A cricketer strikes the ball with his bat, applying a force and directing the ball into a particular

part of the ground. He can hit the ball at different speeds and direct it into different parts of the
ground.
1. Introduction
In common usage, a force is a push or a pull on some object. If you pull hard enough on a
trolley [see figure (a)], the trolley moves. If a player kicks the football [see figure (b)], the
football moves.

[59]
 (a) A trolley moves when it is pulled (b) Player kicking a football
Examples of some contact forces

☞ There are two types of forces : contact forces and non-contact forces. The types of contact
forces are muscular force, tension, friction etc. The types of non-contact force are
electrostatic force, magnetic force, gravitational force.

★ Frictional force not only opposes motion but also helps a body to move. It is friction

that helps us walk and run.

★ The earth is acted upon by the gravitational pull of the stars, planets, sun and moon.

However, the gravitational pull of the sun is the most dominant.

2. Effects of force
Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, the world's tallest twin towers. The design of tall
buildings involves understanding forces. Towering buildings are susceptible to movement from the wind.

(1) A force can distort an object i.e. it can change

the shape and size of an object.
(2) A force can start an object at rest i.e. it can
move a stationary object.
(3) A force can stop a moving object i.e. it can
cause a moving object to come to rest.
(4) A force can change the speed or the magnitude
of velocity of an object i.e. it can increase or
decrease the speed of an object.
(5) A force can change the direction of a moving
object.

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☞ A force can be defined as ‘a push or a pull exerted on an object that can cause the object to

speed up, slow down, or change direction as it moves or it can change its shape and size’.

Effects of force

1. Figure shows a wooden block on a horizontal table. Two strings X and Y are tied to the two
opposite faces of the block as shown. Apply a force by pulling the string X, the block begins
to move to the right [see figure (a)]. Similarly, if we pull the string Y, the block moves to the
left [see figure (b)].
2. Now, pull both strings X and Y simultaneously i.e. in opposite direction. If the forces on the
block are equal, the block will not move [see figure (c)]. If the opposite forces on the block
are of different magnitudes, the block will move in the direction of the greater force [see
figure (d)].

[61]
 (a)
Motion
Force
X
Y
Motion
Force
X
(b)
(d)
(c)
No movement
F2
F1
Y
X
Motion
[F2>F1]
F1
Y
X
F2
Active physics 1
Conclusion : When a single force is applied on an object, the
object will move in the direction of applied force. When two or
more forces are applied on an object, the object will move in the
direction of net force acting on the object. Thus, force is a
vector quantity.
3. Balanced and unbalanced forces
Balanced forces
If the resultant of all forces acting on a body is zero, the forces
are called ‘balanced forces’.
☞ If the net force exerted on an object is zero, then the forces acting on it are said to be
balanced. In such a case, the acceleration of the object is zero and its velocity remains

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 constant. That is, if the net force acting on the object is zero, the object either remains at
rest or continues to move with constant velocity.
Unbalanced forces
If the resultant of all forces acting on a body is not zero, the forces are called ‘unbalanced
forces’.
☞ If the net force exerted on an object is not zero, then the forces acting on it are said to be

unbalanced. In such a case, the acceleration of the object is not zero and its velocity
changes. That is, if the net force acting on the object is not zero, then such a force changes
state of rest or the state of uniform motion of the object.
If there is an unbalanced force acting on an object, the change in its velocity would
continue as long as this unbalanced force persists. If this force is removed completely, the
object would continue to move with the velocity it has acquired till then.
☞ An object is in equilibrium when it has zero acceleration. This means, it is the state of an

object or system of objects for which there are no changes in motion. It includes the state of
rest as well as the state of uniform motion.

★ If Fnet = 0, forces are balanced.

★ If Fnet ≠ 0, forces are unbalanced.

What happens when some children try to push a box on a rough floor?
Explanation
If they push the box with a small force, the box does not move because of friction acting in a
direction opposite to the push [see figure (a)]. This frictional force arises between two
surfaces in contact. Here, the friction is between the bottom of the box and floor’s rough
surface. It balances the pushing force and therefore the box does not move. If the children
push the box harder [see figure (b)], the box still does not move. This is because the
frictional force still balances the pushing force. If the children continue to increase the push
force on the box, at some point the pushing force becomes bigger than the frictional force
[see figure (c)]. That is, there is an unbalanced force due to which the box starts moving
(accelerating).
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 (a)
(b)
(c)
No movement
No movement
Motion
Building Concepts 1

1. What happens if we stop pedaling while riding a bicycle?

2. Is it correct to say that ‘an object maintains its motion under the continuous application of
an unbalanced force’?
3. Which type of force is required to accelerate or retard the motion of an object?
4. Galileo's inclined planes
Galileo studied motion of objects on an inclined plane. He noted that balls rolling down
[see figure (a)] the inclined planes picked up speed (i.e. acceleration), while balls rolling on
[see figure (b)] up the inclined planes lost speed (i.e. retardation). From this he reasoned
that balls rolling on [see figure (c)] a horizontal plane would neither speed up nor slow
down. The ball would finally come to rest not because of its ‘nature’ but because of friction.
This idea was supported by Galileo's observation of motion along smoother surfaces. When
there was less friction, the motion of objects persisted for a longer time. The smaller the
friction, the more the motion approached constant velocity. Galileo concluded that an
object moving on a frictionless horizontal plane must neither have acceleration nor
retardation, i.e. it should move with constant velocity.

[64]
 (a) A ball rolling down the plane. Velocity of ball (b) A ball rolling up the plane. Velocity of
increases (accelerated motion). ball decreases (retarded motion).

(c) A ball rolling on a horizontal plane. Velocity of ball remains constant (uniform motion).
Motion of balls on different planes
Another experiment by Galileo leading to the same conclusion involves a double inclined
plane. A ball released from rest on one of the planes rolls down and climbs up the other. If
the planes are smooth, the final height of the ball is nearly the same as the initial height
(a little less but never greater). In the ideal situation, when friction is absent, the final
height of the ball is the same as its initial height [see figure (a)]. If the slope of the second
plane is decreased and the experiment is repeated, the ball will still reach the same height,
but in doing so, it will travel a longer distance.
Galileo concluded that ‘a ball rolling down the first inclined plane on the left tends to roll
up to its initial height on the second plane on the right, thus, the ball must roll a greater
distance as the angle of the second inclined plane on the right is reduced’ [(see figure (b)].
He argued that when the slope of the second plane is made zero i.e. it becomes a horizontal
plane, the ball must travel an infinite distance since it can never reach its initial height on
first plane [(see figure (c)]. In other words, its motion never ceases. This is, of course, an
idealised situation.

☞ Galileo arrived at a new insight that ‘the state of rest and the state of uniform motion

(motion with constant velocity) are equivalent’. In both cases, there is no net force acting
on the body. It is incorrect to assume that a net force is needed to keep a body in uniform
motion. To maintain a body in uniform motion, we need to apply an external force to
counter the frictional force, so that the two forces sum up to zero net external force. A body
does not change its state of rest or uniform motion, unless an external force compels it to
change that state. The tendency of things to resist changes in motion was what Galileo
called inertia.

[65]
 (a)
h
h
(b)
h
(c)
h
Galileo’s observations on motion of a ball on a double inclined plane
5. Newton's first law of motion
Newton built on Galileo’s ideas and laid the foundation of mechanics in terms of three laws
of motion that go by his name. Galileo’s law of inertia was his starting point which he
formulated as the first law of motion :
‘Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it’.
Concept of Inertia
Inertia is ‘the natural tendency of an object to remain at rest or in motion at a constant
speed along a straight line’. In other words, ‘the tendency of an object to resist any attempt
to change its velocity’ is called inertia.

★ It should be noted that Newton’s first law of motion is also called Galileo’s law of

inertia.

Do all bodies have same inertia? Is there any relation between inertia and mass of
body?
Explanation
We know that it is easier to push an empty box than a box full of books. Similarly, if we kick
a football it flies away. But if we kick a stone of the same size with equal force, it hardly
moves. We may, in fact, get an injury in our foot while doing so A force that is just enough to
cause a small cart to pick up a large velocity will produce a negligible change in the motion
of a train. This is because, in comparison to the cart the train has a much lesser tendency to
change its state of motion. Accordingly, we say that the train has more inertia than the cart.

[66]
 Clearly, heavier or more massive objects offer larger inertia. Quantitatively, the inertia of an
object is measured by its mass.

☞ The mass of an object is a quantitative measure of inertia. More the mass, more will be the
inertia of an object and vice-versa.
Inertia of an object can be of three types :
(1) Inertia of rest (2) Inertia of motion (3) Inertia of direction
Inertia of rest
It is the tendency of an object to remain at rest. This means an object at rest remains at rest
until a sufficiently large external force is applied on it.
Examples of inertia of rest
(1) When you are sitting in a stationary car, if the car starts suddenly i.e. accelerates
forward, you feel as if your body is being pushed back against the seat, because your
body which was initially at rest resists this change due to inertia. The lower part of
body comes in motion as it is in direct contact with the car floor, while the upper
portion still remains at rest due to inertia of rest [see figure]. If the speed of car
increases slowly, you will not feel a push or a jerk because the inertia of motion will get
transferred to the whole body.

Motorist is being
pushed backward
Direction of
motion
Sudden start of a car
Example of inertia of rest
(2) When a blanket is given a sudden jerk, the dust particles fall off. This is because the
blanket suddenly comes in motion but the dust particles still remain at rest. As a result,
the dust particles get separated from the blanket.
Inertia of motion
It is the tendency of an object to remain in the state of uniform motion. This means an
object in uniform motion continues to move uniformly until an external force is applied on
it.
Examples of inertia of motion
(1) When you are driving a car and you apply brakes to stop the car suddenly, you feel as if
your body is being pushed forward, because your body resists the decrease in speed.

[67]
 The lower part of body comes to rest as it is in direct contact with the car floor, while
the upper portion still remains in motion due to inertia of motion [see figure(a)]. If you
stop the car by decreasing its speed slowly, you will not feel a push or a jerk because the
inertia of rest will get transferred to the whole body.
(2) A person jumping out of a moving train has the tendency to fall forward. This is because
on jumping, his feet come to rest as they touch the ground. But, his upper body
continues to move forward due to inertia of motion.
(3) An athlete runs for some distance quickly before taking a long jump. As a result, he
takes a longer jump due to inertia of motion [see figure (b)].
(4) When you move a hammer with loose hammerhead in downward motion and suddenly
stop it on a floor or a wooden base, the hammerhead gets tightened. This is because the
handle of the hammer suddenly comes to rest on hitting the floor, while the
hammerhead continues to move downward due to more inertia of motion, and hence
gets tightened [see figure (c)]. If you move the hammer slowly, the state of rest will get
transferred to the hammerhead also, thus, the hammerhead will not get tightened.

(a) (b) (c) Tightening of hammerhead

Examples of inertia of motion
Inertia of direction
It is the tendency of an object to maintain its direction. This means an object moving in a
particular direction continues to move in that direction until an external force is applied to
change it.
Examples of inertia of direction

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 (1) When your motorcar makes a sharp turn at a high speed, you tend to get thrown to one
side. You tend to continue in straight-line motion due to inertia of direction [see figure
(a)].

Direction of motion
Motorist tends to
continue in straight line
A
B
VA
VB
Sand particle
Sand particle
(a) (b)
Examples of inertia of direction
(2) When a wheel rotates at high speeds, the sand particles on the wheel fly tangentially
along a straight line due to inertia of direction [see figure (b)].

1. When we stop pedaling, the bicycle begins to slow down. This is because of the frictional
force acting opposite to the direction of motion. In order to keep the bicycle moving, we
have to start pedaling again.
2. Yes, it is incorrect. An object moves with a uniform velocity when the forces (e.g. pushing
force and frictional force) acting on the object are balanced i.e. there is no net external
force acting on it. If an unbalanced force is applied on the object, there will be a change
either in its speed or in the direction of its motion.
3. To accelerate or retard the motion of an object, an unbalanced force is required. The
change in its speed (or in the direction of motion) will continue as long as this unbalanced
force is applied.

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1. Set a five-rupee coin on a stiff smooth card covering an empty glass tumbler standing on a
table (see figure). Give the card a sharp horizontal flick with a finger.

(a)
(b)
Active physics 2
2. If we do it fast then the card moves away, allowing the coin to fall vertically into the glass
tumbler due to its inertia of rest. The inertia of the coin tries to maintain its state of rest
even when the card flies off.

1. Make a pile of similar carrom coins on a table (see figure). Attempt a strong horizontal hit
at the bottom of the pile using another carrom coin or the striker. If the hit is strong
enough, the bottom coin moves out quickly. Once the lowest coin is removed, the inertia of
the other coins makes them ‘fall’ vertically on the table.
2. This is because the lowest coin comes in motion while the other coins remain at rest due to
inertia. If the hit is not so strong, the inertia of motion is transferred to all the coins, thus,
the coins may fall randomly with or without the actual movement of lowest coin.

Active physics 3

☞ Air bags in car- a safety device: If a head-on collision of a car is violent enough, sodium

azide undergoes a rapid chemical reaction to produce non-toxic nitrogen gas, which
inflates an airbag. The inflated airbag provides a protective cushion to slow down the head
and body of a motorist.
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 (a) (b) (c)
Airbag systems in cars are designed to safeguard the motorist during vehicle collisions

1. Suppose you are standing in a bus which is at rest. What happens when the bus starts
suddenly?
2. What happens when you shake vigorously a branch of a mango tree?
3. Why a bullet shot on a tightly fitted window glass sheet makes a small circular hole, while a
cricket ball damages a big portion of the same sheet?
6. Linear momentum (or momentum)
The linear momentum of a particle or an object that has a mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity
‘v’ is defined to be the product of the mass and velocity.
☞ Linear momentum is a vector quantity, because it equals the product of a scalar quantity
'm' and a vector quantity 'v'. The direction of linear momentum is ‘the direction along the
velocity’.
p=m×v
☞ If there is an unbalanced force acting on an object, its velocity changes, hence, its
momentum also changes. If the forces acting on an object are balanced, its velocity is
constant, hence, its momentum is also constant.
☞ The linear momentum of a particle is
(i) directly proportional to its mass (ii) directly proportional to its velocity
Units of linear momentum
SI unit : kg m/s or kg m s–1 (Another SI unit of momentum is Newton-second or N-s)
C.G.S. unit : g cm/s or g cm s–1

★ Every moving body possesses momentum.

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 ★ Momentum is the combined effect of mass and velocity.

★ Momentum is considered to be a measure of the quantity of motion of a moving body.

★ Force can change the velocity of an object. Thus, force can change the momentum of
an object.
★ When an object is moving along a circular path, its velocity is tangential to the circular
path, hence, its momentum is also tangential to the circular path.
★ In Newton’s second law, F = 0 implies a = 0. Thus, Newton’s second law is obviously
consistent with Newton’s first law.

(i) A car and a truck both are moving with same velocities. Which one has more
momentum?
(ii) A car and a truck have same momentum. Which one has more velocity?
Explanation
(i) For a given velocity, the momentum is directly proportional to the mass of the object.
This means more the mass, more will be the momentum and vice-versa. Here, velocity
of both truck and car is same. Since, the mass of a truck is greater than the mass of a
car, therefore, the momentum of truck is more than the momentum of car.
(ii) For a given momentum, the velocity is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
This means smaller the mass, more will be the velocity of an object and vice-versa.
Here, momentum of both truck and car is same. Since, the mass of a car is smaller than
the mass of a truck, therefore, the velocity of car is more than the velocity of truck.

1. Momentum of an object is 20 kg m s–1. What will be its momentum if

(a) its mass is doubled but the velocity remains the same?
(b) the velocity is reduced to (1/3) of its original magnitude but mass remains the same?
Solution
Let the mass of the object be m and its velocity be v.
Initial value of momentum, p = mv = 20 kg m s–1
(a) New mass, m' = 2 m, velocity remains the same i.e. v' =
v
New value of momentum, p'=m'v'=(2m)(v)

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 =2mv=2 × 20 = 40 kg m s–1

(b) New velocity, v' = v/3, mass remains the same i.e., m'= m
New value of momentum, p' = m'v' = m(v/3) = (mv)/3
= 20/3 = 6.67 kg m s–1
2. Calculate the momentum of a motor car of mass 800 kg moving with a velocity of
10 m/s.
Solution
Given,
mass = 800 kg; velocity,
v = 10 m/s
p = mv = 800 × 10
= 8000 kg m/s
3. A 65-kg girl is driving a 535-kg car at a constant velocity of 11.5 m/s. Calculate the
momentum of the girl-car system.
Solution
Since, we have to find the momentum of the girl-car system,
the total mass of the system,
m = mass of girl + mass of car = 65 + 535 = 600 kg
Velocity of car, v = 11.5 m/s
Now, momentum,

p = mv = 600 × 11.5

= 6900 kg m s–1
4. The momentum of a 75-g bullet is 9 kg m/s. What is the velocity of the bullet?
Solution
Given, mass of bullet, m = 75 g = (75/1000) kg = 0.075 kg
momentum, p = 9 kg m/s ; velocity, v =?
Now, momentum, p = mv

or

= 120 m/s
7. Newton's second law of motion
According to the second law of motion, ‘the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which
the force acts’.

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 Mathematically, the force, F∝

where, Δp = change in momentum, t = time interval.

Mathematical formulation of second law of motion

Let an object of mass ‘m’ is moving along a straight line with an initial velocity ‘u’. It is
uniformly accelerated to velocity ‘v’ in time ‘t’ by the application of a constant force F
throughout the time t. The initial and final momentum of the object will be, p1 = mu and p2
= mv, respectively.

The change in momentum, Δp = p2 – p1 = mv – mu = m (v – u)

The force F is proportional to the rate of change of momentum, that is,

F∝ or F ∝

or F = k ...(1)

where, k is a constant of proportionality.

Now, acceleration, a = ...(2)

From eq. (1) & eq. (2), we get, F = k m a ...(3)

The SI units of mass and acceleration are kg and m s–2 respectively. The unit of force is so
chosen that the value of the constant ‘k’ becomes one.

That is, 1 unit of force = k × (1 kg) × (1 m s–2) or k = 1

Thus, the value of k becomes 1. Therefore, the eq.(3) reduces to,

Unit of force
SI unit : Newton (N)
Since, F = ma

or 1 N = 1 kg × 1 m s–2 = 1 kg m s–2

∴ C.G.S unit : Dyne

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 1 dyne = 1 g cm s–2

1 N = 1000 g × 100 cm s–2 = 105 g cm s–2,

or 1 N = 105 dynes

★ Force is not always in the direction of motion. It may be along velocity, opposite to
velocity or make angle with velocity.
★ In every motion, force is parallel to acceleration.
★ No force is required to move a body with a uniform velocity.

★ The cause of every accelerated motion is an external force.

★ a= , the acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to the force acting

on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

★ If the mass of a body is doubled, its acceleration will be halved and if the mass is

halved than acceleration will get doubled (provided the force remains the same).

★ a = –ve, shows that the acceleration is acting in a direction opposite to the motion of

the body.

★ F = –ve, shows that force is acting in a direction opposite to that in which the body is

moving.

1. When the bus starts suddenly, we feel a push in backward direction. This is because the
lower part of our body which is in direct contact with the bus floor starts moving while the
upper part is still at rest due to inertia.

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2. When we shake vigorously a branch of a mango tree, the mangoes fall down. This is
because on shaking, the branches comes in motion while the mangoes still remain at rest
due to inertia. Thus, the mangoes get detached and fall.
3. The bullet strikes the glass sheet with a very high speed. Thus, only the portion where the
bullet strikes comes in motion while the remaining portion of glass sheet still remains at
rest due to inertia. The cricket ball strikes the glass sheet with relatively lower speed. Thus,
inertia of motion gets transferred to a big portion of the glass sheet, damaging a big portion
of glass sheet.

☞ If force is constant i.e., F = ma = constant, then, the acceleration produced in the body,

a∝ . That is, for a given force, acceleration produced is inversely proportional to its

mass.
☞ If same force F is applied to masses m1 and m2 and the resulting accelerations in them are

a1 and a2 respectively, then,

m1a1 = m2a2 or

Equal forces are applied to a car and a truck which produce acceleration in both of
them. Which one has smaller acceleration?
Explanation
For a given force, the acceleration produced in the object is inversely proportional to the

mass of the object (a ∝ 1/m). This means more the mass of an object, less will be the

acceleration produced in it. Here, force applied on the truck as well as the car is same.
Since, the mass of a truck is greater than the mass of a car, therefore, the acceleration of the
truck is smaller than the acceleration of the car.
Applications/results of Newton’s second law
(i) Suppose a light-weight vehicle (say a small car) and a heavy-weight vehicle (say a
loaded truck) are parked on a horizontal road. A much greater force is needed to push

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 the truck than the car to bring them to the same speed in same time. This is because,
for a given time interval, the force is directly proportional to the change in
momentum. Here, the change in momentum of truck is quite large than that of the car,
therefore, force required for truck is quite large as compared to that required for car.
(ii) An experienced cricketer catches a cricket ball coming in with great speed far more
easily than a beginner, who can hurt his hands in the act. One reason is that the
cricketer allows a longer time for his hands to stop the ball. He draws in the hands
backward in the act of catching the ball (see figure). As the time for catching increases,
the force with which the ball hurts his hand decreases. As a result, his hands are not
injured. A beginner, on the other hand, keeps his hands fixed and tries to catch the ball
almost instantly (i.e. in a very small time interval). Thus, a much greater force is
exerted by the ball on his hands and this hurts a lot.

A cricketer catching the ball

(iii) If two stones, one light and the other heavy, are dropped from the top of a building, a
person on the ground will find it easier to catch the light stone than the heavy stone.
This is because the force is directly proportional to the mass of an object.
(iv) Speed/velocity is another important parameter to consider. A bullet fired by a gun can
easily pierce human tissue before it stops, resulting in casualty. The same bullet fired
with moderate speed will not cause much damage. Thus for a given mass, the greater
the speed, the greater is the opposing force needed to stop the body in a certain time.
(v) When an athlete goes for a high jump, he is made to fall on a cushioned bed. This
increases the time of falling of the athlete, thereby reducing the force exerted on him,
causing no injury.

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1. All of the following, except one, cause the acceleration of an object to double. Which one is
it?
(a) All forces acting on the object double.
(b) The net force acting on the object doubles.
(c) Both the net force acting on the object and the mass of the object double.
(d) The mass of the object is reduced by a factor of two.
2. A greater opposing force is needed to stop a heavy body than a light body in the same time,
if they are moving with the same speed. Explain.
3. How seat belts help to prevent injuries to the passengers in car in case of an accident?

1. How much force should be applied to a body of mass 250 g to produce an

acceleration of 12 m/s2 in it?
Solution

Given mass, m = 250 g = kg = 0.25 kg

Acceleration, a = 12 m/s2
force, F = ma
= 0.25 × 12 = 3 N
2. A cricket ball of 0.2 kg moving with a speed of 40 m/s is brought to rest by player in
0.05 s. Find the average force applied by the player.
Solution
Given, mass of ball, m = 0.2 kg; initial velocity, u = 40 m/s;
final velocity, v = 0; time, t = 0.05 s
Now, initial momentum, p1 = mu = 0.2 × 40 = 8 kg m/s
Final momentum, p2 = mv = 0.2 × 0 = 0 kg m/s

Force, F = =

=– = –160 N

3. Estimate the net force needed to accelerate a 1000 kg car at 5 m/s2. If same force is
applied to a 200 g ball, what will be its acceleration?

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 Solution
Given, mass of car, m = 1000 kg; acceleration of car, a = 5
m/s2 ; force needed, F =? Force, F = ma = 1000 × 5 = 5000 N
Now, same force is applied to a 200 g ball i.e., F = 5000 N
mass of ball, m' = 200 g = 200/1000 = 0.2 kg

Thus, acceleration of ball, a' = = 2.5 × 104 m/s2

4. A car of mass 800 kg, moving with velocity 10 m/s is brought to rest in 20 seconds by
applying brakes. Calculate the force acting on the wheels.
Solution
Given, mass, m = 800 kg; initial velocity, u = 10 m/s;
final velocity, v = 0; time, t = 20 s

f = ma = ( a= )

=
= – 400 N

5. A constant force acts on an object of mass 5 kg for a duration of 2 s. It increases the

object’s velocity from 3 m s–1 to 7 m s–1. Find the magnitude of the applied force. If the
force was applied for a duration of 5 s, what would be the final velocity of the object?
Solution
Given, initial velocity, u = 3 m s–1 ; final velocity, v = 7 ms–1
time, t = 2 s ; mass of the object, m = 5 kg ; force, F =?

Acceleration,
Force, F = ma = 5 × 2 = 10 N
If same force was applied for a duration of 5 s, the
acceleration will remain the same i.e., a = 2 m s–2
Now, from first equation of motion,
v = u + at = 3 + (2 × 5) = 3 + 10 = 13 m s–1
6. A force of 5 N gives a mass m1 an acceleration of 10 m s–2 and a mass m2, an
acceleration of 20 m s–2. What acceleration would it give if both the masses were tied
together?
Solution
Given, m1 =? ; force on m1 , F = 5 N

[79]
 acceleration on m1, a1 = 10 m s–2 ; m2 =?
force on m2, F = 5 N ; acceleration on m2, a2 = 20 m s–2

We know that, F = ma or

Thus, .

Similarly,
Now, if both the masses are tied together and same force F is applied on them, then,

F = (m1 + m2) a', or a' = = 6.67 m s–2

7. The velocity-time graph of a ball of mass 20 g moving along a straight line on a long
table is given in figure. How much force does the table exert on the ball to bring it to
rest?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
25

20

15

10

Time (s)
Velocity (cm/s)
Numerical ability 2
Solution

[80]
 The initial velocity of the ball is 20 cm s–1. Due to the friction force exerted by the table, the
velocity of the ball decreases down to zero in 10 s (as per graph).
Initial velocity, u = 20 cm s–1 = (20/100) m s–1 = 0.2 m s–1 ; final velocity, v = 0 ; time, t = 10 s
;
mass of the ball, m = 20 g = (20/1000) kg = 0.02 kg
Since the velocity-time graph is a straight line, it is clear that the ball comes to rest with a
constant acceleration.

Acceleration, a =
Force exerted on the ball, F = ma = 0.02 × (–0.02) = – 4 × 10–4 N
The negative sign implies that the frictional force exerted by the table is opposite to the
direction of motion of the ball.

1. (a) Since all the forces acting on the object double, the net force acting on the object also
doubles, thus, the acceleration of the object doubles.
(b) Since the net force acting on the object doubles, thus, the acceleration of the object
doubles.
(c) Since both net force acting on the object and the mass of the object double, the
acceleration remains the same (F = ma).
(d) The acceleration produced in the object is inversely proportional to the mass (a ∝ 1 /
m). Therefore, when the mass of an object is made half the original value, its
acceleration gets doubled. Thus, in case of option (c), the acceleration is not the double
of its original value.
2. Since the heavy body has greater momentum than the light body at the same speeds, the
change in momentum of the heavy body is also greater than that of the lighter body. For a
given time interval, the force is directly proportional to the change in momentum.
Therefore, the force needed to stop a heavy body is greater than a light body in the same
time.
3. In case of an accident or sudden application of brakes, the change in momentum is very
large. The seat belts or safety belts worn by the passengers exert force on their body and
make the forward motion slower. That is, the time taken by the passengers to fall forward
increases, hence the force exerted on them decreases. They may suffer minor injuries or no
injuries at all.

[81]
 Sir Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (1642-1727)
9. Newton's third law of motion
The second law relates the external force on a body to its acceleration. What is the origin of
the external force on the body? What agency provides the external force? The simple
answer is that the external force on a body always arises due to some other body.
Forces always exist in pairs
When two objects interact, two forces will always be involved. One force is the action force
and the other is the reaction force.
☞ According to Newton’s third law, ‘whenever one body exerts a force on a second body,
the second body exerts an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on the first
body’.
In other words, ‘to every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction’.
Consider a pair of bodies A and B. According to Newton’s third law, FAB = – FBA, where, FAB =
force on A due to B, and FBA= force on B due to A.
☞ An important aspect of Newton’s third law is that the action and reaction forces act on
different bodies. This means that action-reaction pairs will never be added together i.e.,
they can not cancel out each other.

If the action force is equal in magnitude to the reaction force, how can there ever be
an acceleration? Explain using an example.
Explanation
Though the action-reaction pair are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction but the
reaction force always acts on a different object than the action force. Thus, these forces do
not cancel out each other. Hence, there can be an acceleration in an object.

[82]
 Example : Let us consider a volleyball player bumping the ball (see figure). At the instant
when both the ball and the player’s arms are in contact, the action force is the upward force
that the player exerts on the ball. The reaction force is the downward force that the ball
exerts on the player’s arms. During the collision, the ball accelerates upward and the
player’s arms accelerate downward. We hardly notice the acceleration of player’s arms
since his mass is quite large as compared to the ball, and the effect of the force on his
motion is negligible.

Force exerted
by player on ball
Faction
Force exerted
by ball on player
Freaction
Building concepts 5
Examples/applications of Newton’s third law
1. Newton’s third law is also applicable to non-contact forces. For example, the Earth pulls an
object downwards due to gravity (see figure). The object's force also exerts the same force
on the Earth but in upward direction. But, we hardly see the effect of the object on the
Earth because the Earth is very massive and the effect of a small force on its state of rest or
motion is negligible. That is, the acceleration of Earth is negligible due to its huge mass.

Fg
Fe
[83]
 Fg = Force on object due to Earth
Fe = Force on Earth due to object
Newton’s third law is also applicable to non-contact forces
2. If boy exerts a small force on the wall, the wall will exert a small force on boy [see figure
(a)]. When girl pushes hard against the wall, it pushes back just as hard [see figure (b)].
3. When a sailor jumps out of a rowing boat. As the sailor jumps forward, the force on the
boat moves it backwards [see figure (c)].
4. When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal and
opposite reaction force on the gun. This results in the recoil of the gun [see figure (d)].
Since the gun has a much greater mass than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is much
less than the acceleration of the bullet.
5. Suppose you are standing at rest and intend to start walking (or running) on a road [see
figure (e)]. While walking, you push the road backwards. Thus, according to Newton’s third
law, the road exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on your feet to make you move
forward.

[84]
[85]
 Understanding Newton’s third law
6. Rocket Propulsion : In a rocket engine, the highly combustible fuel burns at a tremendous
rate [see figure (f) ]. The rocket exerts a downward (or backward) force on the exhaust gas
and thus, according to Newton’s third law, the exhaust gas exerts an upward (or forward)
force on the rocket, these forces are equal in magnitude. It is the reaction force of the
exhaust gas that accelerates the rocket forward. That is why a rocket can accelerate even in
outer space.

1. A high-speed car and an innocent insect have a head-on collision. The force of impact
splatters the poor insect over the windshield. Is the corresponding force that the insect
exerts against the windshield greater, less, or the same? Is the retardation of the car greater
than, less than, or the same as that of the insect?

Take two spring balances connected together as shown in figure The fixed end of balance B
is attached with a rigid support, like a wall. Apply a force through the free end of spring
balance A. You will observe that both the spring balances show the same readings on their
scales.
Conclusion : The force exerted by spring balance A on balance B is equal but opposite in
direction to the force exerted by the balance B on balance A. The force which balance A
exerts on balance B is called the ‘action’ and the force of balance B on balance A is called the
‘reaction’.

[86]
B
A
Active physics 4

1. The magnitudes of both forces are the same, they constitute an action-reaction pair that
makes up the interaction between the car and the insect (see figure). The accelerations,
however, are very different because their masses are different. The insect undergoes an
enormous and lethal retardation, while the car undergoes a negligible retardation, so that it
cannot be noticed by its driver or passengers.

F1 = Force on car by the insect, F2 = Force on insect by the car

Check your answers 4 (1)

1. Let you and your classmate are standing on two separate carts (see figure). Take a bag full
of sand or some other heavy object. Now, play a game of catch with the bag. You and your
classmate will receive an instantaneous reaction force as a result of throwing the sand bag
(action force). When you throw the bag in forward direction, cart along with you will move
in backward direction. Similar thing will happen to your classmate. As a result both of you
will move away from each other.
2. This observation is in agreement with Newton’s third law. We know that action and
reaction forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction i.e., FBA = – FAB. But the
accelerations of you and your classmate will not be the same as acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass for a given force. This means, if you are heavier than your
classmate, your acceleration will be less and vice-versa.

[87]
 FAB
FBA
A
B
Active physics 5
9. Conservation of momentum
The second and the third laws of motion lead to an important result : the law of
conservation of momentum. Let us understand it by taking an example : When a bullet is
fired from a gun, according to Newton’s third law, if the force on the bullet by the gun is F,
then the force on the gun by the bullet is – F. The two forces act for a common interval of
time t.
According to Newton’s second law, force F can be written as,

F= where, Δp is the change in momentum of the object.

or Δp = F × t

This means, F × t is the change in momentum of the bullet

and – F × t is the change in momentum of the gun. Since

initially, both are at rest, the change in momentum equals the final momentum for each. Let
pb be the momentum of the bullet after firing and pg is the recoil momentum of the gun,
then,

pb = F × t ... (1) and pg = – F × t ... (2)

Adding eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get, pb + pg = 0. That is, the final momentum of the system
(bullet plus gun) is zero. But, initial momentum of the system is also zero. This means
initial momentum is equal to the final momentum i.e., total momentum is conserved.

[88]
 Thus, in an isolated system (a system with no external force), mutual forces between pairs
of particles in the system can cause momentum change in individual particles, but since the
mutual forces for each pair are equal and opposite, the momentum changes cancel in pairs
and the total momentum remains unchanged. This fact is known as the law of
conservation of momentum.
☞ According to the law of conservation of momentum,

‘when the net external force on a system of objects is

zero, the total momentum of the system remains
constant’.
The term ‘collision’ is used to represent the event of two
particles coming together for a short time and thereby
producing ‘impulsive forces’ on each other. These forces
are assumed to be much greater than any external forces
present because they act for a very short time interval.
Law of conservation of momentum : proof
Let us consider two balls A and B having masses mA and mB, travelling in the same direction
along a straight line with different velocities uA and uB, respectively [see figure (a)]. No
other external unbalanced forces are acting on them. Let uA > uB and the two balls collide
with each other as shown in figure (b). During collision which lasts for a very short time t,
the ball A exerts a force FBA on ball B, and the ball B exerts a force FAB on ball A. Suppose vA
and vB are the velocities of the two balls A and B after the collision, respectively [see
figure(c)].

Proving law of conservation of momentum

Initial momentum of ball A = mAuA, and final momentum of ball A = mAvA Force on A due to
B, FAB = rate of change of momentum of ball A

[89]
 or ...(1)
Initial momentum of ball B = mBuB,
Final momentum of ball B = mBvB
Force on B due to A, FBA = rate of change of momentum of ball B

or ...(2)
According to Newton’s third law of motion, the force FBA exerted by ball A on ball B (action)
and the force FAB exerted by the ball B on ball A (reaction) must be equal and opposite to
each other. That is, FBA = – FAB

or mB(vB – uB) = – mA(vA – uA)

or mBvB – mBuB = – mAvA + mAuA
or mB vB + mA vA = mB uB + mA uA ...(3)
Since, (mBvB + mAvA) represent the total final momentum and (mBuB + mAuA) represent the
total initial momentum, from eq. (3), we can conclude that
Total final momentum = Total initial momentum
This is law of conservation of momentum.

1. Newton's second law states that, if no net force is exerted on a system, no acceleration
occurs. Does it follow that no change in momentum occurs?
2. In boxing, if a boxer increases the duration of impact of his punch on the opponent, how
does the force of impact change?
3. Explain, the recoiling of the gun, using law of conservation of momentum.

1. Take a big rubber balloon and inflate it fully. Tie its neck using a thread. Also using adhesive
tape, fix a straw on the surface of this balloon. Pass a thread through the straw and hold
one end of the thread in your hand or fix it on the wall (see figure). Fix the other end of the
thread on a wall at some distance. Now remove the thread tied on the neck of the balloon.
Let the air escape from the mouth of the balloon.

[90]
2. You will observe that the air escapes from the balloon in backward (leftward) direction
while the balloon along with the attached straw moves in forward (rightward) direction.
This is in agreement with Newton’s third law or the law of conservation of momentum.

Straw
Balloon
Air
Active physics 6

1. A bullet of mass 20 g is horizontally fired with a velocity 150 m s–1 from a pistol of
mass 2 kg. What is the recoil velocity of the pistol?
Solution
Given, mass of bullet, m1 = 20 g = 0.02 kg ; mass of pistol,
m2 = 2 kg; initial velocity of bullet, u1 = 0 ; initial velocity of
pistol, u2 = 0.
Let the direction of bullet is taken left to right (see figure).
Now, the final velocity of the bullet, v1 = + 150 m s–1
(by sign convention, left to right is taken positive).

Numerical Ability 3 (1)

Let ‘v’ be the recoil velocity of the pistol.
Initial momentum of the pistol-bullet system,
pi = initial momentum of the pistol + initial momentum of the bullet

[91]
 = 2 × 0 + 0.02 × 0 = 0 kg m s–1

Final momentum of the pistol-bullet system,

pf = final momentum of the pistol + final momentum of the bullet

= 2 × v + 0.02 × 150 = (2v + 3) kg m s–1

According to the law of conservation of momentum,

final momentum of the system = initial momentum of the system

∴ 2v + 3 = 0 or 2v = –3 or v = –3/2 = –1.5 m/s

(Negative sign indicates that the direction in which the pistol would recoil is opposite to
that of bullet, that is, right to left).
2. A boy of mass 40 kg jumps with a horizontal velocity of 5 m s–1 onto a stationary cart
with frictionless wheels. The mass of the cart is 3 kg. What is his velocity as the cart
starts moving? Assume that there is no external unbalanced force working in the
horizontal direction.
Solution
Given, mass of boy, m1 = 40 kg ; initial velocity of boy,
u1 = + 5 m/s ; mass of cart, m2 = 3 kg ; initial velocity of
cart, u2 = 0 [see figure (a)].
Initial momentum of the boy-cart system, pi = Initial
momentum of the boy + Initial momentum of the cart

or pi = m1u1 + m2u2 = (40) × (+5) + (3) × (0)

= 200 kg m/s
Let ‘v’ be the common velocity of the boy-cart system when the cart starts moving along
with the boy [see figure (b)].

[92]
 m1 = 40 kg
u1 = 5 m/s
m2 = 3 kg u2 = 0
(a)
v
(b)
m1 + m2 = 43 kg
Numerical Ability 3 (2)
Final momentum of the boy-cart system,

pf = Final momentum of the boy + Final momentum of the cart or pf = m1v + m2v

= (m1 + m2) v = (40 + 3) v = 43 v kg m/s

According to the law of conservation of momentum,

final momentum of the system = initial momentum of the system
or 43 v = 200, or
v = 200/43 = + 4.65 m/s
The boy on cart will move with a velocity of 4.65 m/s in the direction in which the boy
jumped.
3. Consider a large fish that swims towards and swallows a small fish at rest (see
figure). If the large fish has a mass of 5 kg and swims at 1 m/s toward the small fish
having mass of 1 kg, what is the velocity of the large fish immediately after the
lunch? Neglect the effects of water resistance.

Numerical Ability 3 (3)

[93]
 Solution
Given, mass of large fish, m1 = 5 kg ; initial velocity of large
fish, u1 = 1 m/s ; mass of small fish, m2 = 1 kg ; initial
velocity of small fish, u2 = 0.
Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the large fish-small fish system.
Applying law of conservation of momentum, we get, total
momentum after lunch = total momentum before lunch
or m1 v + m2 v = m1u1 + m2u2
or (m1 + m2) v = m1u1 + m2u2

or (5 + 1) v = (5) × (+1) + (1) × (0)

or 6 v = 5,
or v = (5/6) m/s
or v = + 0.833 m/s
The large fish will move with a velocity of 0.833 m/s in the direction in which it was
moving initially.
4. Two ice hockey players of opposite teams, while trying to hit a hockey ball on the ice
collide and immediately become entangled. One has a mass of 60 kg and was moving
with a velocity 5.0 m/s while the other has a mass of 55 kg and was moving faster
with a velocity 6.0 m/s towards the first player. In which direction and with what
velocity will they move after they become entangled? Assume that the frictional force
acting between the feet of the two players and ice is negligible.
Solution

Let the first player be moving towards right and the second
player moving towards left [see figure (a)].

mass of 1st player, m1 = 60 kg ; initial velocity of 1st player,

u1 = + 5 m/s ;

mass of 2nd player, m2 = 55 kg ; initial velocity of 2nd player,

u2 = – 6 m/s.

Let the common velocity of both the players after collision be ‘v’ [see figure(b)].

According to the law of conservation of momentum,

final momentum of the system = initial momentum of the system

or m1 v + m2 v = m1u1 + m2u2

[94]
 or (m1 + m2) v = m1u1 + m2u2

or (60 + 55) v = 60 × (+ 5) + (55) × (– 6)

or 115 v = 300 –330,

or 115 v = –30

or v = –30/115 = – 0.26 m/s

Negative sign shows that the two entangled players will move towards left, i.e., in the
direction the second player was moving before the collision.

Numerical Ability 3 (4)

1. Yes, because no acceleration means that no change occurs in velocity. This means there is

no change in momentum (= mass × velocity).

2. The force of impact will be less as compared to the initial force.

3. Initially, the gun as well as bullet is at rest i.e., initial momentum is zero. Let the masses of
bullet and gun are mb and mg respectively. When the bullet is fired from the gun, it acquires
a velocity vb.
Let the velocity acquired by the gun be vg. Now, the final momentum will be (mbvb + mgvg).
Since, no external forces are involved in the process, thus, momentum is conserved.
Therefore,
final momentum = initial momentum
or mbvb + mgvg= 0
[95]
 or mgvg = – mbvb or vg = ...(1)

The negative sign in eq. (1) shows that the velocity of the gun is in opposite direction to the
velocity of bullet i.e., the gun recoils when it is fired.
mg >> mb, so vg << vb i.e. the recoil velocity of the gun is much smaller than the forward
velocity of the bullet.

1. Take a test tube of good quality glass material and put a small amount of water in it
(see figure). Place a stop cork at its mouth. Now suspend the test tube horizontally by two
strings or wires.
2. Heat the test tube with a burner until water vaporises, and due to the pressure of water

vapours (steam), the cork blows out. You will observe that the test tube recoils in the

direction opposite to the direction of the cork. This observation is in agreement with the

law of conservation of momentum. You will observe that the velocity of cork (vc) is much

larger than the velocity (vt) of the test tube. This is because the mass of cork is quite

smaller than the mass of the test tube (for a given value of momentum, velocity is inversely

proportional to mass).

Vc
Vt
(a)
(b)
Active physics 7

[96]
[97]
 Balanced force
(Resultant force=0)
Unbalanced force

Resultant force 0
Force
Inertia → the tendency of an object to stay at rest or in motion until and unless acted upon by an external
force.
NLM first
Force
and
NLM
Inertia mass
F = ma
Force - vector quantity ; unit - N or kg m/s2
Every action has equal and opposite reaction

[98]
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2
Unit kg m/s or Ns
NLM second
NLM third
NLM
Conservation of momentum
P=m×v
(Vector quantity)
Concept Map

[99]
 Some Basic Terms
1. Muscular force – The contact force applied to an object with the help of muscles is known
as muscular force.
2. Tension – It is define as the force transmitted through a rope, string or wire when pulled
by forces acting from opposite sides.
3. Friction – It is the force generated by two surfaces that contact slide against each other.
4. Electrostatic force – The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or
uncharged body by virtue of its charged is known as electrostatic force.
5. Magnetic force – Magnetic force can be defined as the attractive or repulsive force that is
exerted between the poles of a magnet and electrically charged moving particles.
6. Gravitational force – The force of attraction that arises between two bodies having
definite masses.
7. Distort– Distort is to change the physical shape of something.
8. Stationary – Stationary means not moving, not appearing to move, stable of fixed.
9. Frictionless – In physics, frictionless means that there is no resistance between a surface
or substance and something that is moving along or through it. In other words, without any
friction.
10. Mechanics – It is a branch of science which deals with the motion of an object and the
forces acting on it.
11. Jerk – A sudden, quick, sharp movement.
12. Tumbler – A tall glass for drinking out of with straight side and no handle.
13. Collision – A brief event in which two or more bodies come together. For example : Two
billiards ball, a golf club and a ball, a hammer and a nail head, or a falling object and a floor
14. Head on collision – A crash of two objects that are moving directly towards each other.
15. Inflates – It means to add air or gas to something such as a tire or a balloon and make it
larger.
16. External force – It is a force that act on a structure from the outside. For example : wind
pushing on a tree is an external force.
17. Internal force – Any force that acts on a structure from with in known as a internal force.
Internal forces not change the mechanical energy of an object.
18. Resultant force – The resultant force is described as the total amount of force acting on
the object or body along with a direction of the body.
19. Recoil – Recoil is a movement backwards, usually from some force or impact.
For example : The recoil of a gun is backward movement caused by momentum.

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