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Progress in high-power high-speed VCSEL arrays

Conference Paper · March 2016

DOI: 10.1117/12.2215009

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 PROCEEDINGS OF SPIE
SPIEDigitalLibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie

Progress in high-power high-speed

VCSEL arrays

Richard F. Carson, Mial E. Warren, Preethi Dacha,

Thomas Wilcox, John G. Maynard, et al.

Richard F. Carson, Mial E. Warren, Preethi Dacha, Thomas Wilcox, John G.

Maynard, David J. Abell, Kirk J. Otis, James A. Lott, "Progress in high-power
high-speed VCSEL arrays," Proc. SPIE 9766, Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting
Lasers XX, 97660B (18 March 2016); doi: 10.1117/12.2215009

Event: SPIE OPTO, 2016, San Francisco, California, United States

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 Invited Paper

Progress in High-Power, High-Speed VCSEL Arrays

Richard F. Carson, Mial E. Warren, Preethi Dacha, Thomas Wilcox, John G. Maynard,

David J. Abell, and Kirk J. Otis

TriLumina Corp.

800 Bradbury Dr. SE, Suite 116, Albuquerque, NM 87123

(United States of America)

James A. Lott

Technische Universität Berlin

Zentrum für Nanophotonik, and Institut für Festkörperphysik , Berlin, D-10623

(Federal Republic of Germany)

ABSTRACT

Flip-chip bonding enables a unique architecture for two-dimensional arrays of VCSELs. Such arrays feature scalable
power outputs and the capability to separately address sub-array regions while maintaining fast turn-on and turn-off
response times. These substrate-emitting VCSEL arrays can also make use of integrated micro-lenses for beam shaping
and directional control. Advances in the performance of these laser arrays will be reviewed and emerging applications
are discussed.

Keywords: VCSEL, laser array, laser illumination, integrated micro-lens, LIDAR, beam-shaping, NIR illumination,
automotive VCSEL applications

1. VCSEL ARRAY TECHNOLOGY

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) have become commonly used in communications systems over the
last 20 years of development and are common in sensor applications such as laser mice.1-4 More recently, VCSELs
have been used in two-dimensional parallel arrays.5-8

We have reported previously on a back-emitting VCSEL array approach for high power with relatively high modulation
speed (up to 10 Gb/s).9 This approach to VCSEL arrays was extended to pulsed power and scanning illumination
applications.10 In the present work, we report on recent progress that extends these results and show the use of back
emitting VCSEL arrays in associated automotive applications, such as illumination for driver monitoring systems and
flash LIDAR.

Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers XX, edited by Kent D. Choquette,

James K. Guenter, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 9766, 97660B · © 2016 SPIE
CCC code: 0277-786X/16/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.2215009

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 9766 97660B-1

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 1.1 High power, back-emitting VCSEL arrays

Flip-chip bonding is an effective way to make electrical

connections to a back emitting VCSEL array. In such an
approach, the gallium arsenide VCSEL die is flip-chip bonded
to a dielectric ceramic sub-mount with metal patterned on its
surface.11 An example of that technique appears in Figure 1,
where the die is bonded to a ceramic sub-mount. This die
contains 169 separate VCSEL elements on the front side of the
chip (bonded to the sub-mount). It features a micro-lens array
contained within the gold frame on the perimeter of the
emitting surface.
Figure 1. Flip-chip laser assembly with micro-lenses on
the VCSEL chip.

Each VCSEL element within

Shorted solder-bumped
this array is a separate mesa
Cathode sub-mount cathode contact
structure. The anode side of
metal
each element is connected to
a common sub-mount
contact as shown in the Anode sub-mount
cross-sectional diagram of metal
Figure 2. The bonding is
accomplished by the use of Combined
Solder-bumped mesa-
solder bumps that are formed defined VCSEL laser
array
on the VCSEL surface and output
elements (anodes)
are reflowed to attach the beam
VCSEL to the sub-mount
metal. Here, the anodes of Silicon or
the individual VCSEL ceramic GaAs
elements are connected to the sub- VCSEL
common sub-mount anode mount chip
pad via solder bumps that are
reflowed to the metallization
of the sub-mount. The Figure 2. Cross-section of VCSEL array structure.
VCSEL elements are
designed to emit light
through the back of the substrate. Cathode contact is made by intentionally shorting a similar mesa structure to a
current return layer in the epitaxial structure of the VCSEL. The cathode contacts are similarly reflowed to a common
metal layer on the sub-mount. The cathode side of the array is connected to the corresponding contact on the sub-mount
by a set of common “shorted” solder bumps.12 One option afforded by this approach is that micro-lenses can be
fabricated on the emission side of the substrate. Such micro-lenses can be offset with respect to the elements of the

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 9766 97660B-2

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 VCSEL array in various patterns within the array to collimate and/or manipulate the combined array light beam.10,13
This results in addressable emission zones that can be used to advantage in illumination applications.

1.2 Preferred back-emission VCSEL wavelengths

Back emitting VCSELs are constrained to wavelength ranges where the GaAs substrate is transparent. At wavelengths
shorter than about 900 nm, the substrate exhibits too much absorption loss. At wavelengths greater than approximately
1200 nm, epitaxial structures for high power VCSELs become somewhat impractical for the GaAs/GaAlAs based
material stack.14 In order for the VCSELs to operate effectively as illuminators for sensor systems, they must match
reasonably well with available detectors. We thus are building back emitting VCSEL arrays at several wavelengths. A
wavelength of 905 nm provides best match with the shallow absorption depth of CMOS and CCD cameras, including
gated imaging arrays for time-of-flight (TOF) LIDAR sensors.15,16 It is also matches well with Silicon Avalanche
Photodiodes (Si-APDs) and Si-APD arrays.16 When the VCSEL operates at 940 nm, its output corresponds to the
maximum sensitivity of Silicon P-I-N detectors and arrays.17 A wavelength of 980 nm enables operation with InGaAs
detectors and arrays.19

1.3 Characteristics of a 905 nm array 80 3.5

70
The optical power and required current associated 3

with a VCSEL array scales with the number of 60

2.5

apertures and size of each aperture. An example 50

Power (mW)

Voltage (V)
2
appears for a seven element 905 nm back emitting 40

array where each element in the array is a VCSEL 30

1.5

having a 14µm aperture. Here, the threshold 20

Optical Power 1
Voltage
current of the array is 40 mA and the peak optical 0.5
10
power at the thermal roll-over point is 73 mW.
0 0
Multiple arrays such as this one can be combined 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
to form individual emission zones in a single-chip Current (mA)

NIR illuminator, as will be shown.

Figure 3. Light output and voltage vs. current for a 905 nm back-
emitting VCSEL array having seven elements with 14 µm apertures.

1.4 Laser Safety Considerations

VCSEL arrays are more complex sources for purposes of laser safety calculations than single VCSEL emitters. The
individual emitters may be imaged on the retina and, depending on the optical system, may need to be treated as point
sources. In addition, the emitters are densely packed within the array, so there is a cumulative effect from the whole
array that needs to be considered. Both the individual point source and the combined array extended source properties
need to be calculated for a VCSEL array and the MPE (Maximum Permissible Exposure) values for both cases need to
be considered. Fortunately, the ANSI Z136.1-2014 standard has a relevant example calculation, based on closely
spaced fibers in a parallel connector.20 The extended source character of the array and the relatively low power for each
element of the VCSEL array allow for higher MPE levels than an equivalent total power single aperture laser. A
diffuser can be used in the applications described here, which will allow the resulting systems to be treated as extended
sources only. While there are still limitations, this allows large overall illumination levels while maintaining an eye-
safe condition.

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 2. VCSEL
V ARR
RAYS FOR MULTI-ZON
M NE NIR ILLUMINATIO
ON

2.1 Usiing VCSEL Arrrays for Illum

mination

NIR illumination is needed d to maximize the utility of imaging sensoors. Image-bassed user interfaaces in the automotive
environmentt can benefit in n particular, as direct NIR illuumination can overcome
o the limitations
l of changing
c ambieent light
conditions. In addition to compensating for the variations in lightingg, NIR illuminaation can be useed to highlightt regions
of interest annd filter out am
mbient lighted background foor the benefit ofo image processsing algorithm ms. Manufactuurers are
now offeringg color image sensors
s N capability added to the buuilt-in pixel-leevel filters.19 Because LEDs have
with NIR h the
advantage off low cost and freedom from speckle or cohherence noise, they tend to bee the most com mmon light souurces for
NIR illuminnation. The diisadvantages of o LEDs incluude the very broad emissioon profile thaat can be diffficult to
concentrate to a smaller field
fi and a limmited optical coonversion efficciency at higheer powers.21 VCSEL
V arrays that use
integrated micro-lenses
m fo
or beam shapinng can providee a much moree usable emisssion profile annd the combinnation of
many incoheerent emitters within each arrray greatly reeduces coherennce noise comppared to conveentional edge-eemitting
laser diodes or individual VCSEL
V devicees.

2.2 “Sm
mart Illumination” as appliied to driver monitoring
m sysstems

The flexibiliity inherent in flip-chip bondded VCSEL arrrays on sub-m mounts enabless designs that can c implementt a wide
variety of illlumination opttions. For exaample, a numbber of separateely addressed sub-arrays
s can be implementted on a
single chip. These sub-arrrays can be coombined with the integratedd micro-lensess to produce beams b that emmanate at
various anglles to create mu ultiple zones of
o NIR illuminnation. This reesults in an illuuminator that iss tailored to match
m the
field of view
w of an imaging g sensor. Addditionally, the zones
z of illumiination can be actively controolled. Using feedback
f
from the imaage processing algorithms of such a system,, the illuminatiion pattern cann be made to “trrack” an area or o object
of interest by
b adjusting illlumination levvels
of the variouus zones. Fig gure 4 shows the t
case of a driver
d monitorring system thhat
tracks head position, eye opening,
o and eye
e
gaze. The NIR illumin nation zones are a
represented byb the beams ini the figure. By
the use off zoned illum mination, such a 'V'
system can realize
r improveed efficiency and
a
signal-to-noiise ratio for immage processiing
applications.. In this example, the t
illumination would concen ntrate on the eyyes _
(the zone defined
d by thhe light colorred
arrow) to help the image processing
p systeem
determine iff an unsafe drriving practicee is
taking placee, thus enabliing warnings or
automated drriving function ns. Figure 4.
4 Smart illuminnation concept as
a applied to drivver monitoring.

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 2.4 Compact, wide field-of-view NIR illuminator example

Our illuminator designs are arranged to match the 4:3 and 16:9 aspect ratios that are commonly used in video camera
applications. The number of illumination zones in a given design depends on the application that the illuminator will be
used for. Figure 5 shows the emission side of a 13-zone emitter in a QFN package, along with its simulation result. The
micro-lens pattern is clearly visible on the emission surface of the array, and wire bonds allow electrical connection to
each of 13 zones in the array. Within this design, all the beam shaping is done by the micro-lenses, so there is no need

13-Zone Scanning Emitter 13-Zone Ray Trace

Figure 5. Packaged implementation and ray trace simulation of illumination pattern from a 13-zone VCSEL array.
Each of the zones is from a single sub-array with offset micro-lenses to control the beam direction and divergence.
This simulation does not include a diffuser in the light path.

for an external lens. The entire pattern covers approximately a 45° X 25° field of view. The ray trace simulation shows
all the sub-arrays or zones on at one time. It shows clear definition of the individual sub-fields that are addressed by
each of the 13 sub-arrays in the device, but a larger overlap of the sub-fields may be desired in practice. In such a case, a
holographic diffuser can be added for additional smoothing and for eye safety benefits.

The actual generated illumination pattern from our 13-zone design appears in the images of Figure 6. Here, individual
zones and combinations of zones are turned on to demonstrate the patterned illumination. The illumination patterns are

Multi-Zone

Full Illumination Left Column Middle Column Upper Row Lower Row

Single Zone

Upper Left Upper Right Middle Lower Middle Lower Right

Figure 6. Illumination patterns from the 13-zone illuminator of Figure 5.

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 projected onto an opal glass diffuser, so the bright spot that consistently appears in the center of each picture is an image
of the array itself through the opal glass and appears due to the camera’s depth of field.

VCSEL arrays are a compact and efficient alternative to LEDs for NIR illumination applications. The flip-chip
packaging approach used by TriLumina allows for combinations of addressable sub-arrays on a single die. The
integrated micro-lenses enable each sub-array to illuminate a portion of the camera field of view. Software control of
the illumination can be used to select zones to illuminate and the intensity of illumination, based on feedback from the
imaging system. The combination of multiple, mutually incoherent sources reduces speckle significantly.

3. VCSEL ARRAYS FOR LIDAR

3.1 Flash LIDAR Types

Flash LIDAR systems based on Time-Of-Flight (TOF) depth sensing combine a detector array with the measured return
times from pulses of light to provide range information. Unlike more traditional scanned LIDAR approaches, these
systems do not require the use of a scanner or high brightness light source. They require high overall power, due to the
fact that an entire field of view is illuminated at once.22 Additionally, the uniformity of the illumination is important to
the overall system performance.

In the case of a full field of view flash LIDAR, the detector is a two-dimensional focal plan array and the TOF
information is added to provide the third dimension via a depth map, as each pixel of the focal plane array measures a
return time from its part of the field of view. The extent of the field of view is determined by the detector array and its
associated optics. In most cases, the illuminator provides a single pulse per frame, resulting in a low duty cycle, but a
very high peak optical power requirement. This approach is often called “Staring 3D” or “3D Flash” LIDAR. Pulse
width requirements are based on range resolution requirements and the detector array properties. Typical pulse widths
are in the ~1-25 ns range. A variation on this approach is a segmented flash LIDAR. In a typical case, this approach
may use a one-dimensional linear detector array, and include integration over a number of pulses. This drives
requirements for an illuminator that operates at higher duty cycle, but correspondingly lower peak power. In both of
these cases, VCSEL arrays can be scaled to meet the requirements of a high power, low-brightness pulsed illumination
source.

3.2 Laser Driver Requirements for Flash LIDAR

In order to fulfill the requirements of high power and short pulse width, flash LIDAR systems usually have used laser
sources such as diode-pumped solid state lasers, operated in short-pulse mode by the use of a Q-switch. A directly
driven semiconductor laser may be used to realize the requirements of compactness, cost savings, and higher repetition
rates. In such a case, the energy to drive the laser must be stored electrically in a capacitor bank and discharged into a
short, low rise time, high-current pulse. For full field of view LIDAR applications, the output light pulse width should
be on the order of 1 to 25 ns and the pulse repetition rate should be between 30 and 100 Hz to match camera frame
rates. The peak current may be in the hundreds to low thousands of Amperes. For segmented flash LIDAR, the
repetition rate may be up to 100 kHz, with peak currents in the low hundreds of Amperes.

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 Current sources for short-pulse high-current semiconductor laser driver applications are now commonly available. For
maximum efficiency of coupling into a semiconductor laser, the output impedance of the pulsed current source should
be low and must be closely matched to the input impedance of the laser. This requires minimal series inductance, as
any amount of series inductive voltage drop represents lost energy from a given current pulse. Figure 7 shows these
effects schematically for the case of a VCSEL array. Because the VCSEL elements themselves are in parallel, the
overall inductance and resistance values go down as the number of elements in the array goes up. When larger elements
are used, the series impedance values are smaller for each individual element. Capacitance for each element is usually

Current
Pulse In
…

Sub-Mount With
Parasitic Paths
VCSEL Chip Contact
With Parasitic Paths
1 2 3 ... n
VCSEL Elements

Figure 7. A simplified schematic of the equivalent circuit elements in a flip-chip VCSEL array.

very low, so has less effect on laser output pulse shapes in the ten nanosecond
range, even as the laser array scales to several hundred elements on a chip.
The result is that VCSEL arrays show very low overall differential
impedance, often considerably lower than edge-emitting semiconductor laser
configurations. The flip-chip bonding arrangement of Figures 1 and 2 allows
for low inductance, low series resistance, and low parallel capacitance in the
sub-mount. The sub-mount design for the VCSEL arrays of Figure 8 is
specifically designed to provide a low-inductance connection by the use of a
strip-line that connects with commercially available pulsed current circuits.
VCSEL arrays can thus be very effective in providing efficient energy
transfer from a pulsed current drive circuit.

Because the impedances of individual array chips are so low, it is possible to

optimize matching to a given circuit by tiling chips in series connections onto Figure 8. A strip-line connected sub-
mount and VCSEL array designed for
a single sub-mount. This has been demonstrated to optimize the overall
low impedance.
match to a given pulse generator circuit and results in an effective
multiplication of the slope efficiency, relative to a single die. Peak current into the array is reduced by an increased load
potential due to the series diode drops, but pulse integrity is shown to be maintained.10 Two examples of this tiling
approach are shown in Figure 9, where five and twelve VCSEL array chips are connected in series. In both cases, each
of the VCSEL chips has 150 individual elements in parallel, though the chip size and aspect ratio are different for each
of the two cases.

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 Five-in-series (1 mm x 2 mm die with strip-line) Twelve-in-series arrangement with 2 mm x 2 mm die

Figure 9. Two different series-connected VCSEL array realizations.

3.3 Test Results for Single High Peak Power VCSEL Arrays

We have tested VCSEL arrays at 905 nm and 940 nm in the high pulsed power, low duty cycle mode of operation.
These tests have been performed on devices that are flip-chip bonded onto low impedance sub-mounts as in Figures 8
and 9. The result for the single 905 nm die appears in Figure 10. This is a 150 element array where each aperture in the
array is 16 µm in diameter. The pulsed current source is a 100 Ampere source with a fixed 7 ns pulse width. The test is
conducted at a 10 kHz repetition rate. The output pulse was measured with a high speed detector and shown to have a
7.2 ns Full-Width Half-Maximum (FWHM) width at the maximum current of 92 Amperes. The peak power was 39
Watts as shown.
Amplitude (A.U.)
Peak Power (W)

0 10 20 30

Peak Current (A) Time (ns)

Figure 10. Power and pulse shape for a 150 element, 905 nm VCSEL array having 16 µm aperture diameters. Pulse shape is
shown for a 92 Ampere peak input current

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 A single 980 nm VCSEL die with the same element count and aperture size was tested with the same 100 Ampere, 7 ns
pulsed current supply as in Figure 10. The result for the 10 kHz repetition rate appears in Figure 11. Here, the peak
power was 45 W and the pulse width was 5.6 ns (FWHM) at the peak current of 104 Amperes.

Pulse Power
50.00

45.00

40.00

35.00

Amplitude (A.U.)
Peak Power (W)

3 30.00

g 25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
PeakCurrent
Current (A) (A)
Time (ns)

Figure 11. Power and pulse shape for a 150 element, 980 nm VCSEL array having 16 µm aperture diameters. Pulse shape is
shown for a 104 Ampere peak input current.

The same type of 980 nm VCSEL with 150 elements and 16 µm aperture diameters was operated with a custom pulsed
current source. This source is designed for an approximate 10 ns operational pulse width and can supply a peak current
of approximately 300 Amperes. The result appears in Figure 12 for the 10 kHz repetition rate. Note that the power
saturates at 110 Watts, though the pulse shape remains relatively well behaved as shown for the 255 Ampere peak
current point and has a FWHM width of 5.8 ns.
Amplitude (A.U.)
Peak Power (W)

Time (ns)
Approx. Peak Current (A)

Figure 12. Power and pulse shape for a 150 element, 980 nm VCSEL array having 16 µm aperture diameters. Pulse shape is
shown at approximately a 255 Ampere input current.

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 We have previously shown that for the low duty cycle values inherent in this type of operation, these saturation effects
are due to gain saturation, rather than thermal loading.10 Such a conclusion is supported by the results of Figure 13.
Here, we substitute the array from Figure 12 with one that has the same 150 element layout but where the aperture size
for each element is 20 µm. In this test, done with the same pulsed current source at a 10 kHz repetition rate, the
saturation current goes from 225 Amperes to 350 Amperes as in Figure 13. In both cases, the saturation current density
is 7.3 mA/µm2. The pulse width is 5.9 ns (FWHM) at a peak current of 420 Amperes.

Amplitude (A.U.)
Peak Power (W)

Time (ns)
Approx. Peak Current (A)

Figure 13. Power and pulse shape for a 150 element, 980 nm VCSEL array having 20 µm aperture diameters. Pulse shape is
shown at approximately a 420 Ampere input current.

When we conduct the same test with the same pulsed current source on a 150 element array having 26 µm aperture
diameters, we see that the saturation effect pushes out beyond the available current. This result appears in Figure 14.
Here, we drive the VCSEL array to 420 Amperes and the peak power extends to 250 Watts, still showing a pulse width
of 5.9 ns (FWHM). As before, the repetition rate is 10 kHz.
Amplitude (A.U.)
Peak Power (W)

Time (ns)
Approx. Peak Current (A)

Figure 14. Power and pulse shape for a 150 element, 980 nm VCSEL array having 26 µm aperture diameters. Pulse shape is
shown at approximately a 420 Ampere input current point.

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 A further result that supports the conclusion that
thermal effects are not at work in the curves of
Figures 12 and 13 is the fact that samples from O p C G G G G O G C® G C C

this same 980 nm VCSEL run show a very

Normalized Power
stable over-temperature result. This is

Power
illustrated in Figure 15, where the array with 26

Normalized
µm elements is operated with the 100 Ampere, 7
ns current source that was used in the tests of
Figures 10 and 11 and the peak current is 96
0
Amperes. We see that the normalized peak 0 20 40 60 RO
80 100 120 140

power only varies about 6% from room Temperature (C0)

temperature to 120C.
Figure 15. Over-temperature performance of a 150 element array with
26 µm diameter apertures, operated at 10 kHz with a 7 ns pulse width
and a peak current of 96 Amperes.

3.4 Test Results for Series-Connected High Peak Power VCSEL Arrays

As stated, a series connection of the VCSEL arrays can be advantageous due to the low series impedance associated
with each of the individual arrays. This is shown to be the case for both the 905 nm and 980 nm arrays discussed. The
first example of this is the five-in-series connection of 905 nm VCSEL arrays shown in Figure 9. Each of the die in this
arrangement has 150 elements with 20 µm aperture diameters, configured within a 1 mm by 2 mm die size. The
assembly was tested on the same high current 10 ns pulsed current source used to obtain the results of Figures 12
through 14 for the single die. The results, shown in Figure 16, indicate that a peak power of 750 Watts can be obtained
at a peak current of 380 Amperes. The peak current has been reduced from the 420 Amperes seen for the single devices
Peak Power (W)

Amplitude (A.U.)

Approx. Peak Current (A)

Time (ns)

Figure 16. Power and pulse shape for a five-in-series assembly of 150 element, 905 nm VCSEL arrays having 20 µm
apertures. Pulse shape is shown at approximately a 380 Ampere peak input current.

due to the additional diode drops for each of the series connections on the assembly. At this 380 Ampere peak input
current value, the pulse width is 11.2 ns (FWHM). The large change in slope at 300 Amperes is associated with a mode
shift in the VCSEL devices.

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 A 12-in-series assembly of 980 nm die was tested in the configuration of Figure 17. Here, the 2 mm x 2 mm die have
150 elements per array, with a 16 µm aperture for each element. The peak power for this array was 1200 Watts at a
peak current of approximately 300 Amperes. The pulse width was measured at 7.2 ns (FWHM).

1400

1200

1000
Peak Power (W)

800

Amplitude (A.U.)
01

600 0,
OA

400

200
0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Approx Peak Current (A)
Time (ns)

Figure 17. Power and pulse shape for a twelve-in-series assembly of 150 element, 980 nm VCSEL arrays having 16 µm
diameter apertures. Pulse shape is shown at approximately a 300 Ampere peak input current.

We have shown that back emitting, flip-chip-mounted VCSEL arrays and assemblies can provide light pulses having the
attributes of high peak power and short pulse width in the low duty cycle mode of operation needed for flash LIDAR
applications. They exhibit low series impedance, enabling them to be assembled into series or parallel configurations to
optimize impedance matching with pulsed current driver circuits.

4. SUMMARY

In this work, we have reported on our progress toward realizing back-emitting VCSEL arrays for use with illumination
and flash LIDAR systems. We have shown how the back emitting VCSEL architecture, when combined with flip-chip
mounting on sub-mounts and etched lenses on the emission surface of the GaAs, can be used to realize versatile
illumination approaches for camera systems and for flash LIDAR.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the work of David Robinson and Kevin Toledo for their help with device and
optical characterization. We also acknowledge the BIRD Foundation for their support of part of this work.

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