5.

0 Harmonic Oscillators
Is an example of periodic motion

5.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

The ideal harmonic oscillator on the basis of classical mechanics is represented by obvious
examples such as the simple pendulum and load attached to the end of a spring.

– The systems in actual practice are considered to be ideal in the sense that once displaced
from some position, the motion continues for indefinitely long time before coming to rest.

– The opposing forces i.e, damping forces for an ideal case are considered to be negligible.

– For the simple pendulum, the frictional forces are between the string and the point of
suspension, the bob and air, or any other medium for the pendulum.

– mass and spring, friction between mass and surface of motion and the fact that the spring
itself is not perfectly elastic.

Here we shall look at the free, forced and damped oscillation.

5.1.1 Free Oscillations

The following cases will be considered

(a) a simple pendulum for small angle of oscillation.

(b) a mass attached to one end of a spring for small displacement amplitude.

(c) inductance – capacitance circuit for low voltage

(a) The Simple Pendulum

Consists of a point mass suspended by an inelastic string of length l.

h = l − l cos θ = l(1 − cos θ)

1
(i) Using the law of conservation of energy.

potential energy U = mgh = U (h)

U (θ) = mgl(1 − cos θ)

Note: U (θ) at θ = 0 is zero i.e, U (θ) = 0 i.e, U (h) = 0 at h = 0

1
Kinetic energy K= mv 2
2
dθ
but v = ωl where ω= = θ̇
dt
⇒ v = θ̇l
1 2 2
⇒ K= ml θ̇
2
Total energy E =K +U
1
E = mgl(1 − cos θ) + ml2 θ̇2 (1)
2
For small oscillations; θ small
1 2 1 1
cos θ = 1 − θ + θ4 + θ6 + ... (2)
2! 4! 6!

θ2
For θ << 1; cos θ u 1 − (first order approximation)
2
θ2

1
E = mgl(1 − 1 − ) + ml2 θ̇2
2 2

1 1
E= mglθ2 + ml2 θ̇2 (3)
2 2

 1
dθ 1 2
2E − mglθ2


θ̇ = = 2
dt ml
1
mglθ2 2

dθ 2E
= −
dt ml2 ml2
 g  1  2E 1
dθ 2 2
2
= −θ
dt l mgl
dθ
At maximum displacement θ0 , dt =0

At θ = ±θ0 , velocity v = 0,
2E
− θ02 = 0
mgl

 1
2E 2
⇒ θ0 = (4)
mgl

2
 Then
dθ g 1
1
2
= θ02 − θ2 2
dt l
dθ  g  12

1 = l dt
θ02 − θ2 2
ˆ θ ˆ t  1
dθ g 2
1 = dt
θ02 − θ2 2 t=0 l


θ1

where θ1 = θ at t=0
ˆ
dx
Recall 1 = sin−1 x + C
(1 − x2 ) 2
ˆ g 1
1 dθ 2
⇒ 1 = t
θ0   2  2 l
θ
1 − θ0

θ
put x =
θ0
1
⇒ dx = dθ
θ0
ˆ g 1
dx 2
⇒ 1 = t
(1 − x2 ) 2 l
g 1
−1 2
x= sin t
l
    1
θ θ1 g 
sin−1 − sin−1
2
= t
θ0 θ0 l
 
θ g 1  
−1 θ1
sin−1
2
= t + sin
θ0 l θ0
  1  
θ g 2 −1 θ1
= sin t + sin
θ0 l θ0
⇒ θ= θ0 sin (ωt + φ) (S.H.M)

1 
Where ω = gl 2 is angular velocity and φ = sin−1 θθ10 is phase constant.
(ii) Using the law of conservation of angular momentum
F = mg
let Nx = torque along x − direction
 
Nx = ~r × F~
x
= lmg sin θ
Angular momentum
J~ = ~r × P~
 
J~x = ~l × P~ = lmlθ̇ = ml2 θ̇
x

Conservation of angular momentum theorem

dJ~ ~
=N (5)
dt

3
 d  2 
ml θ̇ = −lmg sin θ
dt
⇒ ml2 θ̈ = −mgl sin θ
g 
⇒ θ̈ + sin θ = 0 (6)
l
For θ small,
θ3 θ5
sin θ = θ − + + ... (7)
3! 5!
Then Eqn. (6) becomes
g 
θ̈ + θ=0 [first order approx. and a S.H.M]
l
Trial solution

θ = θ0 sin (ωt + φ) or
θ = θ0 ej(ωt+φ)

Recall g 
ω02 =
l
Suppose the pendulum oscillates with relatively large angle θ, these are referred to
as non linear effects. If the pendulum oscillates with large amplitudes, the θ3 term
in Eqn. (7) can not be neglected.

θ3
 
−g
θ̈ = θ− [second order approx.]
l 3!

ω02 3
θ̈ + ω02 θ − θ =0 (8)
6
Eqn. (8) is an equation of a harmonic oscillator.
We seek a trial solution of the form

θ = θ0 sin ωt + θ0 sin 3ωt, (9)

where  is a dimensionless perturbation constant.

Note  << 1 for θ << 1

4
Our task is to determine the new frequency ω and the perturbation constant .
The presence of sin ωt and sin 3ωt in Eqn. (9) suggests the identity
3 1
sin3 ωt = sin ωt − sin 3ωt (10)
4 4
From Eqn. (9); (θ = θ0 sin ωt + θ0 sin 3ωt)

θ̇ = ωθ0 cos ωt + 3ωθ0 cos 3ωt (11)

2 2
θ̈ = −ω θ0 sin ωt − 9ω θ0 sin 3ωt (12)

Similarly from Eqn. (9); (θ = θ0 sin ωt + θ0 sin 3ωt)

θ3 = θ03 [sin ωt +  sin 3ωt]3

= θ03 sin3 ωt + 3 sin2 ωt sin 3ωt + 32 sin ωt sin2 3ωt + 3 sin3 3ωt
 

θ3 = θ03 sin3 ωt + 3 sin2 ωt sin 3ωt

 
(13)
Neglecting 2 and 3 for θ << 1 and  << 1
Put Eqn. (10) into (13)
  
3 3 3 1 2
θ = θ0 sin ωt − sin 3ωt + 3 sin ωt sin 3ωt (14)
4 4

Put Eqns. (9), (11), (12), (13) and (14) into (8) and rearrange

−ω 2 θ0 sin ωt − 9ω 2 θ0 sin 3ωt + ω02 (θ0 sin ωt + θ0 sin 3ωt)−
ω02 3
  
3 1 2
θ sin ωt − sin 3ωt + 3 sin ωt sin 3ωt = 0
6 0 4 4
2 3 ω2 θ3
   
ω θ
⇒ −ω 2 θ0 − 0 0 + ω02 θ0 sin ωt + −9ω 2 θ0 + ω02 θ0 + 0 0 sin 3ωt−
8 24
2 3
ω0 θ 0 
sin2 ωt sin 3ωt = 0
2
Since Eqn. (9) is just an approximation solution, for any given time t, the coeffi-
cients of sin ωt and sin 3ωt can varnish separately.

ω02 θ03
−ω 2 θ0 + ω02 θ0 − = 0
8
ω02 θ02
⇒ ω 2 = ω02 −
8
1
θ02 2

ω = ω0 1 −
8

Note: The frequency of an harmonic oscillator ω is less that the natural frequency
ω0 i.e, ω < ω0 .
Also
ω02 θ03
−9θ0 ω 2 + ω02 θ0 + = 0
24
1 2 3
− 24 ω0 θ 0
⇒ =
θ0 −9ω 2 + ω02

θ02
u for ω 2 = ω02 and θ small
192

5
(b) Mass on a Spring
Consider a massless spring carrying a mass m.

Hooke’s law F~ = c~x; c is spring constant

Restoring force F~ = m~ẍ
Equation of motion mẍ = −cx
⇒ mẍ + cx = 0
c
ẍ + x = 0
m
⇒ ẍ + ω02 x = 0 which is a S.H.M,
c
where ω02 =
m
Trial solution x = A sin (ωt + φ),
where A is amplitude, φ is phase constant and x is displacement.
dx
Velocity v=
dt
⇒ ẋ = −ωA cos (ωt + φ)
dv
Acceleration a= = ẍ
dt
⇒ ẍ = −ω 2 A sin (ωt + φ)
At t= 0
x = A sin φ
ẋ = −ωA cos φ
ẍ = −ω 2 A sin φ

Eliminating φ
x
sin φ =
A
−v
and cos φ =
ωA
x2 v2
⇒ sin2 φ + cos2 φ = 2 + 2 2 = 1
A ω A
v2
⇒ A2 = x 2 + 2
ω
1
v2 2

2
∴ A= x + 2
ω

6
Kinetic Energy
1
K= mv 2
2
1
= mA2 ω 2 cos2 (ωt + φ)
2
Average kinetic energy over one period
 
1 2 2 2
<K>= mA ω cos (ωt + φ)
2
1
= mA2 ω 2 cos2 (ωt + φ)
2
Side work
ˆ T
1 2
sin2 ωtdt
T −T
2

but 1 − 2 sin2 ωt = cos 2ωt

ˆ T
1 2 1
⇒ (1 − cos 2ωt) dt
T −T 2
2
 
1 1
= t− sin 2ωt
2T 2ω
2π
put ω =
T       
1 T −T 1 4π T 4π −T
= − − sin · − sin ·
2T 2 2 2ω T 2 T 2
 
1 T
= T− · 2 sin 2π
2T 4π
1
=
2
1
You may try it out for cos2 ωt and you will find it is also = 2

1
∴ cos2 θ = sin2 θ =
2
hcos θi = hsin θi = 0

 
1 1
< K > = mA2 ω 2
2 2
1
∴ < K > = mA2 ω 2
4

Potential Energy
ˆ x
U= F dx
ˆ 0
x
= cxdx
0
1 2
= cx ; [x = A sin (ωt + φ))]
2
1 c
= cA2 sin2 (ωt + φ) ; ω 2 =
2 m

7
 ˆ x
U= F dx
ˆ0 x
= cxdx
0
1 2
= cx ; [x = A sin (ωt + φ))]
2
1 2 2 c
= cA sin (ωt + φ) ; ω 2 =
2 m
1
= mω 2 A2 sin2 (ωt + φ)
2
1
⇒ <U >= mω 2 A2 sin2 (ωt + φ)
2
1
= mω 2 A2
4
Total Energy

E =< K > + < U >

1 1
= mω 2 A2 + mω 2 A2
4 4
1 2 2
= mω A , which is a constant and a special property of harmonic oscillators
2

(c) L.C circuits

L is inductance and C is capacitance
When the switch is closed, a voltage V is applied across L and C i.e,

V = VL + VC
Q
but VC =
ˆ C
dQ
and Q = idt or =i
dt
where i is current and Q is charge
ˆ
Q 1
⇒ VC = = idt
C C
di
Across the inductor VL = L
dt  
d dQ
= L
dt dt

8
 d2 Q
= L
dt2
∴ V = VL + VC
d2 Q Q
= L
+
dt2 C
ˆ
di 1
Or V = L + idt
dt C
When the switch is opened, the voltage source is disconnected

d2 Q Q
V = L + =0
dt2 C
d2 Q Q
⇒ L + =0
dt2 C
d2 Q 1
L + Q=0 S.H.M
dt2 LC
1
Put ω 2 =
LC
⇒ Q̈ + ω 2 Q = 0

which has a solution of the form Q = Q0 sin (ωt + φ)

ˆ
di 1
OR L + idt = 0
dt C
ˆ
di 1
+ idt = 0
dt LC
 ˆ 
d di 1
+ idt = 0
dt dt LC
d2 i
⇒ + ω2i = 0
dt2
Solution of the form i = i0 sin (ωt + φ)
Then, the voltage across the inductor
di
VL = L
dt
= Li0 ω cos (ωt + φ)
 π
VL = ωLi0 sin ωt + φ +
2
And across the capacitor
ˆ
1
VC = idt
C
ˆ
1
= i0 sin (ωt + φ) dt
C
−i0
= cos (ωt + φ)
ωC
i0  π
⇒ VC = sin ωt + φ −
ωC 2
π π
Note: VL leads i by 2 and VC lags behind by 2.