ALGORITHMIC GRAPH THEORY UNIT 1

1. Oriented graph and nonoriented graph:-

A graph G = (V, E) consists of two sets: a finite set V of elements
called vertices and a finite set Å of elements called edges. Each edge is
identified with a pair of vertices. If the edges of a graph G are identified
with ordered pairs of vertices, then G is called a directed or an oriented
graph. Otherwise G is called an undirected or a nonoriented graph.

2. End vertices:-
We use the symbols v1, v2, v3,... to represent the vertices and the
symbols e1, e2, e3 , . . . to represent the edges of a graph. The vertices vi and vi
associated with an edge el are called the end vertices of el The edge el is then
denoted as el =(vi, vj).

3. Parallel edges:-
All edges having the same pair of end vertices are called parallel
edges.

4. Self loop:-
If el = (vi, vi), then the edge el is called a self-loop at vertex vi.

5. Order:-
A graph G is of order n if its vertex set has n elements.

6. Null graph:-
A graph with no edges is called an empty graph. A graph with no
vertices (and hence no edges) is called a null graph.

7. Incident and adjacent:-

An edge is said to be incident on its end vertices. Two vertices are
adjacent if they are the end vertices of some edge. If two edges have a common
end vertex, then these edges are said to be adjacent.

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 8. Degree:-
The number of edges incident on a vertex vi is called the degree of
the vertex, and it is denoted by d(vi). Sometimes the degree of a vertex is also
referred to as its valency. A vertex of degree 1 is called a pendant vertex.
The only edge incident on a pendant vertex is called a pendant edge. A vertex
of degree 0 is called an isolated vertex. By definition, a self-loop at a vertex vi
contributes 2 to the degree of vi. 𝛿(G) and ∆(G) denote, respectively.

9. Subgraph, proper subgraph and spanning subgraph:-

Consider a graph G = (V, E). G' = (V’, E') is a subgraph of G if V’ and E' are,
respectively, subsets of V and E such that an edge (vi, vj) is an E' only if vi and vj
are in V’. G' will be called a proper subgraph of G if either E' is a proper subset
of E or V’ is a proper subset of V. If all the vertices of a graph G are present in a
subgraph G' of G, then G' is called a spanning subgraph of G.

10.Induced by vertex & Induced by edge:-

The induced subgraph of G with vertex set S is subset of V(G) is
called the subgraph of G induced by S and is denoted by G[S] Let E’ be a
subset of E and let S denote the subset of V consisting of all the end
vertices in G of edges in E’. Then the graph (S, E’, IG|g’) is the subgraph of
G induced by the edge set E’ of G. It is denoted by G[E’]. Let u and v be
vertices of a graph G. By G + uv. we mean the graph obtained by adding
a new edge uv to G.

11.Maximal subgraph and minimal subgraph:-

A subgraph G' of a graph G is said to be a maximal subgraph of G
with respect to some property P if G' has the property P and G' is not a proper
subgraph of any other subgraph of G having the property P.
A subgraph G' of a graph G is said to be a minimal subgraph of G
with respect to some property P if G has the property P and no subgraph of G
having the property P is a proper subgraph of G'.

12.Complement of graph:-
Graph 𝐺̅ = (V’, E') is called the complement of a simple graph G =
(V, E) if the edge (vi, vj) is in E' if and only if it is not in E.

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 13.Walk:-
A walk in a graph G is an alternating sequence W : v0e1v1e2v2…epvp
of vertices and edges beginning and ending with vertices in which vi-1 and
vi are the ends of ei : v0 is the origin and vp is the terminus of W. A walk is
open if the end vertices are distinct otherwise closed.

14.Trail:-
A walk is a trail if all its edges are distinct.

15.Connected:-
A graph G is connected if there exists a path between every pair of
vertices in G.

16.Components:-
Consider a graph G = (V, E) which is not connected. Then the vertex
set V of G can be partitioned into subsets V1,V2 , . . . ,Vp such that the vertex-
induced subgraphs (Vi), i = 1 , 2 , . . . , p, are connected and no vertex
in subset Vi is connected to any vertex in subset Vj, i!! ×≠j. The subgraphs
(Vi), i = 1, 2 , . . . , p, are called the components of G. A component of a graph G
is a maximal connected subgraph of G; that is, a component of G is not a
proper subgraph of any other connected subgraph of G.

17.Union:-
Consider two graphs, G, = (V,, Ej) and G2 = (V2, E2). The union of
G1 and G2 , denoted as G1 U G2 , is the graph G3 = (V1 U V2, E1 U E2); that is,
the vertex set of G3 is the union of V1 and V2, and the edge set of G3 is the
union of E1 and E2.

18.Intersection:-
The intersection of G1 and G2, denoted as G1 ∩ G2, is the graph
G3 = (V1 ∩ V2, E1 ∩ E2). That is, the vertex set of G3 consists of only those vertices
present in both G1 and G2, and the edge set of G3 consists of only those edges
present in both G1 and G2.

19.Ring sum:-
The ring sum of two graphs G1 and G2, denoted as G1⨁G2, is the
induced graph G3 on the edge set E1 ⨁ E2. In other words G3 has no
isolated vertices and consists of only those edges present either in G1 or
in G2 , but not in both.
G1 U G2 = G2 U G1; G1∩G2= G2∩G1; G1 ⨁ G2 = G2 ⨁ G1.

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 20.Vertex Removal:-
If v, is a vertex of a graph G = (V, E), then G -vi is the induced
subgraph of G on the vertex set V-vi; that is, G -vi, is the graph obtained
after removing from G the vertex vi and all the edges incident on vi.

21.Edge Removal:-
If ei is an edge of a graph G = (V, E), then G – ei is the subgraph of
G that results after removing from G the edge ei. Note that the end
vertices of ei are not removed from G. The removal of a set of vertices or
edges from a graph is defined as the removal of single vertices or edges
in succession. If G1 = (V’, E’) is a subgraph of the graph G = (V, E), then by
G – G’

22.Short-Circuiting or Identifying:-
A pair of vertices v1 and vj in a graph G are said to be short-
circuited (or identified) if the two vertices are replaced by a new vertex
such that all the edges in G incident on vi and vj; are now incident on the
new vertex.

23.Contraction:-
By contraction of an edge e we refer to the operation of removing
e and identifying its end vertices. A graph G is contractible to a graph H if
H can be obtained from G by a sequence of contractions.

24.Complete graph:-
A complete graph G is a simple graph in which every pair of
vertices is adjacent.

25.Regular and r- regular:-

A graph G is regular if all the vertices of G are of equal degree. If G
is regular with d(vi) = r for all vertices vi in G, then G is called r-regular.

26.Bipartite:-
A graph G = (V, E) is bipartite if its vertex set V can be partitioned
into two subsets V1 and V2 such that each edge of E has one end vertex in
V1 and another in V2; (V1, V2) is referred to as a bipartition of G. If in a
simple bipartite graph G, with bipartition (V1, V2), there is an edge (vi, vj)
for every vertex v1 in V1 and every vertex v2 in V2, then G is called a
complete bipartite graph and will be denoted by Km,n if V1 has m vertices
and V2 has n vertices.

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 27.K-partite:-
A graph G = (V, E) is k-partite if it is possible to partition V into k
subsets V1, V2,… Vk such that each edge of G has one end vertex in some
Vi and the other in some Vj, i≠j. A complete k-partite graph G is a simple
k-partite graph with vertex set partition (V1, V2,… Vk) and with the
Additional property that for every vertex vi in Vr and every vertex vj in Vs,
r≠s, 1≤r, s≤k, (vi, vj) is an edge in G.

28.Edge disjoint subgraph:-

Two subgraph G1 and G2 of graph G are said to be edge disjoint
subgraph if G1 and G2 do not have any edges in common in G.

29.Vertex disjoint subgraph:-

Two subgraph G1 and G2 of graph G are said to be vertex disjoint
subgraph if G1 and G2 do not have any vertices in common in G

30.Isomorphism:- (notes)

31.Euler tour:-
A trail that traverses every edge of G is called an Euler trail of G. A
tour of G is a closed walk that traverses each edge of G at least once. An Euler
tour is a tour which traverses each edge exactly once (in other words, a closed
Euler trail). A graph is eulerian if it contains an Euler tour.

32.Hamilton path:-
A path that contains every vertex of G is called a Hamilton path of
G. A graph is hamiltonian if it contains a Hamilton cycle. The
dodecahedron is hamiltonian; the Herschel graph is nonhamiltonian,
because it is bipartite and has an odd number of vertices.

33.Arbitrarily traceable graph:-

An Euler line is always obtained when one follows any walk from
vertex v according to the single rule that whenever one arrives at a
vertex one shall select any edge such a graph is called an arbitrarily
traceable graph from vertex v.

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 34.Complete Graph:-
A simple graph in which there exists an edge between every pair of
vertices is called a complete graph. Complete graphs of two, three, four,
and five vertices. A complete graph is sometimes also referred to as a
universal graph or a clique.

35.Tree:-
A tree is a connected graph without any circuits.

36.Rooted tree:-
A tree in which one vertex (called the root) is distinguished from all
the others is called a rooted tree.

37.Binary tree:-
A binary tree is defined as a tree in which there is exactly one
vertex of degree two, and each of the remaining vertices is of degree one
or three.

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 ALGORITHMIC GRAPH THEORY UNIT 2

1. Binary search:-
Binary search looks for a particular item by comparing the middle
most item of the collection. If a match occurs, then the index of item
is returned. If the middle item is greater than the item, then the item
is searched in the sub-array to the left of the middle item. Otherwise,
the item is searched for in the sub-array to the right of the middle
item. This process continues on the sub-array as well until the size of
the sub-array reduces to zero.

2. Binary Search Tree (BST)

 It’s a Variant of a Binary tree.
 Every Node must have at most (0,1,2) branches.
 Binary tree + Binary search = BST
 All the elements of Left sub-tree must be less than root node
 All the elements of Right sub-tree must be greater than root
node.

3. Graph traversal:-
Graph traversal is a technique used for a searching vertex in a
graph. The graph traversal is also used to decide the order of
vertices is visited in the search process. A graph traversal finds the
edges to be used in the search process without creating loops. That
means using graph traversal we visit all the vertices of the graph
without getting into looping path. There are two graph traversal
techniques and they are as follows.

 DFS (Depth First Search)

 BFS (Breadth First Search)

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 4. DFS (Depth First Search):-
DFS traversal of a graph produces a spanning tree as final
result. Spanning Tree is a graph without loops. We use Stack data
structure with maximum size of total number of vertices in the graph
to implement DFS traversal.

5. BFS (Breadth First Search):-

BFS traversal of a graph produces a spanning tree as final
result. Spanning Tree is a graph without loops. We use Queue data
structure with maximum size of total number of vertices in the graph
to implement BFS traversal.

6. Vector space:-
Consider a set S with a binary operation ⊞. Let F be a field with +
and · denoting, respectively, the addition and multiplication
operations. A multiplication operation, denoted by *, is also defined
between elements in F and those in S. This operation assigns to each
ordered pair (𝛼, s), where a is in F and s in S, a unique element
denoted by 𝛼 * s of S. The set S is a vector space over F if the
following postulates hold:
 S is an abelian group under ⊞.
 For any elements 𝛼 and 𝛽 in F, and any elements s1 and s2 in S
𝛼 ∗(s1 * s2)= (𝛼*s1) ⊞ ( 𝛼*s2) and (𝛼+𝛽)*s1 = (𝛼*s1)( 𝛽*s1).
 For any elements 𝛼 and 𝛽 in F and any element s in S,
(𝛼.𝛽)*s= 𝛼*(𝛽 ∗ 𝑠)
 For any element s in S, 1 * s = s, where 1 is the multiplicative
identity in F.

7. Vectors and Scalars:-

Elements of S are called vectors and those of F are called scalars.

8. Linear Combination:-
If an element s in 5 is expressible as s=( 𝛼1 *s1) ⊞( 𝛼2 *s2) ⊞…⊞
( 𝛼j *sj) where si's are vectors and ai's are scalars, then s is said to be a
linear combination of s1, s2,...,sj.

9. Linear Independence:-
Vectors s1,s2,... ,sn are said to be linearly independent if no vector
in this set is expressible as a linear combination of the remaining
vectors in the set.

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 10.Basis Vectors:-
Vectors s1,s2,... ,sn form a basis in the vector space S if they are
linearly independent and every vector in S is expressible as a linear
combination of these vectors. The vectors s1,s2,... ,sn are called basis
vectors.
It can be shown that the representation of a vector as a linear
combination of basis vectors is unique for a given basis. A vector
space may have more than one basis. However, it can be proved that
all the bases have the same number of vectors.

11.Dimension:-
The dimension of the vector space S, denoted as dim(S), is the
number of vectors in a basis of S.

12.Subspace:-
If S' is a subset of the vector space S over F, then S' is a subspace of
S if S' is also a vector space over F.

13.Direct Sum:-
The direct sum S1 * S2 of two subspaces S1 and S2 of S is the set of
all vectors of the form si⊞sj , where si is in S1 and sj is in S2. It can be
shown that S1⊞S2 is also a subspace, and that its dimension is given
by dim(S1⊞S2) = dim(S1) + dim(S2) – dim(S1∩S2).

14.Vector space of a graph:-

Consider a graph G = (V, E). Let WG denote the collection of all
subsets of E, including the empty set ∅. First we show that WG is an
abelian group under ⨁, the ring sum operation between sets. After
suitably defining multiplication between the elements of the field
GF(2) and those of WG, we show that WG is a vector space over GF(2).
The following are easy to verify:
1. WG is closed under ⨁.
2. ⨁ is associative.
3. ⨁ is commutative.
Further, for any element Ei in WG, Ei⨁∅=Ei and Ei ⨁Et=∅
Thus for the operation ⨁, ∅ is the identity element, and each E, is
its own inverse. Hence WG is an abelian group under ⨁, thereby
satisfying the first requirement in the definition of a vector space.

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 ALGORITHMIC GRAPH THEORY UNIT 3

1. Spanning tree:-
A tree T is said to be a spanning tree of a connected graph G if T is
a subgraph of G and T contains all vertices of G.

2. Chord and Branch:-

An edge in a spanning tree T is called a branch of T. An edge of G
that is not in a given spanning tree T is called a chord.

3. Fundamental circuits:-
These contain exactly one chord and this chord is not present in
any other fundamental circuit.

4. Fundamental cutsets:-
These contain exactly one branch and this branch is not
present in any other fundamental cutsets.

5. Cutset:-
In a connected graph G, a cut-set is a set of edges† whose removal
from G leaves G disconnected, provided removal of no proper subset
of these edges disconnects G.
A cut-set as a minimal cut-set, a proper cut-set, or a simple cutset.
Sometimes a cut-set is also called a cocycle.

6. Edge connectivity:-
Edge connectivity is defined as minimum number of edges whose
removal reduces of the graph by one.

7. Vertex connectivity:-
Vertex connectivity is defined as minimum number of vertices
whose removal from graph leaves the remaining graph disconnected.

8. Separable Graph:-
A connected graph is said to be separable if its vertex connectivity
is one. All other connected graphs are called nonseparable.

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 9. Cut vertex:-
In a separable graph a vertex whose removal disconnects the
graph is called a cut-vertex, a cut-node, or an articulation point. In a
tree every vertex with degree greater than one is called a cut-vertex.

10.Network flow:-
A simple connected weighted digraph is called a network flow.

11.capacity of cut-set:-
The capacity of cut-set S in a weighted connected graph G (in
which the weight of each edge represents its flow capacity) is defined
as the sum of the weights of all the edges in S.

12.1-isomorphic:-
Two graphs G1 and G2 are said to be 1-isomorphic if they become
isomorphic to each other under repeated application of the following
operation.
Operation 1: “Split” a cut-vertex into two vertices to produce two
disjoint subgraphs.
From this definition it is apparent that two nonseparable graphs are
1-isomorphic if and only if they are isomorphic.

13.2-isomorphic:-
Two graphs are said to be 2-isomorphic if they become isomorphic
after undergoing operation 1 or operation 2, or both operations any
number of times.
Operation 1: “Split” a cut-vertex into two vertices to produce two
disjoint subgraphs.
Operation 2: “Split” the vertex x into x1 and x2 and the vertex y into
y1 and y2 such that G is split into g1 and 𝑔 . Let vertices x1 and y1 go
with g1 and x2 and y2 with 𝑔 . Now rejoin the graphs g1 and by 𝑔
merging x1 with y2 and x2 with y1.

14.Rank:-
The rank of the undirected graph is defined by r = n-k where n is
the number of vertices in the given graph and k is the number of
components of a graph.

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 ALGORITHMIC GRAPH THEORY UNIT 4

1. Incidence matrix:-
Let G be a graph with n vertices, e edges, and no self-loops.
Define an n by e matrix A = [aij], whose n rows correspond to
the n vertices and the e columns correspond to the e edges, as
follows:
The matrix element
aij = 1, if jth edge ej is incident on ith vertex vi,
aij= 0, otherwise.
Such a matrix A is called the vertex-edge incidence matrix, or
simply incidence matrix. Matrix A for a graph G is sometimes
also written as A(G).

2. Binary matrix:-
The incidence matrix contains only two elements, 0 and 1.
Such a matrix is called a binary matrix or a (0, 1)-matrix.

3. Submatrix:-
Let g be a subgraph of a graph G, and let A(g) and A(G) be
the incidence matrices of g and G, respectively. Clearly, A(g) is a
submatrix of A(G) (possibly with rows or columns permuted). In
fact, there is a one-to-one correspondence between each n by k
submatrix of A(G) and a subgraph of G with k edges, k being
any positive integer less than e and n being the number of
vertices in G.

4. Circuit matrix:-
Let the number of different circuits in a graph G be q and the
number of edges in G be e. Then a circuit matrix B = [bij] of G is
a q by e, (0, 1)-matrix defined as follows:
bij = 1, if ith circuit includes jth edge, and
bij = 0, otherwise.

5. Fundamental circuit matrix:-

A submatrix (of a circuit matrix) in which all rows
correspond to a set of fundamental circuits is called a
fundamental circuit matrix Bf.

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 6. Cut-set matrix:-
A cut-set matrix defined as C = [cij] in which the rows
correspond to the cut-sets and the columns to the edges of the
graph, as follows:
cij = 1, if ith cut-set contains jth edge, and
cij = 0, otherwise.

7. Path matrix:-
A path matrix is defined for a specific pair of vertices in a
graph, say (x, y), and is written as P(x,y). The rows in P(x, y)
correspond to different paths between vertices x and y, and the
columns correspond to the edges in G. That is, the path matrix
for (x, y) vertices is P(x, y) = [pij], where
pij = 1, if jth edge lies in ith path, and
pij = 0, otherwise.

8. Adjacency matrix:-
The adjacency matrix of a graph G with n vertices and no
parallel edges is an n by n symmetric binary matrix X = [xij]
defined over the ring of integers such that xij = 1, if there is an
edge between ith and jth vertices, and xij= 0, if there is no edge
between them.

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