2.

0 Momentum, Energy and Forces

2.1 Conservation of Linear Momentum and Energy

For an interaction between two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities
u1 and u2 , and final velocities v1 and v2 , respectively. Then,

m1 u~1 + m2 u~2 −→ m1 v~1 + m2 v~2

Proof 1: Assuming the validity of Newton’s third law of motion, i.e

F~12 = −F~21
d d
F~12 = (m2 u~2 ) ; F~21 = (m1 u~1 )
dt dt
⇒ F~12 + F~21 = 0
d d
(m2 u~2 ) + (m1 u~1 ) = 0
dt dt
d
(m2 u~2 + m1 u~1 ) = 0
dt
⇒ m2 u~2 + m1 u~1 = constant

Since u1 , u2 , v1 and v2 are arbitrary, then

m1 u~1 + m2 u~2 = m1 v~1 + m2 v~2

Limitations
- it is restricted to elastic collisions.

- holds only for impulsive forces (forces acting at a point with finite speed of propagation of
signals) i.e, the collision takes very little time.

Proof 2: Assuming the validity of the invariance principle and the conservation of energy:
Note:
- applicable to both elastic and inelastic collisions.

- not restricted to impulsive collisions (things that happen for a very short moment)

Consider an interaction between two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial veloci-
ties u~1 and u~2 , and final velocities v~1 and v~2 , respectively in an inertial reference frame (IRF)

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S. If a similar system of bodies is then observed in an inertial reference frame S 0 moving
with a velocity ~u relative to S, the bodies now move with initial velocities u~01 and u~02 and
final velocities v10 and v20 , respectively.

Conservation of energy in IRF S:

1 1 1 1
m1 u21 + m2 u22 = m1 v12 + m2 v22 + ∆E (1)
2 2 2 2
where ∆E is energy converted into other forms e.g., internal energy, sound, heat, etc during
collision.

In IRF S 0 , the energy converted to other forms takes the same form (invariance principle).
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 u01 + m2 u02 = m1 v10 + m2 v20 + ∆E (2)
2 2 2 2

vi0 = vi − u (3)
u0i = ui − u (4)

where i = 1, 2
Substituting equations (3) into (2)
1 1 1 1
m1 (u1 − u)2 + m2 (u2 − u)2 = m1 (v1 − u)2 + m2 (v2 − u)2 + ∆E
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
⇒ m1 (u1 − 2u1 u + u ) + m2 (u2 − 2u2 u + u2 ) =
2 2 2
m1 (v1 − 2v1 u + u2 )+
2
2 2 2
1
m2 (v22 − 2v2 u + u2 ) + ∆E
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ m1 u21 − m1 u1 u + m1 u2 + m2 u22 − m2 u2 u + m2 u2 = m1 v12 − m1 v1 u + m1 u2 + m2 v22
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
−m2 v2 u + m2 u2 + ∆E
2
1 1 1 1
⇒ m1 u21 + m2 u22 − (m1 u~1 + m2 u~2 ) · ~u = m1 v12 + m2 v22 − (m1 v~1 + m2 v~2 ) · ~u + ∆E (5)
2 2 2 2
Equation (1) - (5)
⇒ (m1 u~1 + m2 u~2 ) · ~u = (m1 v~1 + m2 v~2 ) · ~u (6)
Since it can refer to any inertial reference frame and hence can have any direction.
Equation (6) holds if the scalar or dot product cancel, i.e.,

m1 u~1 + m2 u~2 = m1 v~1 + m2 v~2

which gives us the law of conservation of linear momentum.

2.2 Force and Displacement

d x 2
F~ = m 2
dt
d2 x
 
= mẍ, for ẍ = 2
dt

2
Acceleration (a = ẍ)
F
ẍ = (7)
m
Velocity

dv(t) F
= ~a = ẍ =
dt m
ˆ t
F
⇒ v(t) = dt
0 m
Ft
v(t) = v0 +
m
mv(t) = mv0 + F t
⇒ F t = mv − mv0
impulse = momentum change

From the equation above, time t

m
t= (mv − mv0 ) (8)
F

ˆ t
Displacement x=v(t)dt
0
ˆ t 
Ft
= v0 + dt
0 m
F t2
⇒ x = x0 + v0 t +
2m
Substituting for t from Eqn. (8),

mv0 F m 2
x − x0 = (v − v0 ) + (v − v0 )
F 2m F
1m 2 2


= v − v0
2F
1
m v 2 − v02 = F (x − x0 )


⇒
2
Change in kinetic energy = work done

2.3 Energy Function with Time Invariance

Let the applied force vary in magnitude and direction but be a function of position (dis-
placement) throughout the region.
Work: Work is a scalar product of applied force F~ap and displacement d~r

dW = F~ap · d~r
= Fap dr cos θ

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Total work done from A to B
ˆ B
WA→B = F~ap · d~r
A
d~v
but F~ap = m , m is constant
dt
d~r
d~r = × dt = ~v dt
dt
ˆ B
d~v
Then, WA→B = m · ~v dt
A dt
ˆ B
= mvdv
A
1 2 2


= m vB − vA
2
1
Put K = mv 2 = kinetic energy
2
WA→B = KB − KA
Generally, work done on a free particle by an arbitrary force is equal to the change in kinetic
energy of the particle.

In practice, other forces such as gravity, friction, etc act on the system.
Let F~r be the resultant of these forces. Then
d~v
m = F~ap + F~r
dt
d~v
F~ap = m − F~r
dt
ˆ B 
d~v ~
Then, WA→B = m − Fr · d~r
A dt
ˆ B ˆ B
d~v
= m · d~r − F~r · d~r
A dt A
ˆ B
= KB − KA − F~r · d~r
A
For several forces, the work done depends on only the initial and final position of the particle,
e.g work done against gravitational force.

If F~r depends on only the initial and final position, it is called a conservative force.
dW = F~ · d~r
= −dU (r)

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where U (r) is potential energy
ˆ B
WA→B = KB − KA − F~r · d~r
A
= KB − KA + UB − UA

Let E = K + U , i.e. total energy E = kinetic energy (K) + potential energy (U)

KA + UA = KB + UB = E, (9)

which is the law of conservation of mechanical energy i.e., total energy of the particle in a
system is conserved.

Power: is rate of energy transfer

dW
Power, P =
dt
d ~ 
= F · d~r
dt
d~r
= F~ · (F~ is constant)
dt
⇒ P = F~ · ~v
ˆ t2
Work done, W = P (t)dt
t1

2.4 Conservative Forces

A force is said to be conservative if the work done WA→B by the force in moving the particle
from A to B is independent of the path by which the particle is moved from A to B.
Consider the work done in a closed loop;

˛ ˆ B ˆ A
F~r · d~r = F~r · d~r + F~r · d~r
A B
ˆ B ˆ B
= F~r · d~r − F~r · d~r
A A
= 0
˛
Hence F~r · d~r = 0 ⇒ F~r is conservative

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2.5 Potential Energy Function
The difference in potential energy of a particle at points A and B is the work done by an
applied force on the particle in moving it from A to B i.e.,
ˆ B
U (B) − U (A) = F~ · d~r
A
= WA→B

If F~ is conservative, U (A) is a single valued scalar function.

For U (A) constant at some fixed point, U (r) at any other point ~r is given by;
ˆ r
U (r) = U (A) + F~ · d~r
A
Let A be taken to as far as infinity i.e.,
U (∞) = 0
ˆ r
U (r) = F~ · d~r
∞
= W∞→r

The work done on a particle by a force F~ in moving the particle from infinity to ~r is known
as the energy function. Note:
ˆ r
U (r) = F~ · d~r
∞
ˆ ∞
= − F~ · d~r
r
d
⇒ (U (r)) = −F
dr
Or F~ = −∇U~ (negative gradient of U )

Examples:
Potential energy of a charged particle in an electric field

~ = 1 q1
E(r) ı̂,
4π0 r2
where q is charge on the particle

F~ = q1 E
~
q1 q2
= ı̂,
4π0 r2
Electrostatic potential energy
ˆ ∞
U (r) = − F~ · d~r
ˆr ∞
q1 q2
= − dr
r 4π0 r2
q1 q2
U (r) = (U (∞) = 0)
4π0 r

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Note: If q1 and q2 haev the same magnitudes, U (r) is positive (repulsive) and if q1 and q2
have opposite charges, then U (r) is negative (attractive).
Electrostatic potential φ(x) is the potential energy per unit charge

U (r)
φ(x) =
q
ˆ ∞
= ~ · d~r
E(r)
r

Potential difference
p.d = φ(r2 ) − φ(r1 )