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Student Name: __________________
Class and Section __________________
Total Points (10 pts) __________________
Due: September 8, 2010 before the class

Project: The Circle2D Class

CSCI 1302 Advanced Programming Principles
Armstrong Atlantic State University

Problem Description:
Define the Circle2D class that contains:
• Two double data fields named x and y that specify the
center of the circle with get methods.
• A data field radius with a get method.
• A no-arg constructor that creates a default circle
with (0, 0) for (x, y) and 1 for radius.
• A constructor that creates a circle with the specified
x, y, and radius.
• A method getArea() that returns the area of the
circle.
• A method getPerimeter() that returns the perimeter of
the circle.
• A method contains(double x, double y) that returns
true if the specified point (x, y) is inside this
circle. See Figure 10.14(a).
• A method contains(Circle2D circle) that returns true
if the specified circle is inside this circle. See
Figure 10.14(b).
• A method overlaps(Circle2D circle) that returns true
if the specified circle overlaps with this circle. See
the figure below.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
(a) A point is inside the circle. (b) A circle is
inside another circle. (c) A circle overlaps another
circle.

Draw the UML diagram for the class. Implement the

class. Write a test program that creates a Circle2D
object c1 (new Circle2D(2, 2, 5.5)), displays its area
1
 and perimeter, and displays the result of
c1.contains(3, 3), c1.contains(new Circle2D(4, 5,
10.5)), and c1.overlaps(new Circle2D(3, 5, 2.3)).

Design:
Draw the UML class diagram here

Circle2D

Coding: (Copy and Paste Source Code here. Format your code using Courier 10pts)

public class Exercise10_11 {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Circle2D c1 = new Circle2D(2, 2, 5.5);
System.out.println("Area is " + c1.getArea());
System.out.println("Perimeter is " + c1.getPerimeter());
System.out.println(c1.contains(3, 3));
System.out.println(c1.contains(new Circle2D(4, 5, 10.5)));
System.out.println(c1.overlaps(new Circle2D(3, 5, 2.3)));
}
}

class Circle2D {
// Implement your class here
}

2
Submit the following items:

1. Print this Word file and Submit to me before the class on the due day.

2. Compile, Run, and Submit to LiveLab (you must submit the program regardless
whether it complete or incomplete, correct or incorrect)

3
Solution Code:

public class Exercise10_11 {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Circle2D c1 = new Circle2D(2, 2, 5.5);
System.out.println("Area is " + c1.getArea());
System.out.println("Perimeter is " + c1.getPerimeter());
System.out.println(c1.contains(3, 3));
System.out.println(c1.contains(new Circle2D(4, 5, 10.5)));
System.out.println(c1.overlaps(new Circle2D(3, 5, 2.3)));
}
}

class Circle2D {
private double x, y;
private double radius;

public Circle2D() {
x = 0;
y = 0;
radius = 1;
}

public Circle2D(double x, double y, double radius) {

this.x = x;
this.y = y;
this.radius = radius;
}

public double getX() {

return x;
}

public void setX(double x) {

this.x = x;
}

public double getY() {

return y;
}

public void setY(double y) {

this.y = y;
}

public double getRadius() {

return radius;
}

public void setRadius(double radius) {

this.radius = radius;
}

public double getPerimeter() {

return 2 * radius * Math.PI;
}

public double getArea() {

4
 return radius * radius * Math.PI;
}

public boolean contains(double x, double y) {

// MyPoint is defined in Exercise9_4
double d = distance(x, y, this.x, this.y) ;
return d <= radius;
}

public boolean contains(Circle2D circle) {

return contains(circle.x - circle.radius, circle.y) &&
contains(circle.x + circle.radius, circle.y) &&
contains(circle.x, circle.y - circle.radius) &&
contains(circle.x, circle.y + circle.radius);
}

public boolean overlaps(Circle2D circle) {

// Two circles overlap if the distance between the two centers
// are less than or equal to this.radius + circle.radius
// MyPoint is defined in Exercise9_4
return distance(this.x, this.y, circle.x, circle.y)
<= radius + circle.radius;
}

private static double distance(double x1, double y1,

double x2, double y2) {
return Math.sqrt((x1 - x2) * (x1 - x2) + (y1 - y2) * (y1 - y2));
}
}

5
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Trees, Shown
to the Children
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Trees, Shown to the Children

Author: C. E. Smith

Editor: Louey Chisholm

Illustrator: Janet Harvey Kelman

Release date: November 5, 2021 [eBook #66670]

Language: English

Original publication: United Kingdom: T. C. & E. C. Jack, Ltd

Credits: D A Alexander, David E. Brown, and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from
images made available by the HathiTrust Digital
Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES, SHOWN

TO THE CHILDREN ***
THE “SHOWN TO THE
CHILDREN” SERIES
Edited by Louey Chisholm

TREES
 The
“Shown to the Children” Series
1. BEASTS
With 48 Coloured Plates by Percy J.
Billinghurst. Letterpress by Lena Dalkeith.
2. FLOWERS
With 48 Coloured Plates showing 150
flowers, by Janet Harvey Kelman. Letterpress
by C. E.
Smith.
3. BIRDS
With 48 Coloured Plates by M. K. C. Scott.
Letterpress by J. A. Henderson.
4. THE SEA-SHORE
With 48 Coloured Plates by Janet Harvey
Kelman. Letterpress by Rev. Theodore Wood.
5. THE FARM
With 48 Coloured Plates by F. M. B. and A.
H. Blaikie. Letterpress by Foster Meadow.
6. TREES
With 32 Coloured Plates by Janet Harvey
Kelman. Letterpress by C. E. Smith.
7. NESTS AND EGGS
With 48 Coloured Plates by A. H. Blaikie.
Letterpress by J. A. Henderson.
8. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
 With 48 Coloured Plates by Janet Harvey
Kelman. Letterpress by Rev. Theodore Wood.
9. STARS
By Ellison Hawks.
10. GARDENS
With 32 Coloured Plates by J. H. Kelman.
Letterpress by J. A. Henderson.
11. BEES
By Ellison Hawks. Illustrated in Colour and
Black and White.
12. ARCHITECTURE
By Gladys Wynne. Profusely Illustrated.
13. THE EARTH
By Ellison Hawks. Profusely Illustrated.
14. THE NAVY
By Percival A. Hislam. 48 Two-colour Plates.
15. THE ARMY
By A. H. Atteridge. 16 Colour and 32 Black
Plates.
 Plate I

THE OAK
1. Oak Tree 2. Leaf Spray 3. Spray with Flower
Catkins
4. Stamen Catkin 5. Seed Catkin 6. Fruit
 TREES
SHOWN TO THE CHILDREN
BY

JANET HARVEY KELMAN

DESCRIBED BY
C. E. SMITH

THIRTY-TWO COLOURED PICTURES

LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK, Ltd.

35 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C.
AND EDINBURGH
 To
THOMAS FORBES SACKVILLE WILSON
DEAR CHILDREN,—In this little book I have written about some of
the trees which you are likely to find growing wild in this country,
and Miss Kelman has painted for you pictures of these trees, with
drawings of the leaves and flowers and fruit, so that it will be easy
for you to tell the name of each tree. But I think there is one
question which you are sure to ask after reading this small book,
and that is, “How do the trees grow?”
The tree grows very much as we do, by taking food and by
breathing. The food of the tree is obtained from two sources: from
the earth and from the air. Deep down in the earth lie the tree roots,
and these roots suck up water from the soil in which they are
embedded. This water, in which there is much nourishment, rises
through many tiny cells in the woody stem till it reaches the leaf,
twigs, and green leaves. As it rises the growing cells keep what they
need of the water. The rest is given off as vapour by the leaves
through many tiny pores, which you will not be able to see without a
microscope.
While it is day the green leaves select from the air a gas called
carbonic acid gas. This they separate into two parts called oxygen
and carbon. The plant does not need the oxygen as food, so the
leaves return it to the air, but they keep the carbon. This carbon
becomes mixed in some strange way with the water food drawn
from the soil by the roots. Forming a liquid, it finds its way through
many small cells and channels to feed the growing leaves and twigs
and branches.
But, like ourselves, a tree if it is to live and thrive must breathe as
well as take food. By night as well as by day the tree requires air for
breathing. Scattered over the surface of the leaves, and indeed over
the skin of the tree, are many tiny mouths or openings called
stomata. It is by these that the tree breathes. It now takes from the
air some oxygen, which, you will remember, is the gas that the
leaves do not need in making their share of the tree food. Now you
can see why it is that a tree cannot thrive if it is planted in a dusty,
sooty town. The tiny mouths with which it breathes get filled up, and
the tree is half-choked for lack of air. Also the pores of the leaves
become clogged, so that the water which is not needed cannot
easily escape from them. A heavy shower of rain is a welcome friend
to our dusty town trees.
As a rule tree flowers are not so noticeable as those which grow in
the woods and meadows. Often the ring of gaily-coloured petals
which form the corolla is awanting, so are the green or coloured
sepals of the calyx, and the flower may consist, as in the Ash tree, of
a small seed-vessel standing between two stamens, which have
plenty of pollen dust in their fat heads.
It is very interesting to notice the various ways in which the tree
flowers grow. In some trees the stamens and seed-vessels will be
found close together, as in the Ash tree and Elm. Or they may grow
on the same branch of a tree; but all the stamens will be grouped
together on one stalk and all the seed-vessels close beside it on
another stalk, as in the Oak tree. Or the stamen flowers may all be
found on one tree without any seed flowers, and on another tree,
sometimes a considerable distance away, there will be found nothing
but seed flowers. This occurs in the White Poplar or Abele tree.
You must never forget that both kinds of flowers are required if the
tree is to produce new seed, and many books have been written to
point out the wonderful ways in which the wind and the birds and
the bees carry the stamen dust to the seed-vessels, which are
waiting to receive it.
Each summer the tree adds a layer of new wood in a circle round
the tree trunk; a broad circle when there has been sunshine and the
tree has thriven well, and a narrow circle when the season has been
wet and sunless. This new layer of wood is always found just under
the bark or coarse, outer skin of the tree. The bark protects the soft
young wood, and if it is eaten by cattle, or cut off by mischievous
boys, then the layer of young wood is exposed, and the tree will die.
When winter approaches and the trees get ready for their long
sleep, the cells in this layer of new wood slowly dry, and it becomes
a ring of hard wood. If you look at a tree which has just been cut
down, you will be able to tell how many years old the tree is by
counting the circles of wood in the tree trunk. When a tree grows
very slowly these rings are close and firm, and the wood of the tree
is hard and valuable.
Many, many years ago, when a rich Scotch landlord lay dying, he
said to his only son, “Jock, when you have nothing else to do, be
sticking in a tree; it will aye be growing when you are sleeping.” He
was a clever, far-seeing old man, Jock’s father, for he knew that in
course of time trees grow to be worth money, and that to plant a
tree was a sure and easy way of adding a little more to the wealth
he loved so dearly.
But a tree has another and a greater value to us and to the world
than the price which a wood merchant will give for it as timber.
Think what a dear familiar friend the tree has been in the life of
man! How different many of our best-loved tales would be without
the trees that played so large a part in the lives of our favourite
heroes. Where could Robin Hood and his merry men have lived and
hunted but under the greenwood tree? Without the forest of Arden
what refuge would have sheltered the mischief-loving Rosalind and
her banished father? How often do we think of the stately Oak and
Linden trees into which good old Baucis and Philemon were changed
by the kindly gods.
And do you remember what secrets the trees told us as we lay
under their shady branches on the hot midsummer days, while the
leaves danced and flickered against the blue, blue sky? Can you tell
what was the charm that held us like a dream in the falling dusk as
we watched their heavy masses grow dark and gloomy against the
silvery twilight sky?
In a corner of a Cumberland farmyard there grew a noble tree
whose roots struck deep into the soil, and whose heavy branches
shadowed much of the ground. “Why do you not cut it down?” asked
a stranger; “it seems so much in the way.” “Cut it down!” the farmer
answered passionately. “I would sooner fall on my knees and
worship it.” To him the tree had spoken of a secret unguessed by
Jock’s father and by many other people who look at the trees with
eyes that cannot see. He had learned that the mystery of tree life is
one with the mystery that underlies our own; that we share this
mystery with the sea, and the sun, and the stars, and that by this
mystery of life the whole world is “bound with gold chains” of love
“about the feet of God.”
C. E. SMITH.
 LIST OF PLATES
PLATE I
The Oak
PLATE II
The Beech
PLATE III
The Birch
PLATE IV
The Alder
PLATE V
The Hornbeam
PLATE VI
The Hazel
PLATE VII
The Lime or Linden
PLATE VIII
The Common Elm and Wych or Broad-Leaved Elm
PLATE IX
The Ash
PLATE X
The Field Maple
PLATE XI
The Sycamore, or Great Maple, or Mock Plane
PLATE XII
The Oriental Plane
PLATE XIII
The White Poplar or Abele
Tree
PLATE XIV
The Aspen
PLATE XV
The White Willow
PLATE XVI
The Goat Willow or Sallow
PLATE XVII
The Scotch Pine or Scotch Fir
PLATE XVIII
The Yew
PLATE XIX
The Juniper
PLATE XX
The Larch
PLATE XXI
The Spruce Fir
PLATE XXII
The Silver Fir
PLATE XXIII
The Holly
PLATE XXIV
The Wild Cherry or Gean
PLATE XXV
The Whitebeam
PLATE XXVI
The Rowan or Mountain Ash
PLATE XXVII
The Hawthorn
PLATE XXVIII
The Box
PLATE XXIX
The Walnut
PLATE XXX
The Sweet Chestnut or Spanish Chestnut
PLATE XXXI
The Horse Chestnut
PLATE XXXII
The Cedar of Lebanon
 TREES

PLATE I
THE OAK
OF all our forest trees the Oak is undoubtedly the king. It is our
most important tree, the monarch of our woods, full of noble dignity
and grandeur in the summer sunshine, strong to endure the
buffeting of the wintry gales. It lives to the great age of seven
hundred years or more, and is a true father of the forest. We read of
the Oak tree in the story books of long ago. There are many Oak
trees mentioned in the Bible. In Greece the Oak was believed to be
the first tree that God created, and there grew a grove of sacred
Oaks which were said to utter prophecies. The wood used for the
building of the good ship Argo was cut from this grove, and in times
of danger the planks of the ship spoke in warning voices to the
sailors.
In Rome a crown of Oak leaves was given to him who should save
the life of a citizen, and in this country, in the days of the Druids,
there were many strange customs connected with the Oak and its
beautiful guest the mistletoe. The burning of the Yule log of Oak is
an ancient custom which we trace to Druid times. It was lit by the
priests from the sacred altar, then the fires in all the houses were
put out, and the people relit them with torches kindled at the sacred
log. Even now in remote parts of Yorkshire and Devonshire the Yule
log is brought in at Christmas-time and half burned, then it is taken
off the fire and carefully laid aside till the following year.
We know that in Saxon times this country was covered with dense
forests, many of which were of Oak trees. Huge herds of swine fed
on the acorns which lay in abundance under the trees; and a man,
when he wished to sell his piece of forest, did not tell the buyer how
much money the wood in it was worth, but how many pigs it could
fatten. In times of famine the acorns used to be ground, and bread
was made of the meal. There have been many famous Oak trees in
England: one of these we have all heard of—the huge Oak at
Boscobel in which King Charles II. hid with a great many of his men
after he was defeated at the battle of Worcester.
I think you will have no difficulty in recognising an Oak tree (1) at
any time of the year. Look at its trunk in winter: how dark and rough
it is; how wide and spreading at the bottom to give its many roots a
broad grip of the earth into which they pierce deeply. Then as the
stem rises it becomes narrower, as if the tree had a waist, for it
broadens again as it reaches a height where the branches divide
from the main trunk. And what huge branches these are—great
rough, dark arms with many crooked knots or elbows, which
shipbuilders prize for their trade. These Oak-tree arms are so large
and heavy that the tree would need to be well rooted in the ground
to stand firm when the gale is tossing its branches as if they were
willow rods.
The Oak tree does not grow to a great height. It is a broad, sturdy
tree, and it grows very slowly, so slowly that after it is grown up it
rarely increases more than an inch in a year, and sometimes not
even that. But just because the Oak tree lives so leisurely, it outlasts
all its companions in the forest except, perhaps, the yew tree, and
its beautiful hard, close-grained wood is the most prized of all our
timber.
In the end of April or early in May, the Oak leaves (2) appear; very
soft and tender they are too at first, and of a pale reddish green
colour. But soon they darken in the sunshine and become a dark
glossy green. Each leaf is feather-shaped and has a stalk. The
margin is deeply waved into blunt lobes or fingers, and there is a
strongly-marked vein up the centre of the leaf, with slender veins
running from it to the edge.
In autumn these leaves change colour: they become a pale brown,
and will hang for weeks rustling in the branches till the young buds
which are to appear next year begin to form and so push the old
leaves off. If a shrivelling frost or a blighting insect destroys all the
young Oak leaves, as sometimes happens, then the sturdy tree will
reclothe itself in a new dress of leaves, which neither the Beech, nor
the Chestnut, nor the Maple, could do. It shows what a great deal of
life there is in the stout tree.
The flowers of the Oak arrive about the same time as the leaves,
and they grow in catkins which are of two kinds. You will find a
slender hanging catkin (3) on which grow small bunches of yellow-
headed stamens (4). Among the stamens you can see six or eight
narrow sepals, but these stamens have no scales to protect them as
the Hazel and Birch catkins have. On the same branch grows a
stouter, upright catkin, and on it are one or maybe two or three tiny
cups (5), made of soft green leaves called bracts, and in the centre
of this cup sits the seed-vessel, crowned with three blunt points. As
the summer advances this seed-vessel grows larger and fatter and
becomes a fruit (6) called an acorn, which is a pale yellow colour at
first, and later is a dark olive brown. The soft leafy cup hardens till it
is firm as wood, and in it the acorn sits fast till it is ripe. It then falls
from the cup and is greedily eaten by the squirrels and dormice, as it
was in the olden times by the pigs. From those acorns that are left
lying on the ground all winter, under the withered leaves, will grow
the tiny shoots of a new tree when the spring sunshine comes again.
The Oak tree is the most hospitable of trees: it is said that eleven
hundred insects make their home in its kindly shelter. There are five
kinds of houses, which are called galls, built by insects, and you can
easily recognise these, and must look for them on the Oak tree.
Sometimes on the hanging stamen catkins you will find little balls
like currants with the catkin stem running through the centre. These
are the homes of a tiny grub which is living inside the currant ball,
and which will eat its way out as soon as it is ready to unfold its
wings and fly.
Often at the end of an Oak twig you find a soft, spongy ball which is
called an Oak apple. It is pinkish brown on the outside and is not
very regular in shape. This ball is divided inside into several cells,
and in each cell there lives a grub which will also become a fly
before summer is over.
Sometimes if you look at the back of an Oak leaf you will see it
covered with small red spangles which are fringed and hairy. These
spangles each contain a small insect, and they cling to their
spangled homes long after the leaves have fallen to the ground.
Another insect home or gall grows in the leaves, and this one is
much larger, sometimes as big as a marble. It too is made by an
insect which is living inside, and this is called a leaf gall.
There is still another insect which attacks the leaf buds and causes
them to grow in a curious way. Instead of opening as usual, the bud
proceeds to make layers of narrow-pointed green leaves which it
lays tightly one above the other, like the leaves of an artichoke or
the scales of a fir cone. If you cut one of these Oak cones in half you
will find many small insects inside, which have caused the bud to
grow in this strange way.
And there is one other oak gall you must note. When the leaves
have all fallen and the twigs are brown and bare, you see clusters of
hard brown balls growing on some of them. They are smooth and
glossy and the colour of dried walnuts. These also have been made
by an insect. Sometimes you see the tiny hole in the ball by which
the grub has bored its way out. This kind of gall does great harm to
the tree, as it uses up the sap that should nourish the young twigs.
The wood of the Oak is very valuable. Sometimes a fine old tree will
be sold for four hundred pounds, and every part of it can be used.
The bark is valuable because it contains large quantities of an acid
which is used in making ink; also in dyeing leather. Oak that has
been lying for years in a peat bog, where there is much iron in the
water, is perfectly black when dug out, black as ink, because the acid
and the iron together have made the inky colour.
 Plate II

THE BEECH
1. Beech Tree in Autumn 2. Leaf Spray 3. Bud
4. Buds in Winter 5. Seed Flower 6. Stamen Flower
7. Fruit 8. Fruit when Ripe

The wood of an Oak tree lasts very long: there are Oak beams in
houses which are known to be seven hundred years old, and which
are as good as the day they were cut. For centuries our ships were
built of Oak, the wooden walls of old England, hearts of Oak, as they
have often been called, because Oak wood does not readily splinter
when struck by a cannon ball. And Oak wood will not quickly rot: we
know of piles which have been driven into river beds centuries ago
and are still sound and strong. In pulling down an old building lately
in London, which was built six hundred and fifty years ago, the
workmen found many oak piles in the foundations, and these were
still quite sound.
 PLATE II
THE BEECH
In the south of England there lived a holy hermit named St. Leonard
whose hut was surrounded by a glade of noble Beech trees. The
saint loved the beautiful trees, but by day he could not sit under
their shady branches because of the vipers which swarmed about
the roots, and by night the songs of many nightingales disturbed his
rest. So he prayed that both the serpents and the birds might be
taken away, and from that day no viper has stung and no nightingale
has warbled in the Hampshire forests. So we read in the old story
books. There are many such legends connected with the Beech tree.
It has grown in this country as far back as we have any history, and
it is often called the mother of the forest, because its thickly covered
branches give shelter and protection to younger trees which are
struggling to live.
The Beech is a cousin of the Oak. It is a large, handsome tree, with
a noble trunk and widely spreading branches which sweep
downward to the ground, and in summer every branch and twig is
densely covered with leaves. No other tree gives such shade as the
Beech, and in a hot summer day how tempting it is to lie underneath
the branches and watch the squirrels glancing in and out among the
rustling leaves and tearing the young bark.
In early spring you will recognise the Beech tree (1) by its smooth
olive-grey trunk. Only the Beech tree has such a smooth trunk when
it is fully grown, and in consequence, every boy with a new knife
tries to cut his name on its bark. In summer the young bud (3) of
next year’s leaf is formed where each leaf joins the stem. All winter
time you can see slender-pointed buds (4) growing at the end of
every twig, and when April comes each of these pointed buds has
become a loose bunch of silky brown scales. Inside these protecting
scales is hidden the young leaf bud, and soon the winter coverings
unclose. For a short time they hang like a fringe round the base of
the leaf stalk, but they quickly fall off and strew the ground beneath.
The young leaves inside are folded like a fan, and they have soft
silky hairs along the edges. How lovely they are when open! Each
leaf (2) is oval, with a blunted point at the end, and the edges are
slightly waved.
At first the leaf colour is a clear pale green, through which the light
seems to shine; and there is nothing more lovely than a Beech tree
wood in early May when the young leaves are glistening against the
clear blue sky. But as summer comes nearer the leaf colour darkens,
and by July it is a deep, glossy green. You can then see very
distinctly the veins which run from the centre to the edge of every
leaf. These leaves grow so thickly that no stems or branches can be
seen when the tree is in full foliage; and they are beautiful at all
seasons. When autumn comes, bringing cold winds and a touch of
frost, then the Beech tree leaves change colour: they seem to give
us back again all the sunshine they have been storing up during
summer, for they blaze like the sunset sky in myriad shades of gold,
and red, and orange. In windy open places, these beautiful leaves
soon strew the ground with a thick carpet that whirls and rustles in
every breeze. But in sheltered glades, and especially in hedges, the
leaves will hang all winter till they are pushed off by the new spring
buds, and they glow russet red in the December sunshine, like the
breast of the robin that is singing on the twig.
At every stage the Beech tree is a thing of beauty, and it is one of
England’s most precious possessions.
The young flowers appear about the same time as the leaves, and,
like many other trees, the Beech has two kinds of flowers. The
stamen flower (6) has a long, drooping stalk, from the end of which
hangs a loose covering of fine brown scales, with pointed ends.
Beyond this scaly covering hangs a tassel of purplish brown
stamens, eight or twelve, or more, each with a yellow head.
On the same twig, not very far distant, you find the seed flower (5).
This grows upright on a short stout stalk which bears at the end a
bristly oval ball (7). At the top of this bristly ball you see six slender
threads waving in the air. These rise from two seeds which are
enclosed in the bristly covering. By and by the ball opens at the top
and forms a cup with four prickly brown sides, each lined with silky
green down. Inside the cup are two triangular green nuts which are
the fruit (8). These nuts become dark brown when they ripen, and
on windy days they are blown in thousands from their coverings and
fall to the ground, where they lie hidden among the rustling brown
leaves.
 Plate III

THE BIRCH
1. Birch Tree in Autumn 2. Leaf Spray 3. Seed Catkin
4. Stamen Catkin 5. Winged Seed enlarged 5a.
Winged Seed natural size

In old times people called these Beech nuts Beech-mast or food, and
herds of pigs were taken to the Beech woods to feed on the nuts,
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