100 SQL interview questions along with their answers

Basic SQL Questions

1. What is SQL?

- SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard programming language for managing and manipulating
relational databases.

2. What are the different types of SQL commands?

- The main types are DDL (Data Definition Language), DML (Data Manipulation Language), DCL (Data Control
Language), and TCL (Transaction Control Language).

3. What is a primary key?

- A primary key is a unique identifier for a record in a table, ensuring that no two rows have the same key.

4. What is a foreign key?

- A foreign key is a field (or a collection of fields) in one table that uniquely identifies a row in another table,
establishing a relationship between the two.

5. What is a unique key?

- A unique key ensures that all values in a column are different from one another, allowing NULL values.

6. What is a join? Explain different types of joins.

- A join is used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column. Types include INNER JOIN,
LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and FULL OUTER JOIN.

7. What is a subquery?

- A subquery is a query nested inside another query, used to perform operations that depend on the result of the
outer query.

8. What is a view?

- A view is a virtual table based on the result of a SELECT query, which can simplify complex queries.

9. What is an index?

- An index is a database object that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a database table.

10. What is a stored procedure?

- A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that can be saved and reused, allowing for modular programming.

11. What is a trigger?

- A trigger is a set of SQL statements that automatically execute in response to certain events on a particular
table.

12. What is normalization?

- Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity.

13. What are the different normal forms?

 - The normal forms are 1NF (First Normal Form), 2NF (Second Normal Form), 3NF (Third Normal Form), and BCNF
(Boyce-Codd Normal Form).

14. What is denormalization?

- Denormalization is the process of intentionally introducing redundancy into a database for the purpose of
improving query performance.

15. What is a constraint?

- A constraint is a rule applied to a column or table to enforce data integrity.

16. What is a composite key?

- A composite key is a combination of two or more columns in a table that uniquely identifies a row.

17. What is a candidate key?

- A candidate key is a column, or a set of columns, that can qualify as a potential primary key.

18. What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE?

- DELETE removes rows one at a time and can be rolled back; TRUNCATE removes all rows in a table without
logging individual row deletions.

19. What is the difference between WHERE and HAVING clauses?

- WHERE is used to filter records before aggregation, while HAVING is used to filter records after aggregation.

20. What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL?

- UNION combines the results of two queries and removes duplicates; UNION ALL combines the results without
removing duplicates.

Intermediate SQL Questions

21. What is a self-join?

- A self-join is a join in which a table is joined with itself.

22. What is a cross join?

- A cross join returns the Cartesian product of two tables, combining every row of the first table with every row
of the second.

23. What is a correlated subquery?

- A correlated subquery is a subquery that references columns from the outer query.

24. What is an alias in SQL?

- An alias is a temporary name given to a table or column for the duration of a query.

25. What is the difference between COUNT(*) and COUNT(column_name)?

- COUNT(*) counts all rows, including duplicates and NULLs, while COUNT(column_name) counts only non-NULL
values in that column.
26. What are aggregate functions?

- Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single value (e.g., SUM, AVG, COUNT).

27. What are scalar functions?

- Scalar functions return a single value based on the input value (e.g., UPPER, LOWER, ROUND).

28. What is a cursor?

- A cursor is a database object used to retrieve, manipulate, and navigate through a result set one row at a time.

29. What is a transaction?

- A transaction is a sequence of operations performed as a single logical unit of work, which is either fully
completed or fully rolled back.

30. What are the ACID properties?

- ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability, ensuring reliable processing of database
transactions.

31. What is the difference between ROLLBACK and COMMIT?

- ROLLBACK undoes changes made in the current transaction, while COMMIT saves all changes made during the
transaction.

32. What is a sequence in SQL?

- A sequence is a database object that generates a sequential number, often used for primary keys.

33. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR?

- CHAR is a fixed-length string data type, while VARCHAR is a variable-length string data type.

34. What is a temporary table?

- A temporary table is a short-lived table that exists temporarily during a session or transaction.

35. What is a common table expression (CTE)?

- A CTE is a temporary result set that can be referenced within a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

36. What is the difference between RANK() and DENSE_RANK()?

- RANK() provides a rank number with gaps for ties, while DENSE_RANK() provides consecutive rank numbers
without gaps.

37. What is the GROUP BY clause used for?

- The GROUP BY clause is used to group rows that have the same values in specified columns for aggregation.

38. What is the difference between INNER JOIN and OUTER JOIN?

- INNER JOIN returns rows with matching values in both tables, while OUTER JOIN returns all rows from one
table and matched rows from the other.

39. What are the different types of indexes?

- Types of indexes include unique indexes, composite indexes, full-text indexes, and clustered and non-clustered
indexes.

40. What is a clustered index?

- A clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table; there can be only one clustered index per
table.

41. What is a non-clustered index?

- A non-clustered index does not alter the physical order of the table and can have multiple instances in a table.

42. What is a bitmap index?

- A bitmap index uses bit arrays for indexing, suitable for columns with a limited number of distinct values.

43. What is the difference between OLTP and OLAP?

- OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) focuses on transaction-oriented tasks, while OLAP (Online Analytical
Processing) is used for data analysis and reporting.

44. What is a data warehouse?

- A data warehouse is a centralized repository that stores large amounts of historical data for analysis and
reporting.

45. What is a data mart?

- A data mart is a subset of a data warehouse, focused on a specific business line or team.

46. What is ETL?

- ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) is the process of extracting data from different sources, transforming it into a
suitable format, and loading it into a data warehouse.

47. What is a star schema?

- A star schema is a type of database schema that organizes data into fact and dimension tables, resembling a
star shape.

48. What is a snowflake schema?

- A snowflake schema is a more normalized version of the star schema, where dimension tables are further
broken down into sub-dimensions.

49. What is data integrity?

- Data integrity refers to the accuracy and consistency of data over its lifecycle.

50. What is referential integrity?

- Referential integrity ensures that relationships between tables remain consistent, particularly with foreign
keys.
 Advanced SQL Questions

51. What is a pivot table in SQL?

- A pivot table summarizes data from a detailed table, allowing users to analyze it in a multidimensional format.

52. How do you create a pivot table in SQL?

- You can create a pivot table using the PIVOT function, which allows you to transform rows into columns.

53. What is the difference between PIVOT and UNPIVOT?

- PIVOT rotates data from rows to columns, while UNPIVOT converts columns back into rows.

54. What are window functions?

- Window functions perform calculations across a set of table rows related to the current row, without collapsing
the result set.

55. What is the ROW_NUMBER() function?

- ROW_NUMBER() assigns a unique sequential integer to rows within a partition of a result set.

56. What is the NTILE() function?

- NTILE() divides a result set into a specified number of groups and assigns a group

number to each row.

57. What is the LAG() function?

- LAG() accesses data from a previous row in the same result set without the need for a self-join.

58. What is the LEAD() function?

- LEAD() accesses data from the next row in the same result set, similar to LAG() but forward-looking.

59. What is the difference between a table and a view?

- A table stores actual data, while a view is a virtual table that provides a representation of the data from one or
more tables.

60. What is the difference between a materialized view and a regular view?

- A materialized view stores the result of a query physically on disk, allowing for faster access, while a regular
view does not store data.

61. What is database normalization and why is it important?

- Normalization organizes data to reduce redundancy and dependency, improving data integrity and efficiency.

62. Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, and BCNF.

- 1NF (First Normal Form) requires atomicity of values. 2NF (Second Normal Form) eliminates partial
dependencies. 3NF (Third Normal Form) removes transitive dependencies. BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form) is an
enhancement of 3NF that resolves anomalies caused by functional dependencies.
63. What is indexing and how does it improve query performance?

- Indexing creates a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations by providing quick access
paths.

64. What are the pros and cons of indexing?

- Pros: Faster data retrieval. Cons: Slower data modification (insert/update/delete) and increased storage
requirements.

65. What is query optimization?

- Query optimization is the process of making a query run more efficiently by choosing the best execution plan.

66. What are the different methods to optimize a SQL query?

- Methods include using indexes, avoiding SELECT *, optimizing joins, reducing subqueries, and analyzing
execution plans.

67. How do you use EXPLAIN or EXPLAIN PLAN in SQL?

- EXPLAIN or EXPLAIN PLAN provides information about how a SQL query will be executed, including the access
methods and join types used.

68. What are the different types of subqueries?

- Types include single-row subqueries, multi-row subqueries, and correlated subqueries.

69. What is a recursive query?

- A recursive query refers to a query that references itself, often used for hierarchical data.

70. What is the difference between EXCEPT and NOT IN?

- EXCEPT returns distinct rows from the first query that are not found in the second, while NOT IN checks for
exclusion of specific values from a list.

Practical SQL Questions

71. Write a SQL query to find the second highest salary from a table named `Employees`.

SELECT MAX(Salary) AS SecondHighestSalary FROM Employees

WHERE Salary < (SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees);

72. Write a SQL query to find the names of employees who have joined in the last 30 days.

SELECT Name FROM Employees WHERE JoinDate >= DATEADD(DAY, -30, GETDATE());

73. Write a SQL query to retrieve the top N records from a table.

SELECT TOP N * FROM Employees;

74. Write a SQL query to find duplicate records in a table.

SELECT Name, COUNT(*) FROM Employees GROUP BY Name HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;
75. Write a SQL query to delete duplicate records from a table.

WITH CTE AS

(SELECT *,ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY Name ORDER BY Id) AS RowNumFROM Employees)

DELETE FROM CTE WHERE RowNum > 1;

76. Write a SQL query to find the nth highest salary from a table.

SELECT DISTINCT Salary FROM Employees ORDER BY Salary DESC OFFSET N-1 ROWS

FETCH NEXT 1 ROW ONLY;

77. Write a SQL query to find the common records between two tables.

SELECT * FROM Employees INTERSECT SELECT * FROM Managers;

78. Write a SQL query to find the records that are present in one table but not in another.

SELECT * FROM Employees EXCEPT SELECT * FROM Managers;

79. Write a SQL query to retrieve the first 10 characters of a string

SELECT LEFT(Name, 10) AS First10Characters FROM Employees;

80. Write a SQL query to concatenate two strings.

SELECT CONCAT(FirstName, ' ', LastName) AS FullName FROM Employees;

81. Write a SQL query to convert a string to uppercase.

SELECT UPPER(Name) AS UppercaseName FROM Employees;

82. Write a SQL query to find the length of a string.

SELECT LEN(Name) AS NameLength FROM Employees;

83. Write a SQL query to find the position of a substring in a string.

SELECT CHARINDEX('substring', Name) AS SubstringPosition FROM Employees;

84. Write a SQL query to replace a substring in a string.

SELECT REPLACE(Name, 'old', 'new') AS NewName FROM Employees;

85. Write a SQL query to remove leading and trailing spaces from a string.

SELECT LTRIM(RTRIM(Name)) AS TrimmedName FROM Employees;

86. Write a SQL query to find the difference between two dates.

SELECT DATEDIFF(DAY, StartDate, EndDate) AS DateDifference FROM Projects;

87. Write a SQL query to add a number of days to a date.

SELECT DATEADD(DAY, 10, StartDate) AS NewDate FROM Projects;

88. Write a SQL query to extract the year from a date.

SELECT YEAR(JoinDate) AS JoinYear FROM Employees;

89. Write a SQL query to extract the month from a date.

SELECT MONTH(JoinDate) AS JoinMonth FROM Employees;

90. Write a SQL query to extract the day from a date.

SELECT DAY(JoinDate) AS JoinDay FROM Employees;

91. Write a SQL query to convert a string to a date.

SELECT CONVERT(DATE, '2024-01-01') AS ConvertedDate;

92. Write a SQL query to find the number of employees in each department.

SELECT Department, COUNT(*) AS EmployeeCount FROM Employees GROUP BY Department;

93. Write a SQL query to find the total salary of each department.

SELECT Department, SUM(Salary) AS TotalSalary FROM Employees GROUP BY Department;

94. Write a SQL query to find the average salary of each department.

SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) AS AverageSalary FROM Employees GROUP BY Department;

95. Write a SQL query to find the maximum salary of each department.

SELECT Department, MAX(Salary) AS MaxSalary FROM Employees GROUP BY Department;

96. Write a SQL query to find the minimum salary of each department.

SELECT Department, MIN(Salary) AS MinSalary FROM Employees GROUP BY Department;

97. Write a SQL query to find the department with the highest number of employees.

SELECT TOP 1 Department, COUNT(*) AS EmployeeCount FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department ORDER BY EmployeeCount DESC;

98. Write a SQL query to find the department with the highest total salary.

SELECT TOP 1 Department, SUM(Salary) AS TotalSalary FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department ORDER BY TotalSalary DESC;

99. Write a SQL query to find the employees who earn more than the average salary.

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Salary > (SELECT AVG(Salary) FROM Employees);

100. Write a SQL query to find the employees who earn the highest salary in each department.

SELECT e.Department, e.Name, e.Salary FROM Employees e

JOIN (SELECT Department, MAX(Salary) AS MaxSalary FROM Employees GROUP BY Department) AS

maxSalaries ON e.Department = maxSalaries.Department AND e.Salary = maxSalaries.MaxSalary;

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