1

5.Network type
and Topologies
Types of Networks – LAN, MAN and WAN
Computer Network is the interconnection of multiple devices. Mainly there are three types
of computer networks: LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network),
and MAN (Metropolitan Area Network).

5.1 LAN
The full form of LAN is Local-area Network. It is a computer network that covers a small
area such as a building or campus up to a few kilometers in size. LANs are commonly used
to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices to share common
resources, like printers, and exchange information. If we connect LAN in a real-life example
then the family is the best example each family member is connected to each other in the
same way each device is connected to the network.

5.1.1 Characteristics of LAN

 2

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

5.1.2 Advantages of a LAN

 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it
a privacy.
 High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate
comparatively to WAN.
 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications
transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted
pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
 Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and
maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
5.1.3 Disadvantages of LAN
 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is
special software required to make a server.
 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are
costly.
 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of
each and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users are violated
 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an
unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security threat.

5.2 MAN
 3

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer network that spans over a
metropolitan area, typically a city. It provides high-speed data communication
services such as video, audio, and data transfer between multiple LANs (Local Area
Networks) and WANs (Wide Area Networks). The main purpose of a MAN is to
connect different LANs in a city to share resources and exchange data, as well as to
provide internet access to users. A MAN typically covers a geographic area of several
kilometers and is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
5.2.1 Characteristics of MAN
 It can covers the area which ranges from 5 to 50 km, which is capable of carrying from
a group of buildings to the whole city.
 In MAN, data rates are moderate to high.
 In MAN, mostly used medium is optical fibers which results in high-speed
connectivity.
 MAN networks provides high reliability because the error rate in this network is very
less.
 A MAN network can use a variety of access technologies, such as wireless, fiber-optic,
or copper-based connections, to provide connectivity to different devices and
networks.
 Hybrid topology: A MAN network may use a combination of different topologies, such
as a ring, bus, or star topology, depending on the specific requirements of the
network.
5.2.2 Advantages of MAN
 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus
architecture.
 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the
users.
 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier
to monitor and manage network resources and security.
5.2.3 Disadvantages of MAN
 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and
maintain.
 4

 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber
optics.
 It provides less fault tolerance.
 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

Examples of MAN
 Cable TV network.
 Used in government agencies.
 University campuses.
 Used in hospitals to connect multiple buildings

5.3 WAN
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a
single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also be defined as a group
of local area networks that communicate with each other with a range above 50km.
 5

5.3.1 Characteristics of a Wide Area Network

o Broader Reach: The reach of the wide area network is very high. WAN can cover a
vast geographic area, such as a whole nation, region, or even the entire world.
o Higher Capacity: The capacity of the wide area network is very high compared to the
local area network. Due to this, it straightforwardly connects large numbers of users
over different locations worldwide, which shows its capacity to connect large
numbers of devices.
o Use of Public Carrier: Wide area networks mainly use telephone networks, cable
systems, satellites, etc., to connect and transfer data quickly because these things are
readily available.
o Resource Sharing: Wide area network provides a facility for all users to share data and
information within large areas worldwide. Computer resources can be easily
managed through remote devices that quickly interchange data.

5.3.2 Advantages of WAN

 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to
transmit data quickly and cheaply.
 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data
provided by WAN.
 6

 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be
minimised.
 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows
to exchange data and do business at global level.
5.3.3 Disadvantages of WAN
 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and
high number of connected system within the network.
Differences Between LAN, MAN, and WAN
Basis LAN MAN WAN

LAN stands for MAN stands for WAN stands for

local area metropolitan area wide area
Full-Form network. network. network.

Operates in
Operates in larger
small areas such
Operates in large areas areas such as
as the same
such as a city. country or
Geographic building or
continent.
Span campus.

While WAN also

LAN’s ownership MAN’s ownership can might not be
is private. be private or public. owned by one
Ownership organization.

The Whereas the

While the transmission
transmission transmission
speed of a MAN is
Transmissi speed of a LAN speed of a WAN is
average.
on Speed is high. low.

Propagatio The propagation There is a Whereas, there is

n delay delay is short in moderate propagation a long propagation
 7

Basis LAN MAN WAN

a LAN. delay in a MAN. delay in a WAN.

There is less Whereas there is

While there is more
congestion in more congestion
congestion in MAN.
Congestion LAN. than MAN in WAN.

Whereas WAN’s
LAN’s design
While MAN’s design and design and
Design & and
maintenance are maintenance are
Maintenanc maintenance difficult than LAN. also difficult than
are easy.
e LAN as well MAN.

There is
In WAN, there is
more fault While there is less fault
also less fault
Fault tolerance in tolerance.
tolerance.
tolerance LAN.

Network Topology
Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or
devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus, star,
ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its advantages and disadvantages.
Bus Topology

The simplest and most common topology of a local area network is the bus topology.
In this topology computers are connected by a long cable. This cable is called
Backbone Cable or Trunk. This is Backbone Cable. Information is exchanged from one
computer to another computer through electronic signals. As the signal travels across
the backbone, all computers on the network examine the signal, and only the
computer to which the signal is sent receives the signal, while others ignore it. The
length of Backbone Cabe ranges from 180 to 185 meters.
 8

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up
to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted
Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in
cable television networks.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The
hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices,
at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. I
 9

Star Topology
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
 10

A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where
all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless
networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
data transmission in star topology
In star topology, data transmission happens through a central hub or switch.
1. Data Origination: When a device wants to send data to another device, it transmits
the data to the central hub or switch.
2. Data Routing: The central hub or switch then forwards the data to the intended
recipient.
This centralized approach allows for efficient data flow and easier network
management.
Ring Topology

In this topology computers cycle through a single cable i.e. arranged in a ring. Hence
this topology is called ring topology. This ring is completely closed. There are no free
ends as in bus topology. The characteristic of ring topology is that the information or
instruction sent in this topology passes through each computer, so each computer
can read the instruction. In case of ring topology data transmission can be
unidirectional or bidirectional. In the case of forward transmission, the transmission
can be in both directions. As a result, if an error occurs in a computer, information can
be sent from the other side. In a ring topology, computers can be arranged in
rectangular, elliptical, regular polygonal, or any other shape in addition to circular or
circular, but the computers must be in a closed loop or closed loop. A practical
example of a ring topology is the fiber standard or Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI - Fiber Distributes Data Interface.
 11

data transmission in ring topology

In a ring topology, data is transmitted in one direction (unidirectional) or both
directions (bidirectional) through a closed-loop network. Each device acts as a
repeater, forwarding data to the next device until it reaches the destination. Token
passing is commonly used to control data transmission.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology:
 12

In this type of topology, the main computer and other computers or nodes are
arranged in a geometrical arrangement like a tree or plant. At the first level of this
topology lies the main or central machine. Nodes or branches are located at the
second level and are connected to the main machine by cables. The third level houses
the subsequent nodes or sub-branches of the node. These branches are connected to
nodes by cables. Thus the network takes the form of a tree.

Data Transmission in Tree Topology:

The way information is transmitted in a Tree topology is that the information reaches
all nodes through cables. In a tree network, information is transmitted to different
nodes in a point-to-point manner.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is travelled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
Network Protocols:
A network protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern data communication over the
Internet or other computer networks. They define how data is transmitted, transmitted and
processed between devices, ensuring efficient, reliable and secure communication. The
 13

purpose of network protocols is to link different devices. Network protocols are broadly
divided into three main categories. Network communication, network management and
network security.

1. Network Communication:

Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They
are so important that a computer network cannot exist without them. These
protocols formally set the rules and formats through which data is transferred. These
protocols handle syntax, semantics, error checking, synchronization, and
authentication.

2. Network Management:

Such protocols help describe policies and procedures used in monitoring,

maintaining, and managing computer networks. These protocols also help
communicate these requirements across the network to ensure stable
communication. Network management protocols can also be used to troubleshoot
connectivity between hosts and clients.

3 Network Security:

These protocols protect data in transit over a network. These protocols determine
how the network protects data from unauthorized attempts to extract or review the
data. These protocols ensure that no unauthorized device, user or service can access
network data. Primarily, these protocols rely on encryption to secure data.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol:

The protocol used to transfer hypertext between two or more computers is HTTP or
Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Hypertext is a special type of text that is written in
various codes or symbols of the programming language called HTML. The vast
amount of information on the www is available via HTTP. Following the HTTP
client/server principle, the server accepts and responds to the client's request. This
 14

request causes the HTTP source to tell the server to act as such. The server then
receives the request (request) through HTTP, which is a connectionless protocol. As a
result, we can allow many high-speed connections to it without leaving any ports
open. Thanks to this technology, we can download or browse any web site on the
World Wide Web (www) and connect to another server instantly. Such facilities are
not available unless the protocol is used. The HTTP protocol also provides
assumptions for establishing communication. As a result, just as the browser can
receive data from the webserver, the webserver can also send data to the browser.

File Transfer Protocol (File Transfer Protocol or FTP):

FTP protocol is used to download and upload large files or data from any file or web
server over the Internet. The method of bringing a file or data from the Internet to
one's own computer is called Download (Download) and sending a file or data from
one's computer to an Internet file or web server is called Upload (Upload).

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP):

 15

Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables the
transmission of TCP/IP traffic over a serial connection such as a telephone line. It is a
byte oriented protocol which is widely composed. Used in communications involving
heavy loads and high speeds. Since it is a data link layer protocol, data is transmitted
using frame . It is also known as RFC1661. This protocol is also required to connect a
home PC to an ISP's server through a modem.

Point to point protocol is used in all cases are-

1. For dial-up Internet access.

2. For leased-line connections.

3. For Virtual Private Network (VPN)

Services provided by PPP-

1. Specifying authentication rules for communicating devices.

2. Compresses data to reduce transmission or communication time.

3. Protects data in transit.

4. Ensures reliable data transfer through error detection and correction.

 16

5.allows multiple protocols to share the same connection.

Point to Point Protocol consists of three main components:

1. Link Control Protocol (LCP): It manages connection establishment.

2. Authentication Protocol (AP): Verifies or checks the identity of the device.

4. Network Control Protocol (NCP): Establishes and manages network protocols eg, IP,
IPv61
Advantages of PPP:

1. Flexibility: Supports multiple protocols and devices.

2. Reliability: Ensures error free data transfer.

3. Security: Provides authentication and encryption.

4. Efficiency: Compresses data to reduce transmission time.

Disadvantages of PPP:

1. Limited bandwidth.

2. Dependence on serial link.

3. Complexity of configuration and troubleshooting

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

 17

SMTP or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a TCP/IP protocol used to send and receive
email. SMTP is commonly used by email clients including Gmail, Outlook, Apple Mail
and Yahoo Mail. SMTP can send and receive email, but email clients usually use a
program with SMTP to send email. Because SMTP is limited in its ability to queue
messages at the receiving end, it is typically used with Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3)
or Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), which allow users to store messages in a
server mailbox and periodically download them to a server. from SMTP is generally
limited to sending messages from a sender to a recipient.

Some key features of SMTP:

1. SMTP ensures that messages or mails reach the right recipient.

2. Verifies sender identity for authentication.

3. Secures messages through SMTP (using TLS/SSL) encryption.

How SMTP Works

1. A user composes and sends an email using their email client (eg: Outlook, Gmail).

2. The email client submits the message to the sender's email server (SMTP server).

3. The SMTP server breaks the message into smaller pieces and assigns a unique
identifier to each piece.

4. The SMTP server sends the fragment to the recipient's email server (SMTP server)
using the recipient's email address.

5.The recipient's SMTP server reassembles the fragments and delivers the message
to the recipient's email client.
 18

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

TCP/IP protocol is a suite of the communication protocols which is used to

interconnect devices on the Internet. It is a basic protocol that enables data
communication over the Internet and other networks. TCP/IP protocol is a
communication protocol that performs data transfer with high reliability. As data
from the application layer first arrives at the transport layer, TCP divides the data into
smaller pieces, called segments. Each segment is assigned a serial number. The
segments are filled with IP datagrams when they reach the network layer. TCP collects
the data from that datagram by sequence number and sends it to the application
layer. TCP/IP consists of two main protocols. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP).

Functions of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

1. Connection Establishment: Establishes a connection between devices before

transferring data.

2. Segmentation: divides data into smaller pieces for transmission.

3. Reliable data transfer: Ensures error-free data transfer using acknowledgment and
retransmission.

4. Flow Control: Controls data flow by preventing congestion.

3. Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to share the same connection.

Functions of Internet Protocol (IP).

 19

1. Logical Addressing. Assigns unique IP addresses to devices for identification.

2. Routing: Routes data packets between networks using IP addresses.

3. Fragmentation: Breaks large data packets into smaller packets for transmission.

4. Reassembly: Reassembles fragmented packets at the receiving end.

Areas where TCP/IP is widely used are-

1. Internet: Communication.

2. Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN).

3. Network devices: routers, switches, firewalls.

4. Operating System: Windows, MacOS, Linux etc.

Post Office Protocol (POP3):

It is a protocol that a standard mail client uses to receive messages from an active
email server over a TCP/IP connection. ISP does not maintain email servers other than
those hosted by their users to be secure for their users who uses POP3 protocol to
receive. Finally, these users email to a remote server to view their mail and download
their emails. The client will use the software. After the email client downloads the
emails, they are usually deleted from the server.

Telnet (TELNET):
 20

Telnet is a network protocol used to log-in to a remote computer over the Internet or
a local network. As a result, the user can log in to another computer and use the
information and programs of that computer while sitting on one computer. Such
connections can be made from any computer on a LAN or WAN network. But in this
case the user must accept proper authorization to access the remote computer.

Here are some key features of Telnet

1. Remote access: Telnet enables users to access remote computers and execute
commands, making it useful for system administration, troubleshooting, and remote work.

2. Command Line Interface: Telnet provides a command-line interface for interacting with
remote hosts.

3. Port 23: Telnet usually uses port 23 for communication.

4.Unencrypted: Telnet transmits data in plain text, making it unsafe for sensitive
information.

5. Replaced by SSH: Telnet has largely been replaced by Secure Shell (SSH) for secure remote
access.

Common uses of Telnet:

1. System Administration: Telnet is used for remote system administration, configuration

and troubleshooting.
 21

2. Remote Work: Telnet allows employees to work remotely by accessing company servers
and systems.

3. Testing and Debugging: Telnet is used to test and debug network connections and
services.

4. Legacy Systems Telnet is still used to access legacy systems that do not support newer
protocols such as SSH.

Note: Telnet is not recommended for sensitive or secure applications due to lack of
encryption. SSH is a more secure option in this case.

SSH or Secure Shell: It is a network protocol that provides a secure way to access and
control remote computer systems over an unsecured network such as the Internet. It
establishes an encrypted connection between the client (the user's computer) and the
remote server system, for the secure transfer of data, commands and other information.
allows This ensures that all data transmitted between them is protected from concealment
or tampering.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure(HTTPS):

This is the secure version of HTTP. It adds an extra layer of security and encryption to data
transmitted over the Internet. This ensures that data exchanged between a website and its
users remains confidential and tamper-proof.
The protocol ensures secure communication between two computers where one sends
requests through a browser and the other fetches data from a web server.

The main features of HTTPS are:

 22

1. Authentication. Verifies the identity of the website and users connect to the intended
server to confirm.

2. Data Integrity. Ensures that data is not altered or tampered with during transit.

3. Secure Connection: Establishes a secure connection between the user's browser and the
website's server.

4. Data is encrypted by SSL/TLS protocol, making it unreadable to unauthorized persons.

Voice over Internet Protocol or VoIP:

This protocol allows the transmission of voice and multimedia content over an
Internet connection. By converting voice signals into digital data packets, VoIP helps
users make calls from computers, smartphones or VoIP phones.

VoIP is a technology that is generally useful for both individuals and businesses. Its
key benefits include lower costs for long-distance calls, additional features such as
video conferencing, and the flexibility to communicate from anywhere with an
Internet connection.
VoIP has revolutionized communication by providing versatile and cost-effective voice
services. VoIP has features that are not found normally in phone services. These
features may include call recording, custom caller ID, and email to voice mail.
 23

VoIP uses several protocols, including:

SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)

H.323

MGCP (Media Gateway Control Protocol)

RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)

Some common VoIP applications and services include:

skype

zoom

Google Voice

Cisco WebEx

Microsoft team
Equipment Required in VoIP

1 A high speed internet connection is required to use VoIP services.

2. Internet access can be through cable modem or LAN and other high speed services.
 24

3. Users need compatible devices, such as computers, adapters or special VoIP

phones.

4. Santa software and microphone are required for computer based tests.

5. VoIP phones can be connected directly to a broadband connection.

4. Some VoIP services only work with a specific computer or VoIP phone.

Advantages of VoIP

1. Paying for both a broadband connection and a traditional, telephone line can be
avoided.

2. VoIP technology virtually eliminates the cost of phone communication for both
business and personal use.

3. VoIP phone service often offers high-speed Internet access as well as a free
purchase of Internet cable television packages.

4 can provide smoother coupling than an analog signal.

Disadvantages of VoIP:

1. Some VoIP services do not work during power outages and service providers may
not offer backup power.

2. Not all VoIP services connect directly to emergency services through emergency
service numbers.
 25

3. VoIP providers may or may not offer directory assistance.

4. The primary drawback of VoIP services is their tendency to cluster or lag. The
sound is slightly delayed because it is sent in packets. In most cases inexperienced
listeners do not understand the difference between VoIP and analog calls.

Basic Concept of OSI Model:

The International Standards Organization (ISO) introduced the Open System

Interconnection or OSI model in order to avoid difficulties in exchanging information
between different types of computer systems on a network and to maintain the same
criteria or standards when preparing different network devices. It was introduced in
the late seventies. OSI model says what to do but not how to do it i.e. method. It
depends on the programmers or developers. So it cannot properly be called a
protocol.

There are seven layers in the OSI model. Each level is completely independent from
other levels. Each layer has its own protocol. But each tone is related to each other ie
each tone to its upper or lower level communicates and provides services to its next
level as needed. Following are the identification of different layers in communication
or messaging :
 26

Layer structure of OSI model:

The functions and characteristics of each layer at which the OSI model is organized
(layers one through seven). Briefly discussed are:

A. First Layer: Physical Layer:

The lowest layer of the OSI model is the physical layer. So this layer establishes the
solo sarda relationship of the external media or hardware components. The physical
layer receives data frames sent from the data link layer above it and converts them
into data or signals. These data bits or signals are sent from the sender computer
(Sender) to the receiver computer (Receiver) through Serial or Parallel Data Path
(Age: Cable or its medium). The devices connected at the physical level are:
Hub/Switch, Repeater, Cable , connectors, transmitters etc. In the OSI model, the
physical layer serves to provide connectivity of two fundamental natures. One is
point-to-point, the other is multiplex

* Point-to-point: The most typical example of this connection is a direct cable

connection to a computer or PC. Local printer. In a point-to-point connection, a host is
directly connected to another host (PC or printer) on the other end of a medium or
cable.

* Multipoint: In this connection method a host is connected to multiple hosts at the

same time. LAN or w any type of network host can be assumed to be connected in
multipoint connection. Because this host can exchange data with multiple hosts
instead of Raj.

The main functions of the physical layer are:

1. Controlling the data sending rate.

2. Transmitting data bits or signals.

 27

3. It helps in selecting the transmission medium or what type of network cable is

used.

4. Designing and defining network topology.

5. Changing data accordingly.

6. Determining what the data sharing mechanism will be.

B. Second Layer: Data Link Layer:

The second layer of the OSI model is the data link layer. On the one hand, this layer
sends the data taken from the network layer to the physics layer, and on the other
hand, the data from the physical layer is corrected and sent to the network layer. The
data link layer ensures reliable, error-free data transfer between devices on the same
network, providing a foundation for efficiently handling high-level protocols. The data
link layer is divided into two endpoints. One is Logical Link Control (LLC) and the other
is Media Access Control.

LLC establishes and maintains connections between network devices. This sublayer is
also responsible for frame error correction and hardware address determination.

Controlling the process by which network devices share media channels is done at
the MAC sublayer. There are two types of media channel share method they are-

* Contention:

In this way the devices connected to the network can transmit data at any moment.
An example of a contention network is Ethernet.
Token Passing:
 28

Here the PC can send data packets over the network cable at any time it wants. It has
to wait for token or frame for this. Token ring, arcnet etc. are examples of token
passing networks.

Devices that work at the data link level are switches, bridges, HANs, etc.

The main functions of the data link layer are:

1. Constructing data frames with data from the network layer.

2. This layer detects the error deviation of the data frames and corrects the error.

3. This layer controls the flow of data.

4.This layer defines the address of various connection protection devices.

C. Third Layer: Network Layer:

The third layer of the Ogi model is the network layer. The main task of this network is
to create a logical path for how data will be exchanged between the source and
destination computers of the network. Devices that work at the network layer are
routers, routers and gateways, etc.

The main functions of the network layer are:

1 At this level, large data frames are converted into smaller packets.

2 Error correction of data packages is performed.

 29

3. Sends data packets from the source to the correct address of a device.

4 In general, all operations related to data transmission from one network to another
network take place in this network.

D. Fourth Layer: Transport Layer:

The fourth layer of the OSI model is the transport layer. This layer receives data from
the session layer above and breaks it down into smaller units. Sends these smaller
units down to the lower network layer. Regarding whether the entire data is reaching
there. This level is also responsible for making sure. The process of breaking large
data into smaller pieces is called fragmentation. The subscriber device combines
incoming fragmented data packets at the transport layer. The process of reassembling
fragmented data is called De-fragmentation. Like the network layer, routers, routers
and gateways etc. devices work at this layer.

The main functions of the transport layer are:

1. Taking data from the session layer and breaking it into smaller units.

2. This layer reassembles or aggregates the fragmented data received from the
network layer.

3. It is the special responsibility of this level to ensure that the serialization of data is
maintained as a result of this division and addition of data. After the data reaches the
destination, the complete data is obtained by sorting them into serial numbers.

4 At the same time this layer controls data transmission rate, data retrieval, error
detection and correction etc.

E. First Layer: Session Layer:

 30

In OSI model, the fifth layer of the model is the session layer. The exchange of
information or messages between sender and receiver computers in the network is
called Dialog. The main function of this layer is to control the dialog between the two
computers by coordinating. Hence this layer is also called dialog controller. Devices at
the session layer are application interfaces and gateways etc.

The main functions of session fever are:

1. Controlling the dialog by coordinating between Jerk and the client computer.
2. It helps to know whether the data exchange is started or stopped, if the data is
sent, it is reaching properly etc.
3 The main task of the session level is the selection of the correct dialog, its proper
control and the selection of which Mode will be used for that dialog (TWA-Two Way
Attenuate or TWS Two Way Simultaneous) to coordinate between the respective computers
in the Amalya Separation Gandati.

F. Sixth Layer: Presentation Layer:

The sixth layer of the OSI model is the presentation layer. This layer represents the various
signal data sent from the sending computer in the form of displayable data. ie it is displayed
on the VDU or printed on the printer. Like the session layer, application interfaces and
gateway devices work in this layer.

The main functions of the presentation layer are:

1. Visualization of various signal data sent from the sending computer.

2. Different types of computers use different number systems. This layer uses a common
number expression system understandable by all types of computers. eg: JPG to GIF
conversion or ASCII to EBCDIC-4 conversion is performed at this level).

3. At this level the data is translated by secret code to send the signal to protect the privacy
of the data.
 31

It is called data encryption.

G.Seventh Layer: Application Layer:

The seventh layer of the OSI model is the application layer. This layer is directly related to
the user as it is the connection layer between the user and the network. So it is at this level
that with the help of application software, the user can exchange messages through email,
send through FTP (File Transfer), manage databases, etc.

The main functions of the application layer are:

1. It is at this level that the user can exchange messages through E-mail with the help of
application software.

2 Can send files or download or upload files through FTP or File Transfer Protocol.

3. Almost all Internet Protocol (like FTP, HTTP, Telnet etc.) functions are performed in this
layer as in the above two layers.

Introduction to Web Services:

World Wide Web or WWW (World Wide Web):

The Internet is a global repository of vast information. Any information is available with the
help of internet. The latest technology of the Internet is www or World Wide Web! It is
actually a huge collection of interconnected hypertext documents. The www or World Wide
Web is the combined form of Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and all the protocols used
on the Internet. All Internet protocols and services are available at www. Currently, the
Internet refers to the www. It is non-linear in nature. It allows the user to access
information from one information store to another. It was invented by Swiss physicist Tim
Berners Lee in 1989.
 32

Advantages of World Wide Web:

i) The required information can be found very easily with the help of www from millions of
computers in the world connected to the Internet.

ii) A link in a web document can open other documents.

iii) Multimedia can be implemented in web pages.

iv) www includes sound, graphics, movies etc. Also helps secure communication with other
Internet 16 protocols like FTP, Gopher, Telnet etc.

v)The www allows the user to search for and access various information.

Hyper Text Markup Language or HTML:

Web pages are created using a language called HTML Hypertext Markup Language. In 1989,
Tim Berners Lee of Switzerland used a special type of markup language to create pages on
the World Wide Web and called it Hypertext Markup Language or HTML.

A web page created with HTML is actually a text document (Notepad). Much like in MS-
Word. Its feature is that you have to use a web browser to view this document. Nomi is
discussed in detail in the next chapter.

Extensible Markup Language or XML (Extensible Markup Language):

XML, or Extensible Markup Language, is a standard for structuring and organizing data that
is both human-readable and machine-readable. It uses tags to define data elements and
hierarchies, allows the creation of custom markup languages for specific applications, and
can store and transport data. It is a flexible and platform-independent way of representing
data, making it popular for data exchange and storage.
 33

The main features of XML are-

1. XML documents contain information about the structure and content of data.

2 Data in XML is organized into a tree-like structure with elements and sub-elements.

3. XML can be used on any device, operating system or application.

4. XML is not specific to any one programming language.

5. XML allows users to define their own elements and attributes.

6. XML supports Unicode, XML is Unicode compatible, which means that it can be written
by any human

Language can communicate virtually any information.

7. XML documents always have a root node.

8. XML documents are case sensitive.

Common uses of XML:

1. Data Exchange: XML is used to exchange data between different systems, applications or
organizations.

2.Configuration files: XML is used to store configuration data for applications and systems.

3. Data Storage: XML is used to store data in a format that is easy to read and write.
 34

4. Web services. XML is used to define the structure of data exchanged between web
services.

5. Document Markup: XML is used to structure and add meaning to documents, making
them more searchable and machine-readable.

XML includes:

1. Element: Represented by tags (eg, <name> Raman</name>).

2. Attribute: Provides additional information about the element (eg, <person id="123">).

3. Text Content: Data stored in elements (eg 'Raman').

3. Namespaces: Used to avoid element name conflicts (eg, 'xmlns:xs="link

unavailable)".

XML is widely used in various industries. which includes

1. Web Development.

2. Data integration.

3. Document Management.

4. Enterprise software.

5. Mobile App Development.

Below is a sample of a typical XML program – The above program demonstrates the basic
structure of an XML document, including:
 35

The first line contains the XML declaration. A <note> is a root element which is
a basically a root node, and has three child elements (sub-elements) <to>,
<from> and <message> respectively. Here <to> sub element is the recipient of
the note. <from> sub element is the sender of the note and <message> sub
element identifies the content of the note. Note that every element used has a
start tag and an end tag. This code should be saved in a Notepad file with an
xml extension (eg note.xml) and opened in a web browser or XML editor to see
the format output.

Below is an example of another document:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1">

- <book category "story">
<bname>GITANJALI</bname>
<pages>500</pages>
<price>Rs. 1000.00</price>
</book>

xml is declared on the first line in this document. Then there is a boot element
or root node called book and an attribute category="story" under that element.
Then the bname, pages and price sub-elements or child elements are
contained in a tag under the root element called book. The bname, pages, and
 36

price tags contain the text content for the book name, page number, and price,
respectively, and each element used in the document contains the start tag and
the end tag, denoted by the </> symbol.
 37

IP Address

The full name of the word IP is Internet Protocol: Each computer connected to the same
network needs a unique address or addresses to exchange information through the TCP/IP
protocol. When sending TCP/IP data, it is told which address the data will go to. This is
called IP address. Two computers on the same network will never have the same IP address.
An address has two parts. Namely- Network Address (NetID) and Host Address (HostID))

An IP address is usually written as a decimal number. eg 192.133.50.2) In this case

192.133.50 eight is the network address and 2 is the host address. So the network part of
the IP address indicates which segment of the network the computer is connected to, and
the host address indicates a particular computer connected to the network segment. A host
computer may have other computers, printers, routers, scanners, etc. devices connected via
LAN. Expressing the said IP address in binary numbers for a computer would look like this –

If you look at the IP address written in binary numbers above, it can be seen that it has a
total of 32 bits (digits). So IP address is a 32 bit number. This 32 bit number is divided into a
group of 4 bits with three decimal points totaling 4 parts. This one division of 4 bits is called
octate. A 32-bit number uniquely identifies all computers connected to a network. Each
digit in an IP address ranges from 0 to 255. The first IP address in the network system is
0.0.0.0 and the last address is 255.255.255 255. With this number, a total of more than 429
crore computers can be connected to the Internet.

Classification of IP Address:

Internet technologists divide IP addresses into a total of four categories. These are- Class A,
B, C, D E address)
 38

Class A, B, C IP addresses are discussed.

Class A Address:

Class A addresses are used in networks where many computers or hosts are connected.

Rules for writing this address are-

i)The network address of this class (Network ID) is one octate ie 4 bits.
ii) MSB (Most Significant bit) of network address is always 0 and Class A address is formed
by the next 7 bits. That means it can have a total of 27-128 network addresses. Two of these
128 bits are reserved for special functions. As a result, there can be a total of 126 network
addresses.

iii) Remaining 3 octet i.e. 24 bits are allocated for host address (HostiD). A total of 2 24-2=
16777214 HostIDs can be generated from this.

Class B Address:
 39

Class B addresses are used for medium to large networks. Class B address writing rules.

(i) The network address (Network ID) of this class is 16 bits wide.

(ii) The first two bits out of 16 bits are always 10. The next 14 bits make up the Class B
address. 214-2-16382 network addresses can be generated with Sutra.

(iii) Class B network has 16 bit number allocated for host address (Host ID) with which a
total of 216-2= 65,534 host addresses can be created.

Class C Address:

This type of address is used for smaller networks such as LANs. The rules for writing this
address are-

(i) This class of network address is three octets i.e. 24 bits wide.

(d) First three bits out of 24 bits will always be 110. The next 21 bits make up the Class C
address. 221-2=2097150 network addresses can be generated with Sutra.

(ii) Total 8 bits are allocated for host address. It can create 28 -2= 254 host addresses.

Domain Names:

A domain name is a name that identifies a website. Domain names are like people's names.
Just as the name of a village carries its identity, a domain name carries the identity of a
website. The difference between domain names and human names is that a name can be
the same for more than one person. But multiple domain names can never be the same, all
domain names must be unique.
 40

A domain name is a unique string of characters that identifies a website on the Internet. It is
used to personalize a website, email or other online service. This is the officially registered
name for a website. Or, a domain name refers to any website or web address, device, email,
etc. used on the Internet. For example: www.google.co, www.microsoft.com,
www.facebook.com, www.youtube.com etc.

A domain name is very important as it helps to register any website on the internet easily
through the web browser. Each website is assigned an IP address. But we can't remember
an exact IP address as easily as we can remember a website name. For example, it can be
said that Google.com is the name of the web site that everyone knows. But if we had to
remember this IP address “74.125.45.100” to open Google website it would be very
difficult. So, this is the reason why domain names were created because it helps to get a
website on the internet easily.

Types of Domain Names:

1. Top Level Domain : Top label domain is used for web sites of business, educational
institutions, organizations, government institutions, information and networking etc.
Like .com, .org, .gov, .info, .net etc.

2. Main Domain: It identifies the main name of the website. Eg: facebook, google, Microsoft
etc.

3.Sub Level Domain: A sub domain is basically an additional part of a main domain in which
a well site can be organized into different sections to create another website. From a main
domain multiple sub domains can be created. We are all familiar with this website like:
google.com. Some of the services Google provides us are Gmail, googledrive, google
translate, googledocs etc. Here mail.google.com is the Gmail website - which is a sub
domain of google.com. Thus, the websites translate.google.com, drive.google.com are each
a subdomain of the google.com website.

4.Country Code Top Level Domain: Country Code Top Level Domain refers to a country's
own domain by which a country or sovereign state is used as a region identified with a
country code. For example: .in, .au, .usa, .bd etc.
 41

The main features of domain names are:

1. Uniqueness: Each domain name must be unique.

2. Length: Domain name can be maximum 63 characters long (excluding TLD).

3. Characters: Domain name can contain letters (a-z), numbers (0-9) and hyphen (-).

4. Case sensitivity: Domain names are not case sensitive. eg facebook.com

=FACEBOOK.COM

5. Extension: Every domain name has an extension like: .com, .org, .net etc.

6. Hierarchical: Domain names follow a hierarchical structure.

7. Memorability: A good domain name should be easy to remember and identify.

8. Brandability: A domain name should reflect the website's brand or identity.

Uniform Resource Locator or URL (Uniform Resource Locator):

Every web site has a specific address. They are called URLs. Each URL is written using letters,
numbers or punctuation. A URL has a total 4 parts. Its general structure is shown below-
 42

1. Protocol: http or https (Hypertext Transfer Protocol or Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Secure)

2. Sub Domain: Optional, eg www, blog.

3. Domain Name: Main website address like: facebook, microsoft, youtube etc

4. Top Level Domain: Domain extension, eg: .com, .org, .net etc.

Benefits:
 URLs make Web addresses easier to find.

• Each URL address is unique so they can be easily identified.

• URLs indicate the location of an Internet resource within the Web.

• They are also easier to remember as they do not have symbols like IP addresses.

ISP (ISP or Internet Service Provider)

 43

Organizations that provide Internet services are called ISP or Internet Service Provider. Any
computer must be connected to the ISP's computer to get internet service.

The services provided by ISP are mentioned below.

1 Internet Access: ISP provide Internet connectivity to customers through various

technologies such as DSL, cable, cyber and mobile networks.
2. Email Services: ISPs often provide email accounts and hosting services.
3. Web Hosting: ISPs can provide web hosting services, allowing customers to host their
websites.

4.Security Services :Some ISPs offer security services such as antivirus software, firewalls,
and VPNs

5. Domain Registration: ISPs often offer domain registration services. Manage customer
domain name registrations

6. Technical support: ISPs are usually there to help customers troubleshoot and resolve
connectivity issues. Provides practical assistance.

Type of ISP:

1. Access Providers: These types of ISPs provide direct Internet access to customers.

2. Hosting Providers: These types of ISPs provide web hosting and related services.

3. Transit Providers: These types of ISPs provide connectivity between different networks.
 44

4. Virtual ISPs: These types of ISPs are different. Resells Internet services from ISPs.

Examples of ISPs:

Government of India has initiatives and organizations that provide internet services. But it
does not have a single, unified ISP.

Some government-owned entities and enterprises include:

1. BSNL (Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited): It is a state-owned telecommunication company

that provides internet services among other things.

2. MTNL ( Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited): a state-owned telecommunication

provider, provides Internet services in Delhi and Mumbai.

3. NIC (National Informatics Centre): A government agency that provides internet and
network services to government agencies and institutions.

4. ERNET (Education and Research Network): A government initiative that provides Internet
and network services to educational and research institutions.

5. NKN (National Knowledge Network): A government initiative that provides high-speed

Internet access to educational and research institutions.

Additionally, the Government of India has launched some of the following initiatives.

1. Digital India:A program that aims to transform India into a digitally empowered society
and message economy.

2. BharatNet: A program aimed at providing high speed internet connectivity to rural areas.
 45

These initiatives and organizations work together to promote digital inclusion in India to
provide internet services.

Website

A website is a collection of web pages, images, videos, and other digital content hosted on a
server and accessible over the Internet. Websites are usually represented by a domain
name or web address and can be accessed using a web browser.

The main components of a website are:

1. Home Page: This is the entry point to the website.

2. Web Page: These are individual pages with content, images and multimedia.

3. Navigation: Menus, links and buttons used to move web pages.

4. content: Text, photos, videos and other media.

5. Design: Visual layout, colors, typography and graphics.

6. Functionality: interactive performance, form and dynamic effects (effects).

Type of website

1. Static Websites: These types of websites are pre-built, unchanging content.

2. Dynamic websites: The content of this type of website changes frequently or

interactively.
 46

3. e-commerce websites: These types of websites are created for online digital shopping
and transactions. Eg: Amazon, Flipkart and OLX etc.

4. Blog or news distributor websites: These types of websites are created to serve various
news or blogs.

5. Portfolio Websites: These types of websites are created for artists to showcase their
work, projects or skills.
6.Social Media Websites: This website is the most popular website where people can
connect with each other. Allows users to share their personal information, images, videos
ideas and opinions in real-time. Like: Facebook, Instagram and Twitter etc.

Website
Web Browser:

A web browser is a software application that allows users to access and view websites on
the Internet. The software or program that performs all the activities of the Internet is
called Web Browser. Web browsing is the process of moving from one web page to another
 47

web page with the help of hyperlinks through a web browser. Also web browsing is called
net surfing. Some important web browsers are- (1) Internet Explorer, (ii) Netscape
Navigator, (iii) Fire Fox, (iv) Google Chrome, (v) Opera (Opera), (vi) Mosaic, (vii) Avant, (viii)
Microsoft Edge, (ix) Apple Safari, (x) Tor Browser etc.
Some Key Features of Web Browsers and the function is mentioned below.

1. Rendering engine: Renders webpages by interpreting HTML, CSS ,JavaScript code.

2. User Interface: Web browsers provide a graphical user interface (GUI) for accessing and
navigating websites.

3. Navigation : Allows users to navigate through web pages using URLs, hyperlinks, and
bookmarks.

4. Search : Includes another search bar for specific webpages or content.

5.Tabs and Windows : Allows users to open multiple webpages simultaneously.

6. Extensions and add-ons: Supports additional features and functionality through
extensions and add-ons.

7. Security: Includes features like encryption, secure protocols and phishing protection to
ensure safe browsing.

8. Privacy: Offers options for managing cookies, history and personal data.

When choosing a web browser, the following factors should be considered.

1. Speed and performance.

2. Security and privacy features.

 48

3. User interface and customization options.

4. Extensions and Add-ons

5. Compatibility with devices and operating systems.

6. Regular updates and bug fixes.

Web Server:
A web server is a computer that stores website data and delivers webpages to Internet
users. These are the underlying protocols of the Internet Web Browsers. An essential
component of HTTP. They require both hardware and software components to function. All
internet content is physically hosted somewhere and the host device itself is known as the
server.
Web servers accept requests from clients (web browsers or mobile apps), process them,
and return responses to clients.

The main features of a web server are:

1.HTTP/HTTPS Support: Web servers use the HTTP/HTTPS protocol to communicate with
clients.

2 Request Handling: The web server receives and processes requests from clients.
 49

3 Serving of resources: Web servers serve web pages, images, videos, and other files.

4 Application Execution: Web servers execute server-side scripts and applications such as:
Python, PHP,

5. Security Authentication: The web server handles user authentication, access control and
encryption.

There are many free and paid web servers available in the market. Examples of some
popular web servers among them are mentioned below:

a) Apache HTTP Server

b) Nginx

c) Microsoft Internet Information Services

d) Lighttpd

e) Google Web Server

Web servers can be deployed in a variety of environments, including:
1. Dedicated server

2. Shared Hosting

3. Cloud computing (eg AWS, Google cloud, Azure)

4. Virtual Private Server (VPS)

 50

Web Hosting :

Web hosting is a service that allows individuals and organizations to host their websites on
the Internet. Hosting is a system where server space is rented to host website data (eg
images, text, videos, etc.). All the files and databases of a website are stored and the
website can be visited from any part of the world using the internet.

When we access a website through a browser, our computer is connected to the server
computer over the Internet. As a result we can browse image, audio, video, text etc. files on
our server.

The main functions of web hosting are:

1. Storage: Web hosting providers provide storage space for website files, databases and
emails.

2. Server: Web hosting providers maintain servers that store website files and serves them.

3. Bandwidth: Web hosting providers provide bandwidth to handle website traffic and data
transfer.
4. Domain Name Management: Web hosting providers often provide domain name
registration and management services.
 51

5. Security: Web hosting companies implement security measures to protect websites from
hacking, malware, and other threats.

6. Technical Support: Web hosting providers provide technical support to help customers
manage their websites.

Types of Web Hosting:

1. Shared Hosting:

In this type of web hosting, multiple websites share a single server and resource. The main
reason for creating shared hosting is to provide low cost services. It divides server resources
such as processing power, RAM and storage among each user. Shared hosting is generally
used for hosting small websites.

2. Dedicated Hosting:
 52

In this type of hosting, an entire server resource is allocated to one user. Dedicated hosting
services provide your website resources and storage to the user as per the user's demand.
In this case, server resources can be increased or decreased depending on the budget. This
type of server is generally more suitable for advanced users. Dedicated hosting is of two
types – managed and unmanaged.

3. Virtual Private Server:

A virtual server with dedicated resources, shared between several websites.

VPS hosting is a matter where a personal hosting space is available which is under the sole
control of the user. Here user can host one website or host multiple services. It does not
have to share resources with other users. VPS hosting gives the user a root access that gives
those users the highest level of control and system administration privileges, allowing them
to make fundamental changes (eg: install or remove software) to their underlying operating
system.

4. Cloud Hosting:

Cloud hosting refers to the practice of hosting websites, applications, or data on remote
servers accessed via the Internet, rather than on local servers or personal computers. In
cloud hosting the physical infrastructure and maintenance of servers is managed by a cloud
service provider, allowing users to access computing resources on demand without the
need to invest in and maintain their own hardware.

Cloud hosting is not like traditional hosting servers. Here is Dilol server for creating hosting
service. Instead of using multiple servers. Cloud hosting systems use the centralized
resource pool system. In this the website shares resources from several interconnected
servers rather than a single server. As a result, even if the server is down, the website from
the other server loads without any problem. Currently, the security system of cloud hosting,
unlimited space, non-stop resource share system and other reasons have taken over the
entire hosting market.
 53

5.Reseller Hosing:

This type of hosting service is where a customer (reseller) purchases hosting space from a
web hosting provider and then resells that space to their own customers. Reseller hosting
allows businesses or small businesses to offer web hosting services to their clients without
managing the underlying infrastructure.

It is mainly a business model. In order to improve their services and increase business
profits, hosting companies are open to hosting resale services. Reseller hosting is buying
hosting from the hosting company and selling it directly to the customers.

6. Colocation Hosting:

In this hosting service, customers store their own servers in a web provider's data center.
Colocation hosting is a server housing. This hosting system allows a third party data center
company to access physical servers located within their building. As a result, the customer
has full control over the servers hosting their website in a third-party data center and
benefits from the data center's infrastructure, security, and connectivity.
 54

Advantages of Web Hosting:

1. Global Accessibility: Hosted websites can be accessed from anywhere in the world.
Which helps us to connect with our own worlds.

2. Reliability: Web hosting providers offer reliable servers and uptime guarantees.

3. Security: Web hosting companies implement strong security measures.

4. Maintenance: Hosting providers handle server maintenance, updates and backups.

5. Flexibility: There are various types of hosting (shared, VPS, dedicated, cloud etc.) to
choose from.

6. Support: Hosting companies provide technical support and expertise.

7. Scalability: Web hosting can be used within a fixed budget by increasing or decreasing
the space as needed. It gets the desired results without spending too much.

Disadvantages of Web Hosting:

1. Dependence on the Provider: How the customer's website or service will perform is
entirely dependent on the hosting provider. If their hardware and software support is weak
then the customer cannot upgrade it from his own place. The customer has to rely on the
hosting provider for all these tasks.

2. Limited control: Shared hosting plans can limit control over server configuration.
 55

3. Security Risks: Nowadays almost all hosting providers use high quality security. But
because of cheap hosting purchase, hosting provider does not provide any good quality
security. This makes our website vulnerable to malware, virus attacks.

4. Downtime: Server downtime may occur due to maintenance or technical issues.

5. Loss of data: Data loss may occur due to server crash or human error.

6. bandwidth: Exceeding bandwidth limits may result in additional fees or downtime.

7. Compatibility Issues: Compatibility issues may arise with certain software or scripts.

8. Contractual Obligations: Web hosting companies can have strict terms and conditions.