Purpose statement

This module describes the skills, knowledge and attitude required to Develop

Embedded System Hardware. This module is intended to prepare learners

pursuing TVET Level 4 in Computer System and Architecture. At the end of

this module the learners will be able to Setup workplace, Build and Integrate

Embedded system Hardware.

LEARNING OUTCOME 1: PREPARE AUTOMATION SYSTEM

Introduction to System Automation

System automation refers to the use of control systems, such as computers or robots, to handle
processes or machines in industries to minimize human intervention. It plays a significant role in
enhancing efficiency, accuracy, and productivity across various sectors such as manufacturing,
healthcare, and logistics or System automation refers to the use of technology to perform tasks
and processes with minimal human intervention. It involves the integration of software,
hardware, and control systems to streamline operations, increase efficiency, and reduce errors.
Automation is used across various industries, including manufacturing, telecommunications,
healthcare, and finance, to improve productivity, quality, and consistency.

In the context of industrial and business processes, automation enables machines, software, and
systems to operate autonomously or with minimal human oversight. It replaces manual tasks
with automated workflows and decision-making processes
Definition

Automation is the technology by which processes are performed with minimal human assistance.
It involves the integration of control systems to monitor and regulate devices and operations.

Identification of Automation System Requirements

Automation systems involve the use of technology to perform tasks with minimal human
intervention. To design an effective automation system, it is essential to identify key
requirements based on the specific needs of the operation. Below are common requirements that
guide the design and implementation of automation systems:

1. Functional Requirements:
o Task Specification: Define what the automation system must do, such as monitoring,
controlling, data processing, or decision-making. o Scalability: The system should
support future expansion and adapt to changing operational needs.
o Response Time: Ensure the system can react to events within the required time frame.
o Accuracy and Precision: The system must meet performance criteria, such as
maintaining tolerance levels or achieving exact results.
2. Operational Requirements:
o Reliability and Availability: The system should have a high degree of operational
reliability with minimal downtime. o Energy Efficiency: Optimizing energy
consumption is crucial, particularly in large-scale industrial applications.
o Safety Requirements: Ensure the system operates safely for both personnel and
equipment.
3. Technical Requirements:
o Integration with Existing Systems: The automation system should integrate
seamlessly with current hardware and software platforms.
o Communication Protocols: Identify and use standard protocols for reliable
communication between system components.
o Data Management: The system must handle the storage, retrieval, and processing of
large amounts of data effectively.
4. Security Requirements:
o Cybersecurity: Protect the system against unauthorized access, malware, and
cyberattacks. o User Access Control: Ensure that only authorized personnel
can control or modify the automation system.

Types of Automation Systems

1. Fixed Automation:
o Used for repetitive, high-volume production processes.
o Examples: Assembly lines, chemical processing.
2. Programmable Automation:
o Systems where equipment can be reprogrammed for different tasks.
o Examples: CNC machines, robotic welding systems.
3. Flexible (Soft) Automation:
o Easily adaptable systems for manufacturing a variety of products with minimal
reconfiguration.
 o Examples: Computer-integrated manufacturing systems, robotic assembly.
4. Integrated Automation:
o Complete automation of processes where all operations are fully coordinated through an
interconnected system.

Examples: Smart factories, digital twins.

Applications of Automation Systems

1. Manufacturing Industry:
o Assembly lines: Used for the mass production of automobiles and electronics.
o Robotics: Industrial robots in welding, painting, packaging, etc.
2. Healthcare:
o Surgical robots: Assisting surgeons with precision.
o Automated diagnostics: In laboratory testing and radiology.
3. Logistics and Supply Chain:
 o Warehouse automation: Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) for inventory
management.
o Autonomous vehicles: Drones and robots for transportation and delivery.
4. Utilities and Energy:
o Smart grids: Automating electricity distribution and monitoring.
o Oil and gas: Automation for drilling, production, and processing.

Working Principles of Automation Systems

It includes three basic building blocks of automation:

1. A source of power: An automated system is designed to accomplish some useful action, and
that action requires power. Firstly, every part will be supplied by the convenient power.

2. Feedback controls: It consists of five basic components: (1) input, (2) process being
controlled, (3) output, (4) sensing elements, and (5) controller and actuating devices. The
feedback control is used to get the input and provide the output, which is variable to the process
that is being measured and compared to the input. The controller and actuator of the system are
the mechanisms by which changes in the process are accomplished to influence the output
variable.

3. Machine programming: The programmed instructions determine the set of actions that is to be
accomplished automatically by the system. The program specifies what the automated system
should do and how its various components must function in order to accomplish the desired
result.
 1. Sensors and Actuators:
o Sensors: Gather data from the environment or process (e.g., temperature, pressure,
proximity). o Actuators: Execute physical actions (e.g., motors, valves) in response
to control signals.
2. Control Systems:
o Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): Central to automation, PLCs execute
logic to control processes.
o Distributed Control Systems (DCS): Provide localized control and real-time
monitoring over distributed operations.
3. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):
o Provides a user-friendly interface for operators to interact with the automation system,
monitor processes, and respond to alarms.
4. Feedback Loops:
o Automation relies on continuous feedback from sensors to adjust the system's operations
in real time. This ensures the process meets set parameters or desired outcomes.
5. Communication Networks:
o Automation systems use standard communication protocols like Ethernet, Modbus,
or Profinet to transmit data between controllers, sensors, and other system
components.

By automating systems, industries can optimize productivity, enhance safety, reduce operational
costs, and increase precision, creating a more reliable and efficient environment.
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

Definition

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial digital computer designed for the
automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly
lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in various industries due to their
robustness, ease of programming, and real-time control capability. They monitor inputs, process
the logic programmed by the user, and output commands to control devices like motors, lights,
pumps, and valves.

Types of PLCs

PLCs can be classified based on various factors such as size, input/output capacity, functionality,
and structure. The common types are:

1. Compact/Fixed PLC:
o All components (CPU, power supply, input/output modules) are integrated into a single
unit.
o Limited expansion capabilities.
o Suitable for smaller applications with fewer I/O points.
o Example: Micro PLCs used in small machinery or simple automation tasks.
2. Modular PLC:
 o
Consists of separate, interchangeable modules (CPU, I/O, communication, power
supply). o Allows expansion by adding modules, making them suitable for complex
automation systems.
o Example: Used in large-scale industries with complex processes. 3. Rack-Mount
PLC:
o A type of modular PLC where modules are mounted onto a rack. o Supports a
large number of I/O points and offers high scalability. o Typically used in
large automation systems requiring extensive I/O and processing capabilities.
4. Safety PLC:
o Specifically designed to handle safety-critical applications.
o Complies with safety standards like IEC 61508 and ISO 13849. o Examples:
Used in processes where human safety is at risk, such as emergency shutdown
systems or safety interlocks.
5. Soft PLC:
o Software-based PLC that runs on standard PC hardware. o Offers flexibility and
can be used for complex control systems with real-time processing capabilities.
o Examples: Industrial automation applications with large-scale control and data
processing requirements.

Applications of PLCs

PLCs are used in various sectors where automation is required. Some common applications
include:

1. Manufacturing Industry:
o Assembly lines: Controlling the sequential operation of machines in the
production of goods.
o Conveyor systems: Managing the speed, direction, and sequence of material
movement on conveyors.
2. Process Automation:
o Chemical and petrochemical industries: Regulating temperature, pressure, flow
rates, and mixing of fluids in complex processes. o Food and beverage
industry: Automating bottling, packaging, and quality control.
3. Utilities and Energy:
o Water treatment plants: Monitoring and controlling pumps, valves, and
filtration processes.
o Power generation: Supervising turbine control systems, switchgear, and
distribution systems.
4. Building Automation:
HVAC systems: Managing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems in
large buildings.
 o
o Lighting control: Automated control of lighting systems for energy savings and
comfort.
5. Transport and Infrastructure:
o Traffic signal control: Coordinating traffic lights at intersections to ensure
smooth flow.
o Elevators and escalators: Managing the movement of elevators and escalators in
large buildings.
6. Robotic Surgery
7. Manufacturing
8. traffic control systems
9. Conveyor belts
10. packaging machines

Characteristics of PLCs 1.

Reliability and Durability:

o PLCs are designed for harsh industrial environments and are resistant to factors
like dust, heat, and vibration. They provide reliable, continuous operation even in
challenging conditions.
2. Real-Time Operation:
o PLCs operate in real-time, meaning they process inputs and generate outputs
almost instantaneously. This is critical for ensuring that time-sensitive processes
are managed effectively.
3. Programmability:
o PLCs can be programmed using various languages defined by the IEC 61131-3
standard, including:
 Ladder Logic: A graphical programming language resembling electrical
relay logic.
 Function Block Diagram (FBD): A graphical language that uses blocks
to represent functions.
 Structured Text (ST): A high-level textual language.
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC): A graphical representation of
sequential processes.
4. Modularity and Expandability:
 o
Modular PLCs allow users to expand the system by adding additional I/O or
communication modules as needed. This makes them flexible for various
applications and scalable for future growth.

5. Input/Output (I/O) Handling:

o PLCs interface with the external world through input and output devices. Inputs
can include sensors like temperature or proximity sensors, while outputs control
actuators such as motors, solenoids, or lights.
6. Communication Capabilities:
o Modern PLCs offer advanced communication options, including Ethernet,
Modbus, Profibus, and CAN. They can connect to other devices, such as HMIs,
SCADA systems, or other PLCs, enabling complex networked control systems.
7. Redundancy and Fault Tolerance:
o Some PLCs are designed with redundant CPUs or power supplies to ensure
continuous operation in case of component failure. This is critical in safety or
mission-critical applications.
8. User-Friendly Interface:
o PLC programming software often includes user-friendly interfaces that simplify
configuration and diagnostics. These interfaces allow operators to troubleshoot,
monitor, and control the system easily.

PLCs are integral to modern industrial automation, providing efficient control over a wide range
of processes and ensuring consistent performance in diverse applications

Analyzing an Automation System

Analyzing an automation system involves a detailed examination of the existing system, its
components, user needs, and technical requirements. This process ensures that the automation
system is optimized for functionality, performance, and usability.
o
 o
1. Analyzing the Existing System

Before making changes or implementing new automation systems, it is crucial to analyze the
existing setup. This analysis helps to identify inefficiencies, gaps, or opportunities for
improvement. Key steps include:

• Evaluating System Performance: Measure how well the current system meets
operational goals. This includes evaluating cycle times, process bottlenecks, error rates,
and downtime.
• Assessing System Architecture: Understand how the different components of the
system interact, including hardware, software, communication protocols, and data flow.
• Identifying Redundancies: Look for duplicate processes, unused features, or
unnecessary complexity in the existing system.
• Monitoring Data Flow and Communication: Ensure data is accurately transmitted
between sensors, controllers, and actuators in a timely manner.

2. System Analysis Techniques

Several techniques are commonly used to analyze automation systems:

1. Flowcharts and Diagrams:

o Represent the workflow or process in a graphical format, showing the sequence
of operations, decision points, and process dependencies. o Example: Process
flow diagrams, network diagrams.
2. Data Flow Diagrams (DFD):
o Illustrate how data flows within the system, highlighting data sources,
destinations, and intermediate processes.
o Useful for understanding how information is processed and stored.
3. System Modeling:
o Use mathematical or simulation models to predict how the system will behave
under different conditions. This helps in optimizing performance and identifying
potential issues.
 o

4. SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats):

o Helps identify the strong and weak points of the existing automation system and
areas for improvement or innovation.
5. Root Cause Analysis:
o A method used to identify the root cause of problems or inefficiencies in the
system, often employing techniques like the Diagrams .

3. Description of System Components

A typical automation system is made up of several key components, each with a specific role:

1. Sensors:
o Devices that detect changes in the environment (e.g., temperature, pressure,
position) and send data to controllers.
2. Actuators:
o Components like motors, valves, or solenoids that perform actions in response to
control signals.
3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC):
o The brain of the automation system. It processes input signals from sensors and
executes logic to control actuators.
4. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):
o The interface between operators and the automation system. HMIs provide visual
feedback and allow operators to interact with the system.
5. Communication Networks:
o Protocols and systems (e.g., Ethernet, Modbus, Profibus) that facilitate data
exchange between system components.
6. SCADA Systems:
o Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems used to monitor and control
large-scale processes. SCADA allows real-time data collection and process
visualization.
 o
7. Power Supply:
o Provides stable and reliable power to the automation components, ensuring

continuous operation.
8. Safety Systems:
o Systems such as emergency stops, interlocks, and fail-safes designed to protect
operators and equipment.

4. Identifying User's Needs

Understanding the needs of the end-users is essential for system design. This involves:

• Engaging Stakeholders: Conduct interviews, surveys, or focus groups with users,

operators, and management to gather requirements.
• Use Case Scenarios: Create detailed use case scenarios that describe how users interact
with the system under various conditions.
• Task Analysis: Break down user tasks to understand their complexity and how they can
be automated or simplified.
• Ergonomics and User Comfort: Ensure the system is designed for ease of use, comfort,
and safety.

5. System Requirements Analysis

System requirements analysis defines the specifications for the automation system. This ensures
that the system meets the expectations and needs of the business and users.

Performance Requirements:

1. Speed and Response Time:

o How quickly the system responds to inputs and executes actions.
o Example: A PLC that can process signals in milliseconds to ensure real-time
control.
2. Capacity:
 o
o The system's ability to handle the volume of operations, number of I/O points,
and data storage.
o Example: A system that manages multiple conveyor belts simultaneously.
3. Throughput:
o How much work the system can perform within a given time.
o Example: The number of products an assembly line can complete per hour.
4. Scalability:
o The ability of the system to grow and handle increased workloads
without significant performance degradation. o Example: Adding additional
sensors or actuators as production expands.

Usability Requirements:

1. Ease of Use:
o The system should be intuitive, with simple navigation and minimal training
required.
o Example: HMI interfaces with clear graphical representations of processes.
2. Accessibility:
o The system should be accessible to all users, including those with disabilities.
o Example: Voice controls, customizable screen settings for different users.
3. User Feedback and Alerts:
o The system should provide clear, actionable feedback, such as visual or audible
alarms when an issue arises.
o Example: Color-coded alerts on the HMI indicating errors or maintenance needs.
4. Operator Efficiency:
o The system should minimize the number of manual tasks for operators. o
Example: Automation of repetitive tasks like quality checks or
adjustments.

Recoverability Requirements:
 o
1. Fault Tolerance:
o The system should be able to continue operating even if part of it fails.
o Example: Redundant PLCs or communication paths that ensure continuous
operation in case of a component failure.
2. Backup and Restore:
o The system should have automatic backups and easy restore procedures in case of
data loss or corruption.
o Example: Cloud backups or external storage that allows recovery after a failure.
3. Error Detection and Correction:
o The system should detect errors early and correct them where possible without
halting operations. o Example: Self-diagnostic tools that notify the operator of
any issues and suggest corrective measures.
4. System Restart Procedures:
o The system should have clear, fast, and reliable restart procedures after
shutdowns or failures. o Example: An automated restart sequence that resets the
system to a safe operating condition.

By conducting a thorough analysis and clearly identifying the system's components and
requirements, automation systems can be optimized for efficiency, usability, and reliability. This
leads to better performance and a more user-centered design.

Maintainability Requirement

Maintainability refers to the ease with which an automation system can be maintained, repaired,
or updated throughout its operational life. It includes both preventive and corrective
maintenance, ensuring minimal disruption and downtime.

Key Maintainability Requirements:

1. Modular Design:
o Components should be designed as modular units, making it easier to replace or
upgrade specific parts without affecting the entire system.
 o
o Example: In a PLC system, having swappable I/O modules allows quick
replacement without halting operations.
2. Fault Diagnosis and Troubleshooting:
o The system should include diagnostic tools to quickly identify and locate faults.

o Example: Self-diagnostic capabilities, error codes, or troubleshooting guides that

help maintenance staff pinpoint and resolve issues efficiently.
3. Documentation:
o Detailed maintenance manuals, schematics, and system architecture should be
available to facilitate quick repairs and upgrades.
o Example: Well-documented service logs, maintenance checklists, and detailed
wiring diagrams.
4. Remote Monitoring and Maintenance:
o Systems should support remote diagnostics, monitoring, and updates to allow
maintenance personnel to address issues without being physically present.
o Example: A SCADA system that allows technicians to monitor and control the
system remotely to diagnose problems.
5. Scheduled Maintenance Alerts:
o The system should track operating hours or cycles and automatically notify when
maintenance is due.
o Example: Automated alerts for routine inspections or part replacements, such as
for motors or sensors.
6. Spare Parts Availability:
o Key components should be readily available and interchangeable to reduce
downtime during repairs.
o Example: Stocking essential spare parts like sensors, relays, and I/O cards for
quick replacement.
7. Serviceability:
o Critical components should be easy to access for inspection, cleaning, and
repairs.
 o
o Example: Equipment panels that open without tools, allowing easy access to
wiring and components for maintenance.
8. Version Control and Updates:
o The system should support easy software updates and version control for
firmware and application changes.
o Example: A central software management system for rolling out updates or
patches to multiple PLCs in a network.

Accessibility Requirement

Accessibility ensures that the automation system can be effectively used by a wide range of
users, including those with disabilities. It involves designing systems that are user-friendly,
accommodating diverse abilities, and providing intuitive interfaces.

Key Accessibility Requirements:

1. User Interface (UI) Design:

o The UI should be designed for ease of use, with clear navigation, large buttons,
and simple controls.
o Example: An HMI with customizable font sizes, high-contrast colors, and
touchscreen capabilities that can be adapted to the needs of different users.
2. Compliance with Accessibility Standards:
o The system should comply with international accessibility standards, such as the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) or Web Content Accessibility
Guidelines (WCAG), where applicable. o Example: Ensuring that software
interfaces are usable by individuals with visual or hearing impairments.
3. Multi-Language Support:
o The system should offer multi-language support to accommodate users with
different linguistic backgrounds.
o Example: An HMI interface that can switch between different languages based
on user preferences.
 o
4. Voice Control and Audio Feedback:
o Providing voice control or audio feedback for users who may have limited
mobility or visual impairments.
o Example: Voice commands to control machines or receive audible alerts and
system notifications.
5. Physical Accessibility:
o System controls, panels, and input devices should be positioned at heights and
angles that accommodate a wide range of users, including those in wheelchairs.
o Example: Adjustable height control panels or moveable HMI displays.
6. Assistive Technologies Integration:
o The system should support or integrate with assistive technologies such as screen
readers, alternative input devices (e.g., Braille keyboards), or speech recognition
software.
o Example: HMIs and control systems that can interface with screen readers for
visually impaired users.
7. Customizable User Profiles:
o Users should be able to personalize the interface to meet their specific needs,
including adjusting controls, color schemes, or input methods.
o Example: Different user profiles with tailored settings for operators with varying
skill levels or accessibility needs.
8. Accessible Documentation:
o All user manuals, guides, and documentation should be available in accessible
formats such as large print, Braille, or audio versions.
o Example: Providing user manuals in multiple formats, including PDFs with textto-
speech compatibility or Braille-printed versions for visually impaired users.

By addressing maintainability and accessibility requirements, automation systems can operate

efficiently, accommodate diverse users, and remain easy to update and repair throughout their
lifecycle.
 o
Selecting Tools, Materials, and Equipment for Designing an Automation System

The selection of tools, materials, and equipment is a critical step in designing an efficient and
reliable automation system. The right combination ensures proper system design, easy
installation, and reliable operation.

1. Tools

When working on automation systems, you’ll need various tools for installation, configuration,
and troubleshooting:

• PLC Programming Tools: Software such as Siemens TIA Portal, Allen Bradley
RSLogix, or Schneider Electric EcoStruxure for programming and configuring PLCs.
• Cabling Tools: Wire cutters, crimpers, and strippers for preparing cables for signal and
power connections.
• Testing Equipment: Multimeters, signal generators, oscilloscopes for testing electrical
signals and system performance.
• Screwdrivers, Wrenches, and Allen Keys: Necessary for mounting, dismounting, or
adjusting hardware components.
• Labeling Tools: Label printers to identify cables, components, and equipment for ease
of troubleshooting.

2. Materials

Materials include all consumables and system components used during the design and
installation process:

• Cables and Connectors: Power, control, and communication cables, such as Ethernet,
Profibus, or Modbus cables, along with the appropriate connectors and terminal blocks.
• Sensors and Actuators: Input devices like proximity sensors, pressure sensors, and
temperature sensors, as well as output devices like solenoids, motors, and relays.
 o
• Power Supplies: Appropriate power supplies to ensure stable operation of PLCs,
sensors, and actuators.
• Control Panels: Enclosures and mounting hardware for safely housing PLCs, relays,
and power supplies.
• Network Components: Routers, switches, and communication modules for ensuring
reliable data transmission between components.

3. Equipment
You will also need various equipment to install and test the automation system:

• PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers): Centralized or decentralized units,

depending on the system scale.
• HMI (Human-Machine Interface): For monitoring and interacting with the system.
• SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) Systems: For high-level process
monitoring and control.
• Robotic Systems or Automated Machinery: Depending on the system’s complexity
and scale.
• Safety Systems: Including emergency stop buttons, safety relays, and interlocks.

Designing an Automation System

The design phase involves translating the automation needs into technical diagrams and system
blueprints. These visual tools ensure accurate implementation and future scalability.

1. Preparation of the Drawing Environment

The drawing environment refers to setting up the necessary software and tools for creating
system diagrams.

• Installation of a Drawing Tool: You need to install design software such as AutoCAD,
EPLAN, SolidWorks, or free tools like Fritzing or Draw.io. These platforms allow for
detailed electrical, architectural, and system drawings.
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• Identification of Symbols and Notation: It is essential to adhere to standard symbols
and notations in the drawings, such as:
o IEC 60617: Standard for electrical symbols.
o IEEE/ANSI Symbols: Used in hardware and network diagrams.
o P&ID Symbols (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram): For fluid process
automation systems.
• Drawing Templates: Use predefined templates for different types of diagrams such as
electrical schematics, process flow diagrams, and communication network designs. This
ensures consistency and saves time.
• Applying Colour Scheme and Styling: Consistent use of colors helps in differentiating
system components:
o Red: Power lines or critical circuits.
o Blue: Communication cables.

o Green: Grounding or neutral lines.

Yellow: Alarm or warning signals.

o Use bold lines for power circuits and dashed lines for communication paths

2. Drawing System Architecture

Once the drawing environment is set, you can create detailed system architecture diagrams to
represent the structure and interaction of components.

1. Identification of System Components

• List all major components such as PLCs, sensors, actuators, HMIs, power supplies, and
communication devices.
• Categorize them based on their function: input, output, processing, communication, and
safety components.

2. Create Hardware Block Diagram

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• Block Diagram: A high-level view of the system showing the major hardware
components and their interconnections.
• Example: A PLC connected to sensors (input), actuators (output), HMI (interface), and
SCADA system (monitoring).

3. Create The Functional Flow Diagram (Flowchart)

• A flowchart shows how the system processes inputs and converts them into outputs.
• Example: A process flow for an automated packaging system showing the sequence
from product detection to labeling and final packaging.

4. Create an Architecture Diagram

• An architecture diagram provides a detailed overview of the system's structure, including

hardware, software, communication protocols, and data flow.

• Example: For a factory automation system, the architecture diagram shows the
connections between sensors, PLCs, HMIs, and the SCADA system through industrial
Ethernet or Modbus.

5. Data Flow and Communication (Sequence Diagram)

• Sequence Diagram: Shows the flow of information and commands between different
components over time. It focuses on the communication protocols and timing of
messages.
• Example: A sequence diagram illustrating how a sensor sends data to the PLC, which
then activates an actuator, while simultaneously sending feedback to the HMI for
display.

Conclusion

Designing an automation system requires careful selection of the right tools, materials, and
equipment to ensure a successful and scalable implementation. The process involves setting up a
drawing environment, creating comprehensive system diagrams, and mapping out the interaction
between system components. Proper planning and design not only improve the performance of
 o
the automation system but also ensure it meets the required technical, operational, and safety
standards.

Installation of System Hardware

The installation of system hardware is a crucial phase in deploying an automation system.

Proper planning and execution ensure that the components function as intended and that the
system operates reliably. This phase involves preparing the installation site, connecting the
hardware components, and thoroughly testing the system to verify proper operation.

1. Prepare Installation Site

The first step in hardware installation is to ensure that the installation site is ready to
accommodate the equipment.

Steps to Prepare the Installation Site:

1. Site Survey:
o Perform a detailed survey of the site to verify that the physical space and
environmental conditions are suitable for the installation.
o Factors to consider: Temperature, humidity, ventilation, access to power, and
the availability of communication infrastructure.
2. Power Supply and Wiring Preparation:
o Ensure that the necessary power outlets and grounding are in place.
o The power supply must meet the voltage and current requirements of the system
components.
o Example: For a PLC system, ensure the availability of an uninterrupted power
supply (UPS) and surge protection devices.
3. Cable Management and Routing:
o Plan the cable routes for both power and communication lines.
o Use cable trays, conduits, or cable channels to organize and protect cables. o
Ensure separation between power and communication cables to avoid
electromagnetic interference (EMI).
o Label all cables for easy identification during troubleshooting or future
expansion.
4. Mounting of Equipment:
 o
o Install control panels, enclosures, and racks for housing PLCs, HMIs, relays, and
power supplies. o Ensure that all hardware components are securely mounted
to avoid vibrations or movement during operation.
o Follow manufacturer specifications for mounting distance and clearance around
components for proper ventilation and cooling.
5. Safety Considerations:
o Install emergency stop buttons, safety guards, and other necessary safety systems
as per regulations and standards.
o Ensure that fire safety protocols, including fire extinguishers and emergency
shutdown procedures, are in place.

2. Connect Hardware Components

After preparing the installation site, the next step is to connect the various hardware
components.

Steps to Connect Hardware Components:

1. Wiring the PLC:

o Connect input and output devices (sensors, actuators) to the appropriate terminals on
the PLC.
o Use terminal blocks for organized and easy connection of wiring.
o Ensure proper insulation of wires to prevent short circuits.
2. Connecting Power Supply:
o Connect the PLC, sensors, actuators, HMIs, and other equipment to the power
supply.
o Ensure that the power supply is stable and that each device receives the required
voltage.
o Implement overcurrent protection (fuses, circuit breakers) to protect components
from electrical faults.
3. Communication Setup:
 o
o Connect communication cables between the PLC and other devices such as
HMIs, SCADA systems, and remote I/O units. o Configure communication
protocols (e.g., Modbus, Profibus, Ethernet/IP) as per the system requirements.
o Example: Connecting PLCs and HMIs through an industrial Ethernet switch for
seamless communication.
4. Connecting Sensors and Actuators:
o Install sensors (e.g., proximity, pressure, temperature) at the required positions in
the system and connect them to the input terminals of the PLC.
o Connect actuators (e.g., motors, valves, solenoids) to the output terminals of the
PLC for control actions.
o Ensure proper alignment and positioning of actuators and sensors for accurate
system performance.
5. Grounding and Shielding:
o Properly ground all components to reduce the risk of electric shock and
protect the system from power surges. o For communication cables, use shielded
cables to prevent electromagnetic interference, especially in high-noise
environments.

3. Test Hardware Connection

Once the hardware components are connected, it is essential to test the system to ensure that all
connections are functioning correctly and that the system performs as expected.

Steps to Test Hardware Connection:

1. Power-Up Test:
o Apply power to the system and verify that all devices are receiving power. o
Check for any abnormal conditions such as tripped breakers, blown fuses, or
voltage drops.
o Ensure that all indicator lights (e.g., power, status, communication) on devices
are working as expected.
 o
2. Input/output (I/O) Testing:
o Manually test each input device (sensor) to ensure it sends the correct signal to
the PLC. o Test each output device (actuator) by triggering it from the PLC or
HMI to ensure it performs the desired action.
o Use the PLC’s programming software to monitor real-time I/O status and check
for proper operation.
3. Communication Test:
o Verify the communication between all connected devices (PLCs, HMIs, SCADA
systems).
o Check for proper data exchange by sending and receiving test commands or
messages.
o Use diagnostic tools (e.g., protocol analyzers) to verify the integrity of
communication signals.
4. Safety Test:
o Test safety systems like emergency stop buttons, interlocks, and sensors to ensure
they function correctly.
o Perform simulation of fault conditions (e.g., loss of power, sensor failure) to test
the system’s response and fault-tolerance.
5. Load and Performance Testing:
o Simulate full-load conditions to verify that the system can handle its expected
operational capacity.
o Monitor system response time, throughput, and performance under various load
conditions. o Ensure the system operates within its designed parameters
without overheating, power fluctuations, or communication delays.
6. Error Logging and Diagnostics:
o Check the PLC or SCADA system for any error logs or diagnostic messages
generated during the testing phase. o Address any detected faults or issues
before proceeding to the operational phase.

Conclusion
 o
Installing an automation system requires a methodical approach, starting with preparing the
installation site, followed by connecting hardware components, and ending with thorough
testing to ensure the system operates effectively. Each step is essential to ensure the system is
safe, reliable, and ready for full operation.

LEARNING OUTCOME 2: DEVELOP PLC PROGRAM.

INSTALLATION OF PLC SIMULATION SOFTWARE

Installing a PLC simulation software like Siemens TIA Portal involves a series of steps to
ensure the software is properly prepared, compatible with the system, and configured for use in
automation projects.

1. Simulation Software Preparation (TIA Portal)

Siemens TIA Portal (Totally Integrated Automation Portal) is an integrated engineering

framework used for configuring, programming, and simulating Siemens PLCs. Installing TIA
Portal requires a systematic approach to ensure the environment is set up properly.

Steps to Prepare TIA Portal:

1. Download the TIA Portal:

o Download the latest version of TIA Portal from Siemens' official website or
obtain it from an authorized distributor.
o Make sure to download the correct edition (Basic, Professional, or Trial) based on
your needs.
2. Prepare Installation Files:
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o Ensure that all installation files, including the TIA Portal installation package and
related drivers or updates, are available and stored in an accessible location.
o Unpack the downloaded files if necessary.
3. Administrator Privileges:
o To install TIA Portal, administrative rights are required on your PC or
workstation.
o Check that you have the necessary permissions to install software on your system.
4. Backup Important Files:
o If you have an earlier version of TIA Portal installed or other important
automation files, it’s good practice to back them up before installation.
2. Perform System Compatibility Check-Up

Before installing TIA Portal, it is crucial to ensure that your system meets the minimum
requirements for smooth operation.

Steps for System Compatibility Check:

1. Check System Requirements:

o Operating System: Ensure your computer’s operating system is compatible with
the version of TIA Portal you are installing.
 Supported OS: Windows 10 (64-bit), Windows 7 (64-bit), or higher.
o RAM: A minimum of 8 GB RAM is required, but 16 GB or more is
recommended for smooth simulation and programming.
o Processor: An Intel i5 or higher processor is ideal for handling the software's
processing needs.
o Storage: Ensure that there is enough free space (20 GB or more) on your hard
drive to install TIA Portal and related files.
o Graphics Card: TIA Portal requires a graphics card with a minimum resolution
of 1920x1080 pixels.
2. Verify Software Compatibility:
 o
o Check that your existing automation software or simulation packages are
compatible with the version of TIA Portal you're installing.
o Verify compatibility with Siemens PLCs or devices you intend to simulate .
3. Install Necessary Drivers and Updates:
o Ensure that your PC has all necessary drivers installed for communication with
PLC hardware (if needed). o Update your system with the latest Windows patches
and service packs to avoid compatibility issues.
4. Disable Conflicting Software:
o Temporarily disable or uninstall any conflicting software that may interfere with
the installation process, such as older versions of TIA Portal or incompatible
simulation software.
3. Run and Configure Software Packages

Once the system is prepared and verified for compatibility, you can proceed with the
installation, configuration, and simulation setup of TIA Portal.

Steps to Run and Configure TIA Portal:

1. Run the Installation:

o Double-click on the TIA Portal setup file to begin the installation process. o
Follow the on-screen prompts to complete the installation.
 Select the components you want to install, such as Step 7 (PLC
programming), WinCC (HMI configuration), and the PLC Simulator
(PLCSIM).
o Choose the installation directory and ensure you have sufficient disk space.
2. Activate the License:
o If you have a licensed version of TIA Portal, activate the license using Siemens'
Automation License Manager.
o For trial versions, you can proceed without activation for a limited time.
3. Configure Software Packages:
 o
o After installation, open TIA Portal, and configure the environment for your
simulation or project development.
o Create a New Project:
 Set up a new project by selecting your PLC hardware (e.g., Siemens
S71200) or select a generic PLC model for simulation purposes.
 Define the PLC configuration, including the number of inputs, outputs,
and communication protocols. o Configure PLC Simulator
(PLCSIM):
 Use Siemens PLCSIM to simulate the PLC program before uploading it
to the actual hardware.
 Ensure that the simulated PLC behaves similarly to the physical PLC in
terms of I/O, timers, counters, and communication. o Configure
HMI (WinCC):
 If your project involves HMI screens, configure the WinCC component
to simulate the operator interface.
4. Install Updates and Add-ons:
o After the installation, check for any additional updates, patches, or add-ons
available for the software to ensure the latest features and bug fixes are applied.
o Install any necessary libraries or function blocks required for your specific
automation tasks.
5. Run the Simulation:
o Once the PLC and HMI configurations are complete, run the PLC
simulation using PLCSIM. o Test the logic, I/O, and communication with
the simulated PLC to verify the correctness of your program before deployment.
6. Test the Configuration:
o Perform test runs using the simulation environment to ensure that your program
works as expected. o Simulate various operating conditions, such as normal
operation, sensor triggers, or fault conditions, to verify that the system responds
appropriately.
7. Save and Document Configuration:
 o
o Save your project and maintain version control. This helps track changes and
ensures you have backups of your project files.
o Generate documentation from the TIA Portal software to provide a detailed
overview of the PLC and HMI configuration.

Conclusion

Installing and configuring PLC simulation software like TIA Portal involves preparing the
simulation software, verifying system compatibility, and carefully configuring the necessary
software packages. A well-prepared environment ensures smooth installation and allows you to
simulate, test, and refine your automation system before actual deployment, reducing errors and
improving efficiency.

SELECTING PLC PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

PLC programming languages are used to instruct PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) on
how to control machinery, processes, and other automated systems. The IEC 61131-3 standard
defines five primary languages for PLC programming, each with unique characteristics and
applications. Selecting the appropriate language depends on the system's complexity, the
industry standard, and the programmer’s expertise.

1. Types of PLC Programming Languages

Here’s a breakdown of the most common PLC programming languages as per IEC 61131-3:

1. Ladder Diagram (LD)

Description:

• Resembles electrical relay logic diagrams, making it ideal for engineers with an electrical
background.
• Visualizes control logic using rungs that consist of input conditions (contacts) and output
actions (coils).

Application:
 o
• Commonly used in discrete manufacturing, conveyor systems, and simple machine
automation.
• Suitable for relatively simple control systems.

Characteristics:

• Easy to learn for people familiar with electrical wiring diagrams.

• Excellent for troubleshooting since the logic is presented visually.
• Limited in handling complex mathematical operations or data handling tasks.

Symbols and Notations:

• Contact ( --| |-- ): Represents input conditions such as switches or sensors.

• Coil ( --( )-- ): Represents output devices like motors or actuators.
• Timers (TON, TOF): For delay or time-based operations.
• Counters (CTU, CTD): For counting up or down events.

2. Function Block Diagram (FBD)

Description:

• A graphical language that uses blocks to represent functions, which are interconnected
by signals.
• Each block represents a function such as logic operations, timers, counters, or
mathematical operations.

Application:

• Used in process automation, continuous processes, and control systems involving analog
signals and PID controllers.
• Popular in industries like chemical, food processing, and water treatment.

Characteristics:

• Well-suited for complex systems with multiple functions and high reusability.
• Easier to implement control loops and analog processing.
• Can be difficult to troubleshoot in large systems due to the compact visual
representation.

Symbols and Notations:

• AND, OR, NOT blocks: Logical operations between signals.

• Input/Output pins: Represent signals coming in or going out of the blocks.
 o
• Function Blocks: Predefined operations such as timers, counters, or mathematical
functions.

3. Structured Text (ST)

Description:

• A high-level textual programming language similar to Pascal or C, offering powerful

control over the PLC.
• Allows for complex mathematical computations, data handling, and loop controls.

Application:

• Ideal for complex automation systems, including large-scale industrial processes,

advanced algorithms, or batch processing.
• Often used in applications that require significant data processing, such as robotics and
advanced motion control systems.

Characteristics:  Allows for writing sophisticated and modular code with loops,

conditions, and functions.

• Provides a lot of flexibility, making it powerful but harder to troubleshoot than graphical
languages.
• Best suited for experienced programmers with knowledge of programming syntax.

Symbols and Notations:

• IF, THEN, ELSE: Conditional statements.

• FOR, WHILE: Loop control.
• + - * /: Arithmetic operators for mathematical operations.

•  :=: Assignment operator for variable storage.

BENEFITS:

 Flexibility
 Reusability
 Readability
 self-documenting
 Portability
 high level language
 o
LINK:https://plcblog.in/plc/advanceplc/What%20is%20structured%20text
%20language%20in%20PLC.php

4. Sequential Function Chart (SFC)

Description:  A graphical language that structures the program as a sequence of steps

and transitions.

• Used to describe the flow of operations, where each step performs a specific task before
transitioning to the next.

Application:

• Typically used in batch processing, sequential operations (e.g., automated assembly

lines), or any process that follows a defined sequence.
• Ideal for controlling processes that have distinct states or stages.

Characteristics:

• Simplifies the representation of complex processes with many states.

• Easy to understand and troubleshoot, as the logic follows a clear sequence.
• Less suited for handling detailed mathematical operations or complex algorithms.

Symbols and Notations:

• Step (□): Represents a discrete phase in the process.

• Transition (→): Represents conditions that must be met to move to the next step.
• Actions: Associated with each step, defining what actions are to be taken.

5. Instruction List (IL)

Description:

• A low-level, assembly-like textual language that uses simple instructions to operate the
PLC.
• Compact and efficient but more difficult to read compared to graphical languages.
 o
Application:

• Suitable for simple operations, particularly in legacy systems or when performance

optimization is critical.
• Less commonly used in modern PLC systems but still found in certain applications
requiring compact code.

Characteristics:

• Similar to assembly language, making it very efficient but harder to read and maintain.
• Useful for systems with memory or performance constraints.
• Offers precise control but is difficult for complex operations.

Symbols and Notations:

• LD: Load instruction.

• ST: Store instruction.
• AND, OR, NOT: Logical operations.
• ADD, SUB, MUL: Arithmetic instructions.

2. Application of PLC Programming Languages

Each programming language serves specific applications based on system complexity,

programmer familiarity, and the type of process automation:

• Ladder Diagram (LD): Used in industries such as automotive, packaging, and HVAC
where simple discrete control is required.
• Function Block Diagram (FBD): Ideal for process automation, HVAC systems, and
continuous control processes.
• Structured Text (ST): Applied in large-scale industrial processes, robotics, and systems
requiring data-intensive operations.
• Sequential Function Chart (SFC): Used in batch processing, automated manufacturing,
and step-by-step control systems.
• Instruction List (IL): Typically used in legacy systems or where minimal code and
memory optimization are required.

3. Characteristics of PLC Programming Languages

 o

4. Symbols and Notations

Each PLC programming language has its own set of symbols and notations:

• Ladder Diagram: Contacts, coils, timers, and counters.

• Function Block Diagram: Logic gates, function blocks (timers, counters), input/output
pins.
• Structured Text: High-level constructs like loops, conditions, and variables.
• Sequential Function Chart: Steps, transitions, and actions.
• Instruction List: Low-level commands (load, store, and arithmetic).

PLC PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE SELECTION CRITERIA

When selecting a PLC programming language for an automation project, several criteria must be
considered to ensure the language aligns with the system's complexity, industry standards, and
the team's capabilities. These criteria include language features, compatibility, scalability, ease
of learning, security, and other advantages and disadvantages.

Keys considerations:
 Language Features

 Ease of Logic Representation:

 o
o Visual languages (e.g., Ladder Diagram) are simple and intuitive.

o Text-based languages (e.g., Structured Text) enable advanced logic with loops
and arithmetic.

 Complexity Handling:

o Simple systems: Ladder Diagram, Instruction List.

o Complex systems: Structured Text, Function Block Diagram.

 Libraries and Reusability:

o FBD and ST allow reusable function blocks for efficient system design.

 Visual vs. Text-Based:

o Visual (LD, SFC): Easy to interpret but limited for advanced tasks.

o Text-based (ST): Ideal for sophisticated and scalable programming.

 Compatibility and Interoperability

 PLC Manufacturer Support: Ensure the language is supported by the PLC hardware
(e.g., Siemens TIA Portal supports LD, ST, FBD, and SFC).

 Cross-Platform Integration: Text-based languages (e.g., ST) integrate well with

SCADA or MES systems.

 Communication Protocols: Support for Modbus, Profibus, OPC UA ensures seamless

device communication.

 Legacy System Interoperability: Instruction List is essential for older systems.

 Scalability

 Modular Code: FBD and ST allow for code reuse and easy expansion.

 Large-Scale Projects: ST excels in handling complex algorithms and data processing.

 State Handling: SFC is ideal for systems with multiple stages or sequential processes.

 Device Integration: Scalable systems can add sensors and devices without rewriting
programs.
 o
 Learning Curve

 Ease of Learning: LD is easy for technicians with electrical backgrounds.

 Programming Skills: ST and IL require advanced knowledge, while visual languages

(LD, FBD, SFC) are more intuitive.

 Debugging: Visual languages simplify troubleshooting, making them suitable for less
experienced users.

 Security

 Code Integrity: ST offers password protection and encryption.

 Access Control: Role-based access control (RBAC) prevents unauthorized changes.

 Validation: Visual languages (SFC, FBD) enable logical validation through graphical
representation.

 Error Handling: ST provides robust error-handling mechanisms.

 Advantages and Disadvantages

 Ladder Diagram (LD):

o Advantages: Simple, intuitive, and ideal for discrete control.

o Disadvantages: Limited for complex algorithms and data handling.

 Function Block Diagram (FBD):

o Advantages: Reusable blocks, clear diagnostics, good for analog control.

o Disadvantages: Hard to manage in large systems and requires training.

 Structured Text (ST):

o Advantages: Powerful for algorithms, modular, and scalable.

o Disadvantages: High learning curve, harder to debug, less intuitive.

 Sequential Function Chart (SFC):

o Advantages: Perfect for sequential processes and easy visualization.

 o
o Disadvantages: Not suited for complex arithmetic or systems with many
conditions.

 Instruction List (IL):

o Advantages: Compact, efficient, suitable for performance-constrained systems.

o Disadvantages: Difficult to read, not ideal for large or complex systems.

Conclusion

Selecting the right PLC programming language depends on factors like system complexity,
scalability requirements, ease of use, and security needs. For simple, discrete control
applications, Ladder Diagram is often preferred, while Structured Text is better suited for
complex data processing and advanced control systems. Function Block Diagram and
Sequential Function Chart work well in analog and batch processing environments,
respectively, while Instruction List is ideal for low-level, performance-constrained systems.The
final choice should balance the technical requirements of the system with the team's capabilities
and the long-term maintainability of the solution.

Writing a PLC Program

Programming a PLC requires a systematic approach, beginning with understanding system

requirements and developing the logic flow, followed by coding and debugging. The two most
popular PLC programming languages are Ladder Diagram (LAD) and Function Block
Diagram (FBD). Below is a guide on how to write a PLC program using these languages.

1. LADDER DIAGRAM (LAD) PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

1.1 Defining System Requirements

• Input/output Devices: Identify sensors (inputs) and actuators (outputs) in the system.
• Operational Sequence: Determine how the system should operate. What conditions should
trigger the system's operation (e.g., switches, sensors)?
• Safety Considerations: Incorporate emergency stops, alarms, and failsafe mechanisms.
• Timing Requirements: Establish if there are timing or delay requirements, such as for
motors or pumps.

1.2 Developing the Logic Flowchart

• Break Down the Process: Develop a step-by-step representation of the process the PLC
will control. Define the triggers for each action.
• Inputs and Outputs: Define the logical flow of inputs to outputs. For example, if a sensor
is triggered (input), what actuator should be activated (output)?
• Flowchart Symbols: Use standard flowchart symbols to represent decision points
(conditions) and actions.

1.3 Translating Logic into Rungs

• Define Rungs: Each rung represents a condition and an action in the Ladder Diagram.
• Input Contacts: Use normally open or normally closed contacts to represent conditions
like sensor inputs, buttons, or switches.
• Coils (Outputs): Use coils to activate output devices such as motors, lights, or alarms.
• Timers and Counters: Add timers for delayed operations (TON, TOF) and counters for
counting events (CTU, CTD).

Example:
 • Input: Push button triggers a motor.  Output: Motor runs for 10 seconds.

Ladder Diagram:

o When the push button is pressed (input), a timer (TON) starts. o

After the timer reaches 10 seconds, the motor coil (output) is
activated.

1.4 Program Testing and Debugging

• Test Each Rung Individually: Ensure each rung of the ladder works as intended by
simulating inputs and observing outputs.
• Real-Time Monitoring: Use the PLC software’s monitoring tools to visualize rung status
during operation.
• Check for Race Conditions: Ensure that the program does not have conditions where the
order of operations causes errors.
• Adjust Timers and Counters: Fine-tune any time delays or event counting to match the
system’s real-world performance.

1.5 Documentation and Maintenance

• Label Inputs/Outputs: Clearly label all I/O devices and variables for easy troubleshooting
later.
• Comment on Rungs: Add comments to each rung explaining its function.
• Save Backup Versions: Keep a version history to track changes and allow easy rollback to
previous versions if needed.
• Maintenance Procedures: Document how to maintain the program, including any special
instructions for updating timers or adjusting conditions.

2. Function Block Diagram (FBD) Programming Language

2.1 Defining System Requirements

• Input/output Devices: Identify and define the system’s input devices (e.g., sensors, buttons)
and output devices (e.g., motors, alarms).
• Process Control Requirements: Understand the control logic needed, such as PID control,
logic gates, or event counting.
• Timing and Sequence Control: Define if there is any need for timing sequences, delays, or
feedback loops in the system.

2.2 Selecting Function Blocks

 • Basic Function Blocks: Choose basic function blocks for logical operations like AND, OR,
NOT gates, as well as Timers and Counters.
• Advanced Function Blocks: For more complex control, select blocks like PID controllers,
math functions, and analog input/output processing blocks.
• Reusability: Use predefined function blocks that can be reused for common control logic,
such as motor starters or conveyor systems.

2.3 Building the Program Logic

• Connect Blocks: Drag and drop function blocks to the workspace and connect them with
signal lines to create the desired logic.
• Define Inputs and Outputs: Link input signals from sensors or buttons to the appropriate
function blocks, and link output signals to motors or actuators.
• Logic Flow: Ensure that the flow of signals from input to output follows the desired
process. For example, a signal from a sensor may pass through an AND gate before
activating a timer block, and finally output to a motor.

Example:

• Input: A temperature sensor activates a cooling fan when the temperature exceeds a
threshold.
• Output: Fan runs until the temperature drops below the set value.

FBD Structure:

o The analog input block reads the temperature sensor. o A

comparison block checks if the temperature exceeds the threshold. o
The result is sent to an ON/OFF block controlling the fan motor.

2.4 Configuring Block Parameters

• Input/output Parameters: Define each block’s input and output parameters. For example,
configure timers with preset values for delays and set analog values for sensors.
• Tuning Parameters: If using PID control or any analog processing, fine-tune the control
parameters like gain, integral time, and derivative time.
• Default and Fail-Safe Values: Configure default and fail-safe values for inputs and outputs,
ensuring the system behaves safely during faults.

2.5 Program Testing and Debugging

• Simulate Function Blocks: Use the PLC simulation software to test the function blocks in
isolation and together.
• Monitor Real-Time Data: During testing, monitor input/output data in real-time to ensure
function blocks are processing signals as expected.
 • Test Different Scenarios: Simulate different conditions to ensure the program responds
correctly to various input states (e.g., sensor failure, multiple inputs).
• Error Checking: Review the entire system for logical errors or inconsistencies between
blocks

Summary:

Ladder Diagram (LAD) and Function Block Diagram (FBD) are two approaches for writing
PLC programs. LAD is ideal for simple, intuitive logic, while FBD is better suited for
complex systems with modular, reusable function blocks. Both involve defining system
requirements, creating control logic, translating it into the respective language,
testing/debugging, and maintaining program documentation.

Structured Control Language (SCL)

Structured Control Language (SCL) is a high-level textual programming language for PLCs that
resembles traditional programming languages like Pascal or C. It is particularly useful for
complex control tasks that require data manipulation, algorithms, and structured programming
techniques.

1. Defining System Requirements

 Input/Output Devices: Identify sensors/actuators and types of digital/analog inputs/outputs.

 Control Logic: Define logic for device control, timing, or data processing.
 Performance Criteria: Establish parameters like response time, accuracy, and reliability.
 Safety & Compliance: Document safety and compliance with industry standards.

2. Program Structure and Variables

 Program Structure: SCL programs use functions and blocks called within the main program, with
sections for initialization, processing, and termination.
 Variable Declaration: Declare variables for inputs, outputs, status flags, and calculations with
descriptive, convention-based naming.

Example:

scl

Copy code VAR

in_temperature : REAL; // Input temperature sensor value

out_fan_status : BOOL; // Output status of the fan

temp_threshold : REAL := 75.0; // Threshold temperature

END_VAR

3. Coding Logic with Control Statements

 Conditional Statements: Use IF, ELSE, and CASE for decision-making.

 Loops: Apply FOR, WHILE, or REPEAT loops for iteration, like processing arrays.
 Function Calls: Create functions for repetitive tasks to improve code reusability.

Example:

scl

Copy code

IF in_temperature > temp_threshold THEN

out_fan_status := TRUE; // Turn on the fan

ELSE

out_fan_status := FALSE; // Turn off the fan

END_IF

4. Interfacing with I/O Devices

 Reading Inputs: Use functions to read sensor values.

 Setting Outputs: Assign output variables to control actuators.
 Error Handling: Implement error checking and define actions for failures (e.g., alarms, backups).

Example:

scl

Copy code

// Example of reading an analog input and controlling an output

VAR

analog_input : INT; // Raw input value from sensor

END_VAR

analog_input := READ_ANALOG_INPUT(sensor_address); // Reading input from a specified

address
IF analog_input > 100 THEN

out_fan_status := TRUE; // Activate fan

ELSE

out_fan_status := FALSE; // Deactivate fan

END_IF

5. Program Testing and Debugging

 Simulation Tools:

o Use simulation software to test the SCL program in a controlled environment

before deployment.  Debugging Techniques:
o Monitor variable values during execution to ensure they match expected outcomes.
o Use breakpoints and step-through debugging to identify logic errors.
 Field Testing:
o Conduct on-site testing with actual hardware to ensure that the program performs
correctly under real-world conditions.

 Converting PLC Programming Languages

Converting between different PLC programming languages requires understanding the logic and
structure of each language to ensure that the program retains its functionality.

1. Ladder Diagram to Structured Control Language (LAD to SCL)  Identify

Rungs:

o Each rung in the LAD represents a condition or action that can be translated into SCL
control structures (e.g., IF statements for conditions).
• Inputs and Outputs: o Map the I/O from the LAD to variable declarations in SCL. 
Implement Logic:
o Convert the graphical representation into textual form, maintaining the same logic flow.

Example Conversion:

• Ladder Logic: o If a push button is pressed, turn on a motor.

ladder
Copy code

|----[Button]----(Motor)----|

• SCL Equivalent:

scl
Copy code

IF Button_Pressed THEN

Motor_Status := TRUE; // Turn on motor

ELSE

Motor_Status := FALSE; // Turn off motor

END_IF

2. Ladder Diagram to Function Block Diagram (LAD to FBD)

• Define Function Blocks:

o Each rung of LAD can be represented by a corresponding function block in FBD (e.g.,
contacts for inputs, coils for outputs).
• Connect Blocks:
o Create connections between function blocks according to the logical relationships
defined in the LAD.

Example Conversion:

 Ladder Logic:

Ladder Logic Basics

Just like computers, PLCs operate with binary signals; each one can be set to zero or one. In the
programming world, this data type is called a boolean. A boolean takes a single bit in the
memory, can be set to 0 or 1, and is used in most basic PLC instructions.

Basic Ladder Logic Rung Analysis

Step 1 - The hypothetical current starts moving from left to right.

Step 2 - When the hypothetical current encounters and XIC Instruction, it checks if the condition is
TRUE or FALSE. If the XIC is False, the PLC aborts this rung.
Step 3 - The hypothetical current goes to the next instruction. Repeats Step 2 until the rung is
completed.

 Step 4 - The PLC moves to the rung below.

Ladder Logic PLC Programming XIC = OFF Example

In the example above, the XIC Instruction is tied to the bit “Condition1”. Since the bit is OFF (or
0), the hypothetical current stops at the instruction.

Ladder Logic PLC Programming XIC = ON Example

In the example above, the XIC Instruction is tied to the bit “Condition1”. Since the bit is ON (or
1), the hypothetical current is allowed to pass through and goes to the OTE Instruction. The OTE
Instruction sets the “Energize1” bit to HIGH (or 1)

Ladder Logic Structure | Circuit Branches

Now that we’ve seen a basic example that illustrates how the execution of a single ladder logic
rung is completed, it’s time to discuss circuit branches. Circuit branches create a way for the
current to pass through a different path as the rung executes. The instructions are executed in the
same way, but we now need to analyze different paths the current may take.
Ladder Logic PLC Programming Circuit Branch Example

The rung above has the primary rung and a branch that jumps the first two conditions with a 3rd
one. Let’s analyze what’s happening with the execution of the Logic.

Step 1 - The hypothetical current starts on the main branch of the rung. As it reaches
“Condition1”, it evaluates the XIC Instruction. The XIC Instruction is TRUE and allows the
current to proceed.

Step 2 - The hypothetical current flows to the next XIC Instruction and attempts to evaluate it.
Since “Condition2” is set to 0, the XIC Instruction evaluates to FALSE. The current is stopped.

Step 3 - The hypothetical current goes back to the first branch. The XIC Instruction tied to bit
“Condition3” is executed. Since the “Condition3” bit is HIGH, the XIC evaluates to TRUE. The
current proceeds.

Step 4 - The current reaches the OTE Instruction and sets the “Energize1” bit to ON (or HIGH).

Here's a much more complex example for you to consider. It's not abnormal to find multiple
branched circuits in ladder logic
Function Block Diagram (FBD)

Summary

Using Structured Control Language (SCL) allows for efficient coding of complex logic for PLC
applications. The process includes defining system requirements, structuring programs, coding
logic, interfacing with I/O devices, and thorough testing and debugging. Converting between
programming languages, such as from Ladder Diagram (LAD) to SCL or Function Block
Diagram (FBD), requires careful mapping of logic to maintain functionality and performance in
the automation system. Understanding both the source and target languages is crucial for
successful conversions.

LEARNING OUTCOME 3: DEPLOY PLC PROGRAM

Downloading PLC Program

Transferring a PLC program to the actual hardware is a crucial step in automation system
deployment. This process ensures that the PLC is configured to execute the control logic
designed during programming.

1. Program File Preparation 

Compile the Program:

o Ensure the PLC program is compiled without errors. Most PLC programming
environments provide a compile function to check for syntax and logical errors.
• Export Program File:
o Save or export the PLC program to a compatible file format (e.g., .zip, .plc, .xml), which
can be recognized by the PLC hardware.
• Version Control:
o Label the program file with version numbers and dates to maintain a clear history of
changes.

2. Select Connection Method

• Method of Connection:
o USB Connection: Directly connects the PLC to a computer using a USB cable.
o Ethernet Connection: Connects to the PLC over a local network, allowing for faster
file transfers and remote access.
o Serial Connection: Uses RS-232 or RS-485 protocols for older PLC models.
• Depth of Connection:
o Programming Mode: The PLC is in programming mode, allowing file transfers.
 o Run Mode: The PLC can be in run mode if it supports online programming, but
changes might be limited.

3. Flash the Program File to PLC

 Transfer the File:

o Use the PLC programming software to initiate the transfer of the program file to the
PLC.
• Flashing Procedure:
o Follow prompts to upload the program file. This may involve confirming overwrite
warnings or selecting specific memory locations.  Verification:
o After flashing, verify that the program was uploaded correctly by checking the status
indicators in the programming software.

Testing Automation System

Testing is essential to ensure that the automation system operates as intended and meets all
functional and safety requirements.

1. Description of Testing Techniques

• Testing Techniques:
o Functional Testing: Validates that the system performs as specified. o Integration
Testing: Ensures that different components of the automation system work together. o
User Acceptance Testing (UAT): Involves end-users testing the system to verify it
meets their requirements.
• Advantages and Disadvantages:
o Advantages:
 Identifies defects early in the development process.
 Ensures system reliability and performance.
 Enhances user confidence in the system.
o Disadvantages:
 Time-consuming and requires thorough planning.
 May involve significant resources and skilled personnel.
 Risk of overlooking edge cases or specific user scenarios.

2. STLC (Software Testing Life Cycle)

• Phases of STLC:
o Requirement Analysis: Understanding the testing requirements based on system
specifications.
o Test Planning: Developing a test strategy and defining resources and timelines. o Test
Design: Creating test cases and defining the testing environment. o Test
 Execution: Running test cases and documenting the results. o Test Closure:
Analyzing the test process and documenting lessons learned.

3. Applying Testing Techniques

• Unit Test:
o Focuses on testing individual components or functions of the PLC program. This can
be done using simulation tools or on the actual hardware.
o Example: Testing the logic of a single rung in a Ladder Diagram.
• System Test:
o Evaluates the entire automation system's functionality, including interactions between
different components. o Example: Testing the complete operation of the system
from sensor input to actuator output under various conditions.

Documenting Automation System

Proper documentation ensures clarity and facilitates maintenance and troubleshooting.

1. Technical Documentation  Hardware Configuration:

o Document the physical layout, including hardware components, wiring diagrams, and
installation details.
• Software Configuration:
o Include details of the PLC program, software versions, and any configuration settings
required for operation.  Control Logic:
o Provide descriptions and flowcharts of control logic, outlining how inputs affect
outputs.
• Network Architecture:
o Document the network setup, including IP addresses, devices connected, and
communication protocols.

2. Prepare System’s User Manual

• User Instructions:
o Create clear, concise instructions for end-users on how to operate the system, including
starting, stopping, and monitoring processes.
• Troubleshooting Guide:
o Include common issues, error messages, and their resolutions to help users manage
potential problems.
• Maintenance Procedures: o Document routine maintenance tasks and schedules to ensure
system reliability.

Maintaining Automation System

Regular maintenance and troubleshooting ensure the automation system continues to operate
effectively.

1. Apply Preventive Maintenance  Scheduled Inspections:

o Perform regular checks of hardware components and connections to identify wear and
tear.
• Software Updates: o Regularly update software and firmware to enhance performance and
security.
• Documentation Review:
o Periodically review and update documentation to reflect any changes or
improvements in the system.
2. System Diagnosing

• Monitoring Tools:
o Utilize software tools to monitor system performance and identify any anomalies in
real time.  Diagnostic Tests:
o Run specific tests to evaluate component functionality and communication between
devices.

3. System Troubleshooting

• Identify Issues:
o Use symptoms and error codes to pinpoint the source of problems.
• Logical Troubleshooting Steps:
o Follow a structured approach, checking inputs, outputs, and connections
methodically to isolate the issue.  Corrective Actions:
o Implement fixes based on diagnostics, which may involve repairing or replacing
components, updating software, or adjusting configurations.

Summary

Downloading a PLC program, testing the automation system, documenting the setup, and
maintaining it are all critical aspects of ensuring a robust and reliable automation solution.
Proper preparation, thorough testing, detailed documentation, and ongoing maintenance
contribute to the successful operation and longevity of the automation system.

END