,
be a space.

f : X >
-
X continuous

Then the pair (X f) ,

is called Dynamical system

bit
& : Orbit of
EX ,
denoted by O
O (1 =

Gx , f(x) ,
f
+

(, ...
]
-

is finite
Case 1 : Of()
then is fixed point.
& f(x) = x a) a

③ f"() = x
,
n >

=> f
**
↓ MEN
() = x

for which
the
least
Let HE IN be

this holds .

f (2)]
Of(x) =
Gx , f(x), ,
.
.
.,

We that is periodic
with period In
say x

f "(x)
***
① f () =

***

..., a (4}
"

0() =

Gx , f(, ,
. .

.,
- (x)
,

Here f(x) is periodic

We Periodic
say
is Eventually

Eg : (R f), where fat = 2x

& ( =
21 ,
2
,
4
,
8
, ...
3 =
G2" :
neNol
2 +

O(0) =
G0}

-
Eg :
(i ,
f(x) =
xt)
O(0) = 503
-
-
-
= I

0( =
Gi} -
1 O I

0 (1) =
G1 ,
-

ig

2 0xx 1

E
Eg :
([0 , 13 ,
f) f(x) =

2( -
x)
[(x 11

F
clearly
- is continuous .

0(0) =
203

0( =
31 03 ,

Note : · (i) =

E()" (e) ,..., " 03

2 2x x

3
- =

Fixed point ,

x =

7
=> O
(2) also has finite orbit .

Graph of fu F
4-fixed point of
-

1-
But note

-
O O is a

O f.
fixed point of
-
O So that can not have

period
-

2
.
be
of
O I & I I I & I

I
I
2
 Graph of 53

2poina
t

W
-
1- :
Note
-

-
-

i
- "I
I

rational no is eventually periodic .

In this case
any
infinite .
Q of
order
has orbit
And
any
-

cardinality
.

fraction
Eg :
(50 . 1) . 9) :
g(--
>=
Saxy -

of
part
2x .

1
f(0) 0
~
-
= .

"
Lec-02

Jan OT
&space, aly-with discrete topology

xEA
x x
-z x x xz -- -

=>
= -..
- .
, ,

A
where je

with product
topology.
metalce a
countable product is
of
space
For , y = A
nic
& ( 3) ,

:= Is it a
metric ?

>
-

O 201
-
) x y
:
( =

=
= o

⑧ d , p, 2)
③ d(x , y) = d(y ,
x)

C
?
-
d ,(x z),
+
d, (z b)
,
.

In
What are the
open
sets ?
likny
B ()
,
=

Sye: =
gi ,
·

where n
(2).
 where n is the least Hus
ForwhicS
dc(x y)
.

=
n ,
+
(2) :
for which
xi =
y : lin (il < n)

ex xo x
i =
xz
x
2x
- -
... -
.
,
.
..

y = . . .

J-z3 .. %o Y , Y2 ...

the
sets in ATT
Ques !
what are open

Basic set A
of
are
the
cylinders
)
=
open

Set [x -nx =

n -,
. . . x x .
x
,.
- -
x]
,

Eye /g ::;: liking

=
Ev n],

x
. . . .

x ,

2xxx
. .
.

, . . .
x =
. .
-
x
. zx -

Block
[ , j]
*

the shift operator . - : A >

-

A
Define

-(x) = =
i+ 1

xo(x )
( , x0x, ) ( --x xz ...

i C
. - -.. x
. 2
x ... = -

, ,

Ques ·
Is to continuous ?

Yes !
...
(En ns) =W (
"

-
,

- is bijective .

Hence-
is homomorphism .

-
"
is continuous also !!
 (A , ) -

dynamical system .

To SpaceA

Block here
j]
* x = A
,
ijtz

length of ( jj) ,
=
j -
2+

3
&
A
&
in
B =
Blocks of length I

(B 1 ,
=
1A)

3
* -E X

&blocks
+
: in
Bi =
of length II

IN uS03
Y

IIN o

1B2) : 1A1 . . .

/Bil :
1A1

#
Language of a shift space. 2(a)

2(a) =

%Br Union of the blocks

of any length.

(2(a3)) =
1 +
11) + 1AP + . . .

-i
>
-
countable as each B ; is countable

i . 2
Language of full shift is always countable
 (closed)
Ref Given an
alphabet A we consider a

2 Finite Bet .

subset X
of A

We
say X is a subshift of A if
-(x)cX .

v:a - A
2

x - (x)
Where (2) =

xit

i 2
.

x =
...
32
0

, %x ,
xzxy0 .

- (x) = - -
-2xdox ,zxy00 .

30 =
(2) = A

Since A is finite => A is compact .

=> A is compact with

product topology.

This subshift is the dynamical system )

(X ,*.
-
>
-

Ix is one-one .
-

> X v
Ix cont
-

on
-
is .
.

>
? (X) X
Ix is onto Then
- :
- .

&

J xe A /X
Suppose

xox xzxz
xyx 2x
. . .

x = ... - ,

that its intersection

such
=> some ubd of
with X is empty .

=>
F a
block/word in L(A) st it does not

blong to 2(X).
↑ :
E forbidden words in L(X)l

X
= dist = k2(X)

2(Xf) =
2(a)) =

closed
=>
Xf is .

-
(XI) :
XI
=
XI = X .
 Recall XA is a
subshift

o 2(X) = B(x) :
Language a
y

F in X
.
: Forbidden blocks

* shift whose
- space Language
is
2(n)\F

Claim : X =

XI
Let
-X - no block in x is in F
*

-xEX .

Let seX = No block in x in F

*
=> block in L(A )/E
every
=> X =

Hence X =
NE

Also 2(x) =
2(a))7

=> F =
2(x)" =
2(x])
: X X X
=

= =
2(X )
+

#guage A
Language L(X) of a subset X
of
A
is
defined as

(1) * EX and
every blockw in s
,
have
we we h(x)

(2) * w = h(x)7v ,
0 = 2(x) St .

Uwve2(x)
 shift
Remark
-
: We observe that we can define a space

by its
language.

# Let X be shift
a
space.
Let We E

=> veh(AP) -F
,

# weh(x) and w =
ve Then v
, we h(x)
,

Eg : A =
50 13 ,

,
F =

&113 Golden Mean Shift

Then
XI =

&xeA :
Ring #11 for
any
it
z]
The forbidden blocks
of XI
=

&I ,
04 ,
11 , 10 , ... 3

1(X) =

20 ,
1
,
00
,
01
,
10
,
000
,
001
,
90
,
100
,

101
,
...
3

# subshift of finite
Type
:
(SFT)
it subshift of finite
type (X ) ,
is such that

the forbidden words can be expressed with

& finite Set E .

above example
(Graph)
>
-
In the
Conside
↓
- I the walks .

G O

1
.

C- A
-

]
Eg : Let A =
50 is,

Even Shift

2102n Meio
+

F = 1 :

2) ) =
50 ,
1
,
00
,
01
,
10
,
00
,
000
,
001
,
010
,
100

is type of subshift are of infinite type .

&
I
What are all the periodic points of above two

examples ?
 *

# Let XA is a shift space.

ou

Bw(X) -

set of all N Blocks in .

X

7
Define another
space
as

X[n] E(Bw(x)]
with a Mule :
For xeX
ib
(overlap rule)
x =.

CNC -N
- -

x 2x, . x xn-- -
- -
- . . .

-Xin] if

---j) ...
* Then X
X =

[N] (Identification]

7 ↑ Th(x) stX =

XF

Gue2(X)
F
F]
Let = : a subword in
of w is

and 1w1]N

ien
Xp =

Xi
Leam XN]
>
-
: X =

co

Let
X[n]
= Bw(X)

F :=
queBp(X) : v is a
subword
of words in Y
en
Xin] X
F

Fz :
Gov : u does not
have the required overlaps
Hen
Xin] EX
Fr
 *
Exercise :
Xf , X FUE

EX
Mus
Xiu] F ,
U Ez

it is clear that X
conversely F , UEzEX[N]
This
Xin] is called HIGHER BLOCK REPRESENTATION

of X
.

# Sub-shift
of
Finite Type .

X = X with 1F1 <

F

>
-

A Shift X Wherever
is
M-step if ux
,
xwL(x)

and (v1 = M + #en vvweh(X)

&
position :
Every subshift
of finite is
type M-Step shift .

Hint : X
-
where IF10

Consider M = Max Iw)

WE F
 # Let (X f) ,
and (Y g) ,
are two dynamical system
↓
e 05
Y
f - X g: >
-
: X

Tan
21
We say (X. f) & (Y g) ,
are
topologically conjugate

if 7 a
homeomorphism X + Y st
p :

f
X > -
X

↓ ↓, I
& commutes

> Y
gob P
-

i e = of
g .

Note
:

0 If x is fixed f
point of
Then PC is fixed
point of g

② Pof" =
Pof (f)
P(f" -1)
=

g .

i
* n IN
=
g
:
If is a
periodic point of f

Then $(x) is a periodic point of .

g

③ O( :
Ex ,
fab .
. . .
3
-

3
↑ (0() =

506 ,
Pof() ,
Pof() ,
--
.

&P( , 9006 ,
gop() ,
---
3
=
O(P()

& suppose Lim f"() = Do

co
n-

SinceI is homomorphism

Lim P(f(x) =Ling(p) P

=> =
>
homomorphism if P : X-Y is continuous onto
Instead of
-
,
,

commutes
(And that diagram
is factor and that
In that case o a
hap we
say

(X f)
(g) is a factor of ,

&
# consider two full Shift At I

Let m a 10 the and

,
, where m is
memory

a is the articipation .

: Bran (d)
>
-

21 we have this
map]
↓

(Block nati) o

x =
-
000x
, m . . . . .. a
-
m -
-
m + 1
.

-- -

+ 1
-
↓ Eg =
P -

~ =
...
it
so
((). =

E(x-m ,
i+ ab)
*

PE)
*
Hence we
get a
map :
A >
-

&

Example Let m = a = 1
,
A =
2 =

20 i ,

# (x xox,) -,
= x -

,
+ x
, (nodz)

00 D O
So --- 010101-01010101-- .

00 1 I

010 O
↓ P =
To
10 0 I

110 I

10
-- -

000 . 0000 - - -

Q I I I

11 O
Remark
-
: In the above
we need to have
of map

with the help of which we can define I

+

- : Ba +,
(13 ) >
-
Aa as

& ( ---
+a) =
(p ...
i + a

-
x
-, o
= .
..
(a- , Pa +
---
, ---

1
-
-
Note This I
↓
: is
Es =
P
invertible

[
But it is not

that
necessary
.

↑ is invertible

(Previous Eg)

X-Golden
# Shift

X -
even shift

# :
B
,
(XF) >
-
X

E (00) = 1

↑ (10) =
0

↑ (01) = 0

p =
En :
X
+
>
- X
not invertible .
 # code map p :

o Lemma
where
E

is
:
Baran (x) + U

If X a shift space

Ten PX) is also a shift space.

Let <EX
, we see that ↑ (x) e4(X) is a

&

biinfinite sea in Wh

(X +),
is a subshift
,
XCA is closed

Also that we need to

see iS that P(X)CIL is

closed .

If P(x) =
2 then we done .
are

*
Let
y = ( \P(x) Since y P(X)
i .
e
y
=
0 00 y-my -m + 0008,60 Y ,
. . .

Ya-1 You

↑ P(x)
Ter either
30 (Bm + a + ,
(x))
=> we
can take the
open set
[Yo]
3+
[60] nb(x) =
23

Since For N> o

E =
En-v ,
a + N] Em -N
,
-
N + a) En -Nu , N + a -

i)

... m + N
,
a + N)

Y NY
=

-
-
N + 1000 Yw
 As ye D(x)
=> JN > 0 st
YEv , NJ
&2(P())
2

Every ZERL S If ZEN N YEN

=> =

, NJ

then zf(x)

=>
[E-n---Ym] is the required open .
set

# Curtis Hedlund Theorem

Lyndon
-

Let
( ,x) & (Y ,
Fy) be shift spaces

factor
Then P : X-Y is a map

=)

↑ =
To for some :
Br(x) >
-

I
9) x
= -P

where It is the alphabet set for Y and some No

X-Y is factor map

oof
& If p
:
a
Let :

Yaha Sa
al P(x)
Poours
Let
.

y
=

<

7
T

Dyine : Br(x) -+ 2

Ten
EPENN] =

%0 E TL

I
EPENT All me
My N+ M]
:Am -

We see that $() =

y

Let
N : Bw[x) +
21 b e noted code

↑
EN EEN N] ,

then
Na whi Mujhe .
Hage Singh aga
 Recall A subshift of
finite
type (SFT) X
+
is
>

wet have 1) M + 5
↑- step if
=
we

factor
&i X-X is a

Ten P =
Go for some T : Ban (x) +
>
-
B (x)
,

and some n> o

2
X **, y82h
,
Id/so ,
18120

↑: B
(x(2n + ) B ()
X
. >
-

P:
↑: c
.
(1) >
- B
.
(Eneis)
↑ =
Io Do =
90 .

code
and
p =
p I dyines the map.

I
#
oren :
Let Y be SFT and X be a shift

with p
space : X-Y is a
conjugacy
#a Y are
conjugate] Then X is also SFT.

Remark :
(Already Done) X is SFT iff 7 M30 St

unwe2(X)
vo ,
vwe2(x) with lok then

Proof :
0 : X - Y is Conjugacy

E = :
Ban (*) >
-
Y + p =
Go

SFT
Let Y be a N-Step

Let ↑ = N + 4n

is M-Step SFT
claim : X

i
Let vo
, vwh(X) s t
.
101 >

Consider (0)
,
then 186)/ > N
 Since ve ,
ow2(x)

=> It st un is a block in it'

sequence
2
-

is block in x
and ru a

s +
with 101 It = 2n .

tL(x)
=

Hence 7 S
,

sur th(X)
,we

The
proof is complete if we show that SuwtL()

Take (sun) and (w +)

& (v) =
v'e() -2() o E(owt) =
E(u) w'E2E)

where we know
IE)1 > N

subshift of
=> ~ E()w'el() as Y is a

finite
type .

But
v'E()w =
E (srowt)
=> Browt -2(x) as p is conjugacy
--
we took I =
P

· We X is SFT
get of

Graph :
A
graph G =
(V E),
where X-set of
vertices

and E is set of edges St

* eEE S
~ (e)
,
+(e) EV
↓
initial Terminal
Part
part
-2

Eg :
+
Gm
fz

Path : in world
A path a
Graph G is a finite

with letters in St
Ee , e2 , ---,
in .

- (e 1) =
=
[(ei) i = 2 .. -
-,
 G is
Random Walk : A random Walk on a graph

in G & is a subset
a
binfinite path

of E S

XaCE2 be a set of random walk on G

The Forbidden block in XG

↑ =
Get : t(e) + i(f)}
Then Xa is one Step SFT
.
 Recall
-
G =
(v E) ,
-

graph

- exE
, i() ,
thej E X .

Bi-infinite Walk
XGEE
Consider VEV and E'CE
Let G (v
=

, E') .
Suppose XG :

Xa
In that case we call s to be essential graph.

# Let G =
X E),
and G' =
(v" E') ,
be two
graph

Suppose E' V-V' At

7
maps : E to and Gp :

2b(i(e)) =

i(((e) a 2P(t(e)) = +
(())
* eEE

This
pair of
Maps P 20 ,
is called a
Graph Homomorphism

Exercise : If G EG
'

,
then
XaEXa'

We know Xa is a 1-step SFT

F =

Gef :
t() + it)}

Xa =

[ (i)iez : xrtE st +
(xy) =

i(xi + )]

CeXq then x
(ibite
=

v-shift operator,
,

- (x) =
(xi Dizz Ev(x) EXG
+

(XG v) ,
-

Edge shift .
 Ventex-Shift X yz

E 5 anedge eE (e)3
X
(iLize :EX
=

Matrix
>
Adjacency associated with a
graph.
-

22 1 fz

-
o
fi
Golden

~
↓

In
·
Shift .

0 fz
ey

iii
[ [i0]

-
I
2

iT
I

& -
-
- - .
3

2
M
O
O

Note ? I we
change the name vertices then
-
of
the matrix it'
change from A to so

)
= P-invertible A = p"E'p

Illy we can
get a
graph Go with the
help of given
matrix # : e M ->
GA
.

Also
Xa XGm
=

Till Now we know from a

graph G we can get
* SFT
G of 1-step . What about converse ?
 for some.

Suppose
SFT (X %) , of M-Step

Consider *
[m] =(B ,x
= Gs+ Xa
X(
=
 *
A subshift XA is called irreducible
if

to * word r
,
we2(X) ,
7 ve2(x) + vower()

called irreducible if I
A graph G is ,
JEY

I T from I to J
a path in G

A path IT = e, e ... en where it E

essential graph .

Theorem : irreducible irreducible .

-
A SFT X
G
is iff G is

iff the adjacency

Proof : irreducible . matrix is irreducible
Let Xo be it

Let F J EX ,
7 x
,
yEXG St
,

t
Pis) =
1 and i
(Y(is) =
J f Si.
, jez

But
[i] &(a) and
YTim] < <(a) and

Since Xa is irreducible
7 v =
2(Xa) s .
+

in ,
i) U Yiim] &(a)

have
For a we
i() =
1 & +(u) =
J

Let it be the
path on G BU is a walk

T
on path .

and t(x) =
1 which prove the
So i() = 1

assertion .

conversly ,
Let v
,
wh(XG) S+
t(r) =
1 and

i () =
J . Since G is
irreducible we have a

patt it But
i(x) = I & t(i) :
.
5 This i

gives a word v = L(a)

 and irreducible .
Thus voweh(a) so
X2 is

in G
Let it be a
path . T = e
, ...

en where citE

and iC =
& + (x) =
J

=>
A + 0

Suppose G :
Go
I an
edge from I to J
iff

AID O

SFT
=
Topological Markov Chair
 a
D

e X =
X
[m +
=
XG
graph G s+ X =
x

# belled Graph : it labeled Graph l =

(G ,
4)

where G =
(X E) ,
is a
graph and L : E-A is a

Label function for some alphabet set A

.

Di
Eg
:

e-

E =
Ge ,
22 , - .., 23
Let A =
50 13, a define L : E >
-
A as

Go
Lei) = if i-odd

1
if i -

even

So this gives a labelled graph G :

(G 2)
,

Da
-
T

>
-
If -e
, ... In is a path in G then the labelled
,

path L (i) ((,) (e2)

=
...
((en)
&

T
Let = 0 0
. 2, Po , 2000 EXGE
&
Lo() =. . .

L(x 2)(()((0) ((x) (4000 EA

Let
Xy =
[Lo) : eXaY **
#
Sofic Shift: I subshift XAt is called

sofic if I a labelled graph by stX =

Xy
shift space
Sofic

SFT

Sofic Shift
Eg :
D

-
2 O

T
2
-l then
Xy- Even Shift .

-
O

We know EvenShift is not subshift Finite

of Type
(SFT) but it is a sofic shift
.

=
f we consider E =
Goo ,
10
,
017 be the
edge
mean shift
.
set in above
graph we
get golden

SFT is Sofic
*
Every
.

XG -

SFT for G : (V E) ,

Define l :=
(G L) ,
as L : E- E be identity map

Then
Xy =
Xa

# Theorems It Sofic Shift is a subshift

.
-

Prof : Let
Xy be sofic . Then 7 graph G :
(V E),

+Y =
(G 2) ,
with a function L : E- A .
 Xe Ps factor
+
Then Loo : Xa a
map

[ ]
=> compact
Xy Lo(X)
:

XG-
= -

compact
.
cont

Supposea :
Xa +
Xa is a shift map

=
X )Xo

ro
I ↓ no

Xy =
y)x z
Define Fy
:
Xy Xy y() y (()
>
-
as
= =
=

=
La (ta (a)
 # Bofic Shifts

t labelled
X is sofic if 7
graph
a

J si
b gives a
presentation of .
X

i X
Xy
. e =

# :
Theorem 95 sofic
Every SFT .

Prof : Let X be Q SFT and Let X be M-Step

Hence X is
conjugate To X
[ 13+
via

# : >
-

Bm +
(x)

& (xi) (i
=

,
i + m]

Them the code map p =

t defines the conjugacy.
We see that for
Xim-is There are /B (x)) +

vertices and there is from

an
edge d , 02 - &Mr,

b bit P+= b
to , 2 :
iff &24,000 .... br . We

that
name
edge a

b
, ...
m

a , 02 . - .

Om +

Let G be a
graph
1
X] =

XG

labelled graph (6 1)
Define a
ly :
, with L(e) =
e
.

Then Lo(Xa) =

Xy

X =
X(m + 1
=

XG =
Xy
We
prove that
Lo is a
conjugacy.
we need that is is
La bijective & Lo a factor

map and Do is .
Cont Hence La is a Homeomorphism
& so gives a
conjugacy .
# # Sofic is SFT ibb Label code is a
conjugacy.

Prof :
E Already Done

# Let X be sofic & L is a conjugacy.

X has a
presentation y :
(G 1) , .
We see that

LooXa -Xy
: X
. Since Lo is conjugacy,

we have XEXG .

Theorema A factor of a sofic shift is sofic .

-

factor
Proof : Let X & Y be shift space
& P : X-Y be a map
.
-

Let X is sofic = 7 a presentation y =

(G ) ,
of X

is factor
i.e X =

Xy . Then La :
XG -X a map
.

consider
Polo :
XG >
- Y

* xeXa , Lo() =... ((xi) ((xin) . · ·

xa -
Las
X Y

s I
Bain(x) B (4)
=

E : >
-

Let ,

B (x)
let G (x E) L : >
-

=
,
, ,

M+N + 1

B (Y)
GOL : E >
-
.

#oL (lim (i +) = (Lei ((ei) N))

e:
m) L (ei
.... -..

- ...
. . .

=
G(xi-m-- .

xi -
- -

xi + M)

=
Yi

factor map
· Gol defines a

(102) :
Xc + Y .

So Y is a factor of SFT Xa & is hence sofic

 shift that is not sofic
* I an
example of space .

*
word aba ((X) iff
M = S
.
Ga
w
c Bt
=

X .
b .
a
.

X is a shift space .

X =

(e)

not SFT
X is clearly .

X is sofic then I labelled graph

Suppose
a

y
=

(G 2)s+ ,
X =

Xy
Let there be M
finite
Since the vertices G
of are ,

bM
+ +

vertices. Let w =
a <M a ((x)

it G s + (() = w
is path
on
a
.

There

I e 92
Prtz [2 + 3 2M
=
i
"
.e ,
... ...

M + 2 + Y

Let T =
e ...
em + 2 be a
subpath of
bM
+
L(t) =

since we have M vertices7 a subpath

[2 of E

which is a loop
.

T
where
o is a loop
Hence
I =
J ,
Tz Tz .

is also allowed.
Hence T
,
TTEs

agMes
+ 1
= M+
is
valid word where :
Ital
Ca

This is A contradiction.

=> X is not sofic .

X is called Context free Subshift

 Eg : Let A =
50 n
,
,
F-3000 ,
1113 ,
X =

XF

Construct a
graph G s+ X =
XG

so :

Note : In this
graph
other
All blocks

·
of length 3 is
11
possible except

which are in F

110]

.
F =

2010 ,

000 00 O

=
0

00 0 1

↓ oo

8
01 I 101 I "Goo
O

·
·
fo
Do o
"
& let X
, EX =
20 13 *,
, XzEX be shift spaces

X uXz =
X

Prove that X X or X Xco X, Xz X

= =
= =
, .

18000
EX where all all
x contain blocks of length
.

Suppose EXI

=> X ,
where Ox :
E ... i,, v
, ...

For
any open set
<Cylinder) [a-n--as ... an]

7 KEZ st =
"()E [a -
...
d. ...
an]

But Ox = X [Denseness]
=> X
,
= X
 Resolving Graph

#Right A

is
Labelled

right
-
graph

resolving
ly :
(G 1)

graph
,

if
with labels

vertex
in A

Left

It V(G) there is atmost one edge

with label a E A starting at I

Ending
Eg :

Resolving
O I
Right
& M Da -
>
But not
left resolving
O

Note :

A the three

graphs are

· Resolving
Left Graph
&
Full
of
p
2- Shift Not Right Resolving

& Both Might & Left

resolving graph

Deg" A sofic Shift is called Right Resolving if

it has a presentation y :
(G 1)
,
which is

right resolving
.

sofic shift
* it follower set graph of a

resolving
is always right .

set
* It is difficult to construct a follower graph
 Resolving
#m : Every Sofic Shift is Right .

Proof : Let X be a sofic shift.

-

There exist a Labelled graph l = (2 2) ,

st

X
Xy
=

D
O

Sab

ef Q

[b]
↑

We construct a
graph FF(r 2) , from
b
The vertices
of H are
nonempty subset
of
Y() .

Let I be a vertex in 1 and let

deA . Then J is in I
a vertex
comprising
of all vertices in G st there is an

edge from vertices in 9 to a vertex in .

J

If J is
non-empty then draw an
edge
Labelled
I
& from
empty
J

9 to . If is

do nothing
. Repeating this for each 9 V(H)

and a A we can construct # =

(N L')
,

clearly
H is right resolving
.
 that
The theorem is proved if we can show

X
Xy XH
=
=

We show that
L(xy) =

1(XH)

Let we
((Xy)
=> I a
path it is G whose label is w.

Suppose w = a ,
dz ... an

Then # can be
given as e, e2-- .
en