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D-Block Element

The document discusses d-block elements, also known as transition elements, which are characterized by partially filled d or f orbitals and exhibit variable oxidation states. It outlines the general properties, electronic configurations, and characteristics of typical and non-typical transition elements, as well as their physical and chemical properties such as atomic radii, melting and boiling points, and binding energies. The document also includes tables detailing the electronic configurations and common oxidation states of various transition elements.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views12 pages

D-Block Element

The document discusses d-block elements, also known as transition elements, which are characterized by partially filled d or f orbitals and exhibit variable oxidation states. It outlines the general properties, electronic configurations, and characteristics of typical and non-typical transition elements, as well as their physical and chemical properties such as atomic radii, melting and boiling points, and binding energies. The document also includes tables detailing the electronic configurations and common oxidation states of various transition elements.

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Tofiq
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)

d-block element
 Transition elements are those elements which have partially filled d or f orbitals in their atomic or
in any common oxidation state.
 They are located between s and p block elements in the periodic table.
 d-block are known as outer transition and f block are known as inner transition.
 Valance shell electronic configuration of (n–1) d1–10 ns0,–2 outer transition element (n–1)d is
penultimate orbital) inner orbit where ns is outer orbit.
The elements of II-B i.e. Zn, Cd and Hg do not have partially filled d-sub-shell in the elemental
state or ionic state. They do not show the typical properties of the transition elements to an
appreciable extent.
The elements of the group III-B are 21Sc, 39Y and 57La. They do not show many of the typical
properties of transition elements. In the compound state, they show tri-positive ion i.e. Sc+3, Y+3
and La+3. In this way, they do not have any electron in d-orbital. For this reason, the elements of
group II-B III-B are non-typical transition elements.

Non-typical transition elements Typical transition elements

II-B and III-B IV-B, V-B, VI-B, VII-B, VIII-B and I-B

 Four main transition series 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d sub levels in 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th period.
 First transition series  3d series 4th period. (10 elements) Sc (Atomic no. 21), Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe,
Co, Ni, Cu, And Zn atomic: no: 30
 Second transition series  4d series 5th period (10 elements)
 Y(atomic no. 39), Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, (atomic number 48)
 Third transition series  5d series 6th period  10 elements.
 La (atomic no. 57) Hf (Atomic no. =72) Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au and Hg (atomic no. 80).
 Fourth transition series  6s series 7 period

Ac (atomic no. 89) on wards.

 First inner transition series. From Cerium (Ce = 58) to Lutetium (Lu = 71) which are called
Lanthanide -4f-sereis.
 Second Inner transition series. From thorium (Th = 90) to Lawrencium (Lr = 103) which are
called actinides- 5f-series

PAGE # (1) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR


Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS:

 Except for mercury which is a liquid, all transition elements have typical metallic structure and
show. Typical metallic properties such as conductivity, malleability and ductility, luster, high
tensile strength etc.
 Their atomic radii are in-between those of s– and p-block elements. In a series, they decrease
with increase in atomic number but the decrease in small after midway.
 They have high melting and boiling points, high enthalpies of vaporization, high enthalpies of
atomization and high enthalpies of hydration of their ions. These properties depend upon the
strength of the metallic bond in them.
 Their first ionization energies are higher than those of s-block elements and less than those of p-
block elements.
 They are electropositive in nature.
 They show variable oxidation states.
 The stability of any oxidation state or the tendency for an transition metal ion to act as oxidizing or
reducing agent depends upon its electrode potential.
 A number of these transition metals and their compounds show catalytic properties.
 Most of the transition elements from coloured compounds.
 Their compounds are generally paramagnetic in nature.
 They have a great tendency to form complexes.
 They from interstitial compounds with elements like H, C, B and N.
 They form alloys.
 The formation of compounds whose colour is due to d-d electron transition.
d-block element:
Transition element may be defined as an element whose atom in the ground state or ion in common
oxidation state has incomplete sub-shell, has electron 1 to 9. It is called transition element due to fact
that it is lying between most electropositive (s-block) and most electronegative (p-block) elements and
represent a transition from them. The general electronic configuration of these elements is.
(n–1)d1 to10 ns 0 to 2
The definition of transition metal excludes Zn, Cd and Hg because they have complete d- orbital.
Their common oxidation state is Zn++, Cd++, Hg++. They also do not show the characteristics of
transition element. Element of group-3 (Sc, Y, La and Ac) and group 12 ( Zn, Cd, Hg) are called non
typical transition element.
PAGE # (2) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
Table: First transition or 3d series:
Element Symbol At. No. Electronic configuration
Scandium Sc 21 [Ar] 3d1 4s2
Titanium Ti 22 [Ar] 3d2 4s2
Vanadium V 23 [Ar] 3d3 4s2
Chromium Cr* 24 [Ar] 3d5 4s1
Manganese Mn 25 [Ar] 3d5 4s2
Iron Fe 26 [Ar] 3d6 4s2
Cobalt Co 27 [Ar] 3d7 4s2
Nickel Ni 28 [Ar] 3d8 4s2
Copper Cu* 29 [Ar] 3d10 4s1
Zinc Zn 30 [Ar] 3d10 4s2
Table : Second transition or 4d-series:
Element Symbol At. No. Electronic configuration
Yttrium Y 39 [Kr] 4d1 5s2
Zirconium Zr 40 [Kr] 4d2 5s2
Niobium Nb* 41 [Kr] 4d4 5s1
Molybdenum Mo* 42 [Kr] 4d5 5s1
Technetium Tc 43 [Kr] 4d5 5s2
Ruthenium Ru* 44 [Kr] 4d7 5s1
Rhodium Rh* 45 [Kr] 4d8 5s1
Palladium Pd* 46 [Kr] 4d10 5s0
Silver Ag* 47 [Kr] 4d10 5s1
Cadmium Cd 48 [Kr] 4d10 5s2
Table: Third transition or 5d-series
Element Symbol At. No. Electronic configuration
Lanthanum La 57 [Xe] 5d1 6s2
Hafnium Hf 72 [Xe] 4f14 5d2 6s2
Tantalum Ta 73 [Xe] 4f14 5d3 6s2
Tungsten W 74 [Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2
Rhenium Re 75 [Xe] 4f14 5d5 6s2
Osmium Os 76 [Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2
Iridium Ir 77 [Xe] 4f14 5d7 6s2
Platinum Pt* 78 [Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s1
Gold Au* 79 [Xe]4f14 5d106s1
Mercury Hg 80 [Xe] 4f145d106s2
These electronic configuration have the following characteristic.
 An inner core of electrons with Nobel gas configuration.
 (n–1)d orbitals are filled up progressively with electrons.
 Most of the member have 2 electron in ns-orbital. Cr, Cu, Nb, Mo, Ag, Au, have one
electron in ns orbital Pd has no electron in the ns orbital.
 In Lanthanum (z=57), one electron go to 5d orbital before filling of 4f orbital (an exception
from Aufbau Principle)
 Transition elements are these elements which have partly filled (n–1)d sub shell in their
elementary state
PAGE # (3) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
Physico-Chemical Properties of d-Block Elements
Atomic radii: The atomic, radii of 3d-series of elements are compared with those of the neighbouring
s and p-block elements.

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn

227 197 144 132 122 117 177

Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge

117 116 115 117 125 135 122


* in pm units
The atomic radii of transition elements show the following characteristics,
(i) The atomic radii and atomic volumes of d-block elements in any series decrease with increase in the atomic
number. The decrease however, is not regular. The atomic radii tend to reach minimum near at the middle
of the series, and increase slightly towards the end of the series.
Explanation: When we go in any transition series from left, to right, the nuclear charge increases gradually by
one unit at each elements. The added electrons enter the same penultimate shell, (inner d-shell). These added
electrons shield the outermost electrons from the attraction of the nuclear charge. The increased nuclear
charge tends to reduce the atomic radii, while the added electrons tend to increase the atomic radii. At the
beginning of the series, due to smaller number of electrons in the d-orbitals, the effect of increased nuclear
charge predominates, and the atomic radii decrease. Later in the series, when the number of d-electrons
increases, the increased shielding effect and the increased repulsion between the electrons tend to increase
the atomic radii. Somewhere in the middle of the series, therefore the atomic radii tend to have a minimum
value as observed.
Melting and boiling points: The melting and boiling points of transition elements except Cd and Hg,
are very high as compared to the s-block and p-block elements. The melting and boiling points first
increase, pass through maxima and then steadily decrease across any transition series.
The maximum occurs around middle of the series.
Explanation: Atoms of the transition elements are closely packed and held together by strong
metallic bonds which have appreciable covalent character. This leads to high melting and boiling
points of the transition elements. The strength of the metallic bonds depends upon the number of
unpaired electrons in the outermost shell of the atom. Thus, greater is the number of unpaired
electrons stronger is the metallic bonding. In any transition element series, the number of unpaired
electrons first increases from 1 to 5 and then decreases back to the zero .The maximum five
unpaired electrons occur at Cr (3d series). As a result, the melting and boiling points first increase
and then decrease showing maxima around the middle of the series. The low melting points of Zn,
Cd, and Hg may be due to the absence of unpaired d-electrons in their atoms.
Enthalpies of atomization: Transition metals exhibit high enthalpies of atomization. Explanation:
This is because the atoms in these elements are closely packed and held together by strong metallic
bonds. The metallic bond is formed as a result of the interaction of electrons in the outermost shell.
Greater the number of valence electrons, stronger is the metallic bond.
PAGE # (4) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
 Binding energies:
Transition metals show good mechanical properties. They are tough, malleable and ductile. The toughness
of these metals indicates strong metallic binding. This is because, apart from s-electron of the outer most
shell, the electrons of underlying half-filled d-orbitals also
participate in binding.
In moving from left to right in any transition series, the number
of unpaired electrons increases up to groups VB and VIB, after
that pairing takes place and number of unpaired electrons goes
on decreasing until it becomes zero at group IIB, therefore
binding is stronger up to group BIB and weakens progressively
upto group IIB. This trend of variation in binding energies is
shown in Figure in the first transition series the general
increase in binding energy ends at vanadium. This is due to
changes in metallic structure, e.g. The dip in melting point at
Mn in the first transition series can be explained on the basis
that they have exactly half-filled d-orbitals as result the
electronic configuration is stable i.e. electrons are held tightly by the nucleus so that the decolonization is
less and the metallic bond is much weaker. As there are no unpaired electrons in Zn, Cd and Hg, they are
soft and have low melting points. Hg is liquid at ordinary temperature with melting point of 234K.
Variable Oxidation states: Most of the transition elements exhibit several oxidation states i.e., they
show variable valency in their compounds. Some common oxidation states of the first transition series
elements are given below in table,
Outer Ele. Confi. and O. S. for 3d- elements
Elements Outer electronic configuration Oxidation states
Sc 3d1 4s2 + 2, + 3
Ti 3d2 4s2 + 2, + 3, + 4
V 3d3 4s2 + 2,+ 3,+ 4,+ 5
Cr 3d5 4s1 + 1, + 2, + 3, + 4, + 5, + 6
Mn 3d54s2 + 2, + 3, + 4, + 5, + 6, + 7
Fe 3d64s2 + 2, + 3, + 4, + 5, + 6
Co 3d74s2 + 2, + 3, + 4
Ni 3d84s2 + 2, + 3, + 4
Cu 3d104s1 + 1,+ 2
Zn 3d104s2 +2
PAGE # (5) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
Explanation: The outermost electronic configuration of the transition elements is (n - 1)d1-10ns2. Since, the
energy levels of (n-1)d and ns orbitals are quite close to each other, hence both the ns and (n-1)d-electrons
are available for bonding purposes. Therefore, the number of oxidation states show by these elements
depends upon the number of d-electrons it has. For example, Sc having a configuration 3d1 4s2 may show an
oxidation state of + 2 (only s -electrons are lost) and + 3 (when d-electron is also lost). The highest oxidation
state which an elements of this group might show is given by the total number of ns and (n -1)d-electrons.
The relative stability of the different oxidation states depends upon the factors such as, electronic
configuration, nature of bonding, stoichiometry, lattice energies and solvation energies. The highest oxidation
states are found in fluorides and oxides because fluorine and oxygen are the most electronegative elements.
The highest oxidation state shown by any transition metal is eight. The oxidation state of eight is shown by Ru
and Os.
An examination of the common oxidation states reveals the following conclusions.
 The variable oxidation states shown by the transition elements are due to the participation of outer ns and
inner (n–1)d-electrons in bonding.
 Except scandium, the most common oxidation state shown by the elements of first transition series is +2.
This oxidation state arises from the loss of two 4s electrons. This means that after scandium, d-orbitals
become more stable than the s-orbital.
 The highest oxidation states are observed in fluorides and oxides. The highest oxidation state shown by
any transition elements (by Ru and Os) is 8.
 The transition elements in the + 2 and + 3 oxidation states mostly form ionic bonds. In compounds of the
higher oxidation states (compound formed with fluorine or oxygen), the bonds are essentially covalent. For
example, in permanganate ion MnO4 –, all bonds formed between manganese and oxygen are covalent.
 Within a group, the maximum oxidation state increases with atomic number. For example, iron shown the
common oxidation state of + 2 and + 3, but ruthenium and osmium in the same group form compounds in
the + 4, + 6 and + 8 oxidation states.
 Transition metals also form compounds in low oxidation states such as +1 and 0. For example, nickle in,
nickel tetracarbonyl, Ni(CO)4 has zero oxidation state. Similarly Fe in (Fe(CO)5 has zero oxidation state.
The bonding in the compounds of transition metals in low oxidation states is not always very simple.
Catalytic properties: Most of the transition metals and their compounds particularly oxides have good
catalytic properties. Platinum, iron, vanadium pentoxide, nickel, etc., are important catalysts. Platinum is a
general catalyst. Nickel powder is a good catalyst for hydrogenation of unsaturated organic compound
such as, hydrogenation of oils some typical industrial catalysts are.
1. A mixture of ZnO and Cr2O3 is used for the manufacture of methyl alcohol.
2. Ni, Pt and Pd are catalysts for the hydrogenation of vegetable oil and saturation of alkenes and alkynes
to alkanes, Ostwald process for HNO3.
3. MnO2 can be used as a catalyst for the decomposition of H2O2.
4. TiCl4 is used as catalyst for the manufacture of plastics.
5. V2O5 is used to oxidize SO2 to SO3 in the manufacture of H2SO4.
6. Fe is used as a catalyst for synthesis of NH3 in Haber’s process about 1% Na2O or K2O and about 1%
SiO2 or Al2O2 are added as promoters. Mo is also sometimes used as a promoter.
Explanation: Most transition elements act as good catalyst because of,
(i) The presence of vacant d-orbitals.
(ii) The tendency to exhibit variable oxidation states.
(iii) The tendency to form reaction intermediates with reactants.
(iv) The presence of defects in their crystal lattices.
PAGE # (6) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
Magnetic properties: Most of the transition elements and their compounds show paramagnetism. The
paramagnetism first increases in any transition element series, and then decreases. The maximum
paramagnetism is seen around the middle of the series. The paramagnetism is described in Bohr Magneton
(BM) units. The paramagnetic moments of some common ions of first transition series are given below in
Table.
Explanation: A substance which is attracted by magnetic field is called paramagnetic substance. The
substances which are repelled by magnetic field are, called diamagnetic substances, paramagnetism is due to
the presence of unpaired electrons in atoms, ions or molecules.
The magnetic moment of any transition element or its compound/ion is given by (assuming no contribution
from the orbital magnetic moment).

n is number of unpaired electrons

Magnetic moments of some ions of the 3d-series elements


Ion Outer configuration No. of unpaired electrons Magnetic moment (BM)
Calculated Observed
Sc3+ 3d0 0 0 0
1.75
Ti3+ 3d1 1 1.73

2.86
Ti2+ 3d2 2 2.84

V2+ 3d3 3 3.87 3.86


Cr2+ 3d4 4 4.90 4.80
5.95
Mn2+ 3d5 5 5.92

Fe2+ 3d6 4 4.90 5.0-5.5


4.4-5.2
Co2+ 3d7 3 3.87

2.9-3.4
Ni2+ 3d8 2 2.84

1.4-2.2
Cu2+ 3d9 1 1.73

Zn2+ 3d10 0 0 0
In d-obitals belonging to a particular energy level, there can be at the maximum five unpaired
electrons in d5 cases. Therefore, paramagnetism in any transition series first increases, reaches a
maximum value for d5 cases and then decreases thereafter.

PAGE # (7) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR


Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
Alloy formation: Transition metals form alloys among themselves. The alloys of transition metals are

hard and high metals are high melting as compared to the host metal. Various steels are alloys of iron

with metals such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese etc.

Explanation: The atomic radii of the transition elements in any series are not much different from

each other. As a result, they can very easily replace each other in the lattice and form solid solutions

over an appreciable composition range. Such solid solutions are called alloys.

Alloys of metals Composition Properties and uses

It is a strong alloy copper which is soft and flexible. It does not


Cu = 60 – 80% corrode. Due to low melting point, it is easy to use. It is used to
Brass
Zn = 20 – 40% make locks, keys, water taps, pipes, artificial jewellery, door
handles and parts of machines.

It is strong, brilliant and long lasting. It does not corrode. It is


Cu 90 – 95%
Bronze used to prepare medals, coins, badges and bullets etc. besides
Sn 5 – 10%
these: decorative articles are also made from this alloy.

Ni = 60%

Nichrome Cr = 15% It is used in electric heaters and filaments of furnaces.

Fe = 25%

Au = 70 – 75%
Gold-18 carat Jewellery, statues & tooth filling.
Cu = 20 – 75%

 Colured compounds:

Colour in transition series metal compound is generally due to electron transition of two principal types.
 Charge transfer: Transition an electron may jump form a ligand orbital to metal orbital. This transition is
called ligand to metal charge transfer (LMCT) transition these can mostly occur when the metal is in high
oxidation state. For example the colour of chromate (K2CrO4), dichromate (K2Cr2O7)and permagnate
(KMnO4) ion due to LMCT transition.
 A metal to ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transition will be most likely when metal is low oxidation state. In
general charge transfer transition result in more intense colour than d-d-d transition.
 d – d transition: An electron jumps from one d orbital to another d-orbital In complexes
PAGE # (8) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
 Formation of coloured ions: Most of the compound of the transition elements are coloured in the solid
state and /or in the solution phase. The compounds of transition metals are coloured de to the presence
of unpaired electrons in their d-orbitals. Explanation: In an isolated atom or ion of a transition elements, all
the five d-orbitals are of the same energy (they are said to be regenerate). Under the influence of the
combining anion (s), or electron- rich molecules, the five d-orbitals split into two (or sometimes more than
two) levels of different energies. The difference between the two energy levels depends upon the nature of
the combining ions, but corresponds to the energy associated with the radiations in the visible region,
(λ=380 - 760nm).Typical splitting for octahedral geometries are shown in fig.

The splitting of d-orbital energy levels in an octahedral geometry. This spllitting is termed as the crystal field
splitting.
Promotion of d-electron to a higher level by:
The transition metals in elements form or in the ionic form have one or more unpaired electrons. When
visible light falls on the sample, the electrons from the lower energy level get promoted to a higher energy
level due to the absorption of light of a characteristic wavelength (or colour). This wavelength (or colour)
of the absorbed light depends upon the energy difference of the two levels. Rest of the light gets
transmitted. The transmitted light has a colour complementary to the absorbed colour. Therefore, the
𝟐+
compound or the solution appears to be of the complementary colour. For example, 𝐂𝐮 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 𝟔 ions
absorb red radiation, and appear blue-green (blue-green is complementary colour to red). Hydrated Co2+
ions absorb radiation in the blue-green region, and therefore, appear red in sunlight. Relationship between
the colour of the absorbed radiation and that of the transmitted light is given in table
Relationship between the colours of the absorbed and transmitted light: the complementary colours.
Colour of the Colour of the
Absorbed light Transmitted light Absorbed light Transmitted light
IR White Blue-green Red
Red Blue-green Blue Orange
Orange Blue Indigo Yellow
Yellow Indigo Violet Yellow-green
Yellow-green Violet UV White
Green Purple
PAGE # (9) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
However, if radiations of all the wavelengths (or colours) except one are absorbed, then the colour of the
substance will be the colour of the transmitted radiation. For example, if a substance absorbs all colours except
green, then it would appear green to the eyes. The transition metal ions which have completely filled d-orbitals
are colourless, as there are no vacant d-orbitals to permit promotion of the electrons. Therefore, Zn2+(3d10),
Cd2+ (4d10) and Hg2+(5d10) Sc3+, Ti4+, Cu+ ions and Zn, Cd, Hg are colourless and diamagnetic. The transition
metal ions which have completely empty d-orbitals are also colourless, Thus, Sc3+ and Ti4+. Ions are
colourless, unless a coloured anion is present in the compound. Colours and the outer- electronic
configurations of the some important ions of the first transition series elements are given bellow,

Ion Outer configuration Number of unpaired electrons Colour of the ion


Sc3+ 3d0 0 Colourless
Ti3+ 3d1 1 Purple
Ti4+ 3d0 0 Colourless
V3+ 3d2 2 Green
Cr3+ 3d3 3 Violet
Mn2+ 3d5 5 Light pink
Mn3+ 3d4 4 Violet
Fe2+ 3d6 4 Green
Fe3+ 3d5 5 Yellow
Co3+ 3d7 3 Pink
Ni2+ 3d8 2 Green
Cu2+ 3d9 1 Blue
Cu+ 3d10 0 Colourless
Zn2+ 3d10 0 Colourless
Formation of complex ions: Transition metals and their ions show strong tendency for complex formation.
The cations of transition elements (d-block elements) form complex ions with certain molecules
containing one or more lone-pairs of electrons, viz., CO, NO, NH3 etc., or with anions such as, F–, Cl–, CN– etc.
A few typical complex ions are.
[Fe(CN)6]4–, [Cu(NH3)4]2+,[Y(H2O)6]2+
[Ni(CO)4], [Co(NH3)6]3+,[FeF6]3–
Explanation: This complex formation tendency is due to,
 Small size and high nuclear charge of the transition metal cations.
 The availability to vacant inner d-orbitals of suitable energy.

PAGE # (10) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR


Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
Formation of interstitial compounds: Transition elements form a few interstitial compounds with elements
having small atomic radii, such as hydrogen, boron, carbon and nitrogen. The small atoms of these
elements get entrapped in between the void spaces (called interstices) of the metal lattice. Some
characteristics of the interstitial compound are,
 These are non-stoichiometric compounds and cannot be given definite formulae.
 These compounds show essentially the same chemical properties as the parent metals, but differ in
physical properties such as density and hardness. Steel and cast iron are hard due to the formation of
interstitial compound with carbon. Some non-stoichimetric compounds are, VSe0.98 (Vanadium selenide),
Fe0.94O and titanium hydride. TiH1.73
 Explanation: Interstital compounds are hared and dense. This is because, the smaller atoms of lighter
elements occupy the interstices in the lattice, leading to a more closely packed structure. Due to greater
electronic interactions, the strength of the metallic bonds also increases.
Ionisation energies: The ionisation energies of the elements of first transition series are given below:
Elements I1 I2 I3
Sc 632 1245 2450
Ti 659 1320 2721
V 650 1376 2873
Cr 652 1635 2994
Mn 716 1513 3258
Fe 762 1563 2963
Co 758 1647 3237
Ni 736 1756 3400
Cu 744 1961 3560
Zn 906 1736 3838
* in kJ mol–1
The following generalizations can be obtained from the ionization energy values given above.
 The ionisation energies of these elements are high and in the most cases lie between those of s-
and p-block elements. This indicates that the transition elements are less electropositive than s-block
elements.
Explanation: Transition metals have smaller atomic radii and higher nuclear charge as compared to
the alkali metals. Both these factors tend to increase the ionisation energy, as observed.
(ii) The ionisation energy in any transition series increases in the nuclear with atomic number; the
increase however is not smooth and as sharp as seen in the case of s and p-block elements.
PAGE # (11) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR
Chemistry-PET-2022 Chapter – 14 (d-block element)
Explanation: The ionisation energy increases due to the increase in the nuclear charge with atomic
number at the beginning of the series. Gradually, the shielding effect of the added electrons also
increases. This shielding effect tends to decrease the attraction due to the nuclear charge.
These two opposing factors lead to a rather gradual increase in the ionisation energies in any
transition series.
(iii) The first ionisation energies of 5d-series of elements are much higher than those of the 3d and 4d
series elements.
Explanation : In the 5d-series of transitions elements, after lanthanum (La), the added electrons go to
the next inner 4f orbitals. The 4f electrons have poor shielding effect. As a result, the outermost
electrons experience greater nuclear attraction. This leads to higher ionization energies for the 5d-
series of transition elements.
Metallic character: All the transition elements are metals. These are hard, and good conductor of
heat and electricity. All these metals are malleable, ductile and form alloys with other metals. These
elements occur in three types e.g., face- centered cubic (fcc), hexagonal close-packed (hcp) and
body-centered cubic (bcc), structures. The transition elements shows both covalent as well as
metallic bonding amongst their atoms.
Explanation: The ionisation energies of the transition elements are not very high. The outermost
shell in their atoms have many vacant, partially filled orbitals. These characteristics make these
elements metallic in character. The hardness of these metals, suggests the presence of covalent
bonding in these metals. The presence of unfilled d-orbitals favour covalent bonding. Metallic bonding
in these metals is indicated by the conducting nature of these metals. Therefore, it appears that there
exists covalent and metallic bonding in transition elements.
Chemical reactivity: The d-block elements (transition elements) have lesser tendency to react, i.e.,
these are less reactive as compared to s-block elements.
Explanation: Low reactivity of transition elements is due to,
 Their high ionization energies.
 Low heats of hydration of their ions.
 Their high heats of sublimation.

PAGE # (12) COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR

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