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Learning Drupal 8

Create complex websites quickly and easily using the

building blocks of Drupal 8, the most powerful version
of Drupal yet

Nick Abbott
Richard Jones

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Learning Drupal 8

Copyright © 2016 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is
sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the authors, nor Packt
Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: January 2016

Production reference: 1270116

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78216-875-1
www.packtpub.com
 Credits

Authors Project Coordinator

Nick Abbott Mary Alex
Richard Jones
Proofreader
Reviewers Safis Editing
James Roughton
Tracy Charles Smith Indexer
Tejal Daruwale Soni
Michelle Williamson

Production Coordinator
Commissioning Editor
Melwyn Dsa
Andrew Duckworth

Cover Work
Acquisition Editor
Melwyn Dsa
Richard Brookes-Bland

Content Development Editor

Dharmesh Parmar

Technical Editor
Anushree Arun Tendulkar

Copy Editor
Charlotte Carneiro
 About the Authors

Nick Abbott is the head of training at iKOS. Nick started his digital life in 1981
working on an ICL 2904 mainframe, a Commodore PET, and a Commodore VIC20.
After the ritual stint in BASIC, he moved on to writing games in Z80 and 6502
assemblers, hardware interfacing, and many happy hours creating business solutions
with the BBC Micro based around the Acorn View family. Old but not obsolete. He
graduated with a first class degree in applied physics in the late 1980s, and he worked
in IT and education right up until he joined iKOS in 2008.

Richard Jones is the Technical Director and co-founder of iKOS (now part of
the Inviqa group)—a European digital agency specializing in Drupal. Richard's
first computer was an 8-bit BBC Master and this began his journey into computing
proper. Indeed, his first introduction to working with Nick was by way of a school
database project using the then legendary Acorn ViewStore package—way ahead
of its time as an EPROM-based offering. He graduated with a first class degree in
mechanical engineering in 1996 and has been working with various web technologies
ever since.

They have both worked exclusively with Drupal on all their projects for 7 years.
Richard and Nick have been collaborating on projects since the mid-1990s and have
a great balance of skills between them that mean the first draft of collaborative work
will have already been through many critical rewrites.

They both live in the Drupal ecosystem on a daily basis and Getting Started with
Drupal Commerce—the first title they worked on with Packt Publishing—was well
received.
 About the Reviewers

James Roughton is an experienced safety professional with in-depth knowledge of

the use of social media to help improve productivity. He is an accomplished speaker,
author, and writer, and he develops and manages his own websites that provide a
resource network for small businesses at http://safetycultureacademy.com/.

Three of his most notable books include Safety Culture: An Innovative, Leadership
Approach, Developing an Effective Safety Culture: A Leadership Approach, and Job Hazard
Analysis: A Guide for Voluntary Compliance and Beyond. He is an active board member
and web master for the Georgia Conference—www.georgiaconference.org.

He was a President of the Georgia ASSE; Chair of Gwinnett Safety Professionals,

and adjunct Professor of Safety Technology at Lanier Tech, Georgia Tech, and
currently adjunct Professor at Columbia Southern University. He has received
awards for his efforts and was named the Georgia Chapter ASSE Safety Professional
of the Year 1998-1999. He also won the Project Safe Georgia award, 2008, and
received the Georgia Safety, Health, and Environmental Conference's Earl Everett
distinguished Service award, 2014.
Tracy Charles Smith is currently working as a project manager for Phase2, based
out of Alexandria, Virginia. Tracy has experience in programming, database design,
and project management. He has been developing web applications since 1999 and
has used various languages and technologies including ColdFusion and PHP. Before
becoming a project manager, Tracy was a senior developer working on large website
implementations using Drupal as a platform.

In addition to reviewing Learning Drupal 8, Tracy authored Drupal Intranets with

Open Atrium in 2011 and has reviewed several other books, including ColdFusion 9
Developer Tutorial. Tracy's entrepreneurial spirit has been a key component to
Tracy's success in interacting with clients and team members on business and
user-experience related technology solutions. In fact, he used that passion to start
his own technology consulting firm called Alpha Geek Tech, LLC. He also served as
a technology director for Quiddities Dev, Inc, in Santa Cruz, CA, before moving to
the DC area to join Phase2. He earned a BS degree in computer information systems
and business administration from Wingate University.

Michelle Williamson got her start in Drupal with version 5 and was immediately
hooked by the learning curve and community. She currently works at Mediacurrent,
a leading distributed Drupal agency, as Accessibility Lead. She spends her days
building Drupal sites and making them more usable and friendly to people with
disabilities. She is especially excited about the release of Drupal 8 and the various
accessibility enhancements that come with it.

When not in front of a computer, Michelle is usually taking her puppies on hikes,
cooking nutritious food, or has her nose in a Kindle.
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 Table of Contents
Preface xi
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
What is Drupal? 1
Dynamic web pages – a brief history 2
Enter the database 3
A worldwide community 5
The success of Drupal 5
Multiple systems integration 6
Technical debt 6
Developer knowledge 7
Modularity 7
There's a module for that 8
Some Drupal history 8
Language choice 9
Is Drupal a framework or platform? 9
Embracing other communities' frameworks 10
How an open source community works 10
Summary 11
Chapter 2: Installation 13
System requirements 13
PHP 13
Web server options 13
Database options 14
Browser options 14
Setting up a development environment 14
Free cloud hosting 15
Acquia Dev Desktop 15

[i]
Table of Contents

Installing Drupal 8 18
Configuring your Drupal 8 site 20
Troubleshooting your installation 22
Memory settings 22
PHP timeouts 23
Trusted host patterns 23
Summary 24
Chapter 3: Basic Concepts 25
Modules 25
Core and contrib modules 26
Where the core modules live 26
Where your extension modules should live 26
An example community module 27
Evaluating new modules 27
Documentation 29
Module versions 29
Entities, nodes, and fields 29
Entities 29
Nodes 29
Node types 30
Fields 30
Adding new fields 30
Field types 30
Field settings 32
Field widgets 33
Form display 33
Managing the form display 33
Managing field display 33
Drupal 8 core entity types 34
Taxonomy 34
Fixed terms versus or tags 35
Blocks 35
Views 36
Users, roles, and permissions 37
Themes 38
Administration themes 39
Base themes and subthemes 40
Hooks 40
Summary 40

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Getting Started with the UI 41

The Drupal 8 user interface 41
Logging out 41
Logging in 42
Front page 42
Repositioning the tray 44
Responsiveness 45
Administration theme 46
Contextual links 46
Quick content creation 47
Listing content 49
Revisiting the home page 49
Structure 50
Block layout 51
Comment types 52
Contact forms 53
Personal contact form 53
Content types 54
Customizing a content type 54
Customizing fields 55
Customizing content entry screens 55
Customizing the display 56
Display modes 58
View modes 58
Form modes 58
Menus 59
Taxonomy 60
Views 61
Configuration 61
Appearance 62
People 63
Reports 63
Extend 64
Summary 65
Chapter 5: Basic Content 67
Introducing your site-building scenario 67
Types of content 67
Pages 67
Articles 67
Clients 68

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

Services 68
Testimonials 68
FAQs 69
Contact information 69
SEO considerations 69
Basic pages 69
Creating a new page 70
Title 70
Body 70
Body field summary 71
Adding a page to the main navigation menu 73
Adding more pages 75
Articles 75
Creating a new article 75
Front page promotion 78
Adjusting the settings for a content type 79
Disabling front page promotion 79
Adjusting comment settings 81
Disabling future comments 81
No retrospective action 82
Retrospective action 83
Removing all comments and the ability to comment 85
Summary 86
Chapter 6: Structure 87
Managing menus 87
Reorganizing menu items 87
Editing menu items 88
Managing taxonomy 90
Creating a new Taxonomy vocabulary 90
Re-ordering Taxonomy terms 92
Apply a taxonomy vocabulary to content types 92
Adjusting the order of fields when editing 94
Categorizing content 96
Viewing categorized content 96
Segregating article types using taxonomy 97
Creating another taxonomy vocabulary 97
Working with the Views module 99
Creating a Views-powered News page 100
View wizard 100
Filtering to News only 104
Creating a blog page 106

[ iv ]
 Table of Contents

Working with Views blocks 107

Creating blocks using Views 107
Placing the News blocks 108
Block position 109
Block visibility 110
Summary 115
Chapter 7: Advanced Content 117
Field types 117
Extending content types 118
Adjusting field settings 118
Forcing the Article type field to be mandatory 118
Adjusting edit form settings 118
Placeholder text 119
Customizing view modes 120
Removing the labels and fields from the display 122
Controlling image size using styles 123
Creating new content types 123
Creating the Client content type 124
Inherited fields 126
Adding a logo field 126
Linking clients to their web sites 128
Providing an e-mail address for a Client 129
Providing a telephone number for a Client 130
Marking a Client as high profile 130
Attaching taxonomy 132
Adjusting field display settings 135
Adding a sorted client list to the Clients page 136
Views sort criteria 137
Adding a pager to your view 139
Creating the Service content type 141
Enabling the linking of Services to Clients 142
Displaying services listing using Views 144
Creating the Testimonial content type 145
Listing testimonials with a view 149
Creating a grouped view 149
The FAQ content type 156
Content type settings 157
Field settings 157
Display settings 158
Creating the simple FAQ page 159
Adding interactive querying to a view 160
Summary 163

[v]
Table of Contents

Chapter 8: Configuration 165

People – Account settings 165
Contact settings 166
Anonymous users 166
Administrator role 167
Registration and cancellation 167
Enable password strength indicator 168
Account cancelation behavior 168
Notification e-mail address 169
Emails 170
System 172
Site information 172
Cron 173
Content authoring 174
Text formats and editors 174
User interface 179
Shortcuts 179
Development 181
Performance 181
Caching 182
Clear cache 182
Bandwidth optimization 183
Logging and errors 183
Maintenance mode 184
Configuration synchronization 185
Media 185
File system 186
Image styles 187
Image toolkit 192
Search and metadata 193
Indexing progress 194
Indexing throttle 194
Default indexing settings 195
Logging 195
Search pages 196
URL Aliases 198
Regional and language 200
Regional settings 200
Date and time formats 201

[ vi ]
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
suspect that they are casual visitors, coming to us at the end of the
year. The ordinary Parrots wing high, but the Macaws are
exceedingly high fliers, and the command of the continental and
insular shores, could be no difficulty to birds of their powerful,
though, usually, not long-sustained flight. When the October rains set
in, storms and deluges from the mountains of the continent to the
west of us, send myriad flocks of aquatic birds over to us, and it is
extremely likely that these magnificent Parrots are driven to our
shores, where they find in our genial mountains, the mild quietude of
the upper summer woods of Mexico.
“A mountain district very remote, between Trelawney and St.
Ann’s, here and there cleared and settled,—a peculiar country called
the Black grounds, is said to be the never failing resort of these
Mexican Macaws. I have been assured that several birds have been
procured there. This is said to be nearly as far eastward as they
have been found. Further westward, in the neighbourhood of the
Accompong Maroons, young birds, bearing the evidence of being in
the first year’s plumage, have been procured from hog-hunters. One
specimen, purchased from them by Mr. White, the proprietor of
Oxford estate, was for some time the admiration and talk of the
country round. I have been informed by those who have noticed the
bird on the wing, that although the Macaws are never seen but flying
extremely high, their great size, and their splendid length of tail,
brilliant with intense scarlet, and blue and yellow, strikingly attract
attention, if their harsh scream, heard in the hushed mountain
solitudes, does not betray them. They fly from one ridge to another,
journeying in pairs, and have been followed by the eye till they have
alighted on the loftiest of the forest trees, in their chosen resting
places.”

YELLOW-BELLIED PARROQUET.[75]

Conurus flaviventer.
Psittacus æruginosus, var. Lath. Syn.
 Aratinga flaviventer, Spix. Av. Br. t. 18. f. 1.

[75] Length, measured over the head, 11¾ inches, expanse 16¾, flexure
5¾, tail 5, rictus ¾, tarsus ⁵⁄₁₀, middle toe 1¹⁄₁₀. Irides pale orange; cere
and cheeks, pale buff.

The large earthy nests accumulated by the duck-ants (Termites,)

around the trunk or branches of trees, frequently afford the
Parroquet a fit situation for her own domestic economy. Though
easily cut by her strong beak, the thin arches and galleries of these
insects are of sufficiently firm consistence to constitute a secure and
strong abode. In the cavity formed by her own industry she lays four
or five eggs, upon the chips and dust.
But the precaution of the poor bird in selecting a locality, and her
perseverance in burrowing into so solid a structure, are not sufficient
to ensure her safety or that of her young. The aperture by which she
herself enters and departs, affords also a ready entrance to a subtle
and voracious enemy, the Yellow Boa. A young friend of mine once
observing a Parroquet enter into a hole in a large duck-ants’ nest,
situated on a bastard-cedar, mounted to take her eggs or young.
Arrived at the place, he cautiously inserted his hand, which presently
came into contact with something smooth and soft. He guessed it
might be the callow young, but hesitating to trust it, he descended,
and proceeded to cut a stick, keeping his eye on the orifice, from
which the old bird had not yet flown. Having again mounted, he
thrust in the stick and forced off the whole upper part of the structure,
disclosing to his utter discomfiture and terror, an enormous Yellow
Snake, about whose jaws the feathers of the swallowed Parroquet
were still adhering, while more of her plumage scattered in the nest
revealed her unhappy fate. The serpent instantly darted down the
tree, and the astonished youth, certainly not less terrified, also
descended with precipitation, and ran as if for life from the scene.
The food of this species consists of various fruits and seeds. The
fiddle-wood, burn-wood, fig, and pride of China, afford it plentiful and
agreeable nutriment. It cuts into the plantains, both when green and
ripe; and its fondness for the sweet and spicy berries of the pimento
renders it the abhorrence of the planter. I have seen it on the top of a
guava-tree holding something in its foot, which it cut to pieces with
its beak and fed upon; probably the young fruit. When the prickly-
yellow is in seed, the Parroquets come in flocks to eat of it; when
they lose their wonted wariness. I have known them to resort to a
large tree, overhanging the public road, day after day; the passing by
of persons beneath causing little observation; generally, however,
they would utter a screech or two, and then go on feeding. I have
shot several individuals from this tree in succession, yet in a few
minutes the flock would be there again.
Often when mortally wounded by a shot, the grasp of the climbing
feet, by which the bird was hanging from the twigs, becomes
convulsively tightened, and the falling body is seen suspended head
downward; for some minutes, often longer, it thus remains, the wings
now and then giving an ineffectual flutter, till at last one foot relaxes
its hold, and then the other, and the bird falls heavily to the ground.
They are often sought for the table, and I can speak from personal
knowledge to their juiciness and flavour, especially in the pimento
season.
The flight of these birds is swift and rushing; in mid air they have a
habit of suddenly deviating from the straight line of their course,
making a sharp doubling, and then pursuing the same direction as
before. They go in flocks, usually above the trees, and utter harsh
screams as they fly. The sexes are precisely alike in plumage.

BLACK-BILLED PARROT.[76]

Psittacus agilis.
Psittacus agilis, Gmel.—Le Vaill. Perr. 105.
? Psittacus æstivus, var. α. Lath. Syn.
? ” ” var. δ. Ibid.

[76] Length 13¼ inches, expanse 20¼, flexure 6⁴⁄₁₀, tail 3¼, rictus ⁸⁄₁₀,
tarsus ⁹⁄₁₀, middle toe 1²⁄₁₀. Irides dark hazel: cere blackish ash-colour.
 All the Parrots are gregarious, cunning, watchful, noisy,
mischievous; and thus are like the Monkeys. This and the following
species are so much alike in manners and general appearance, that
a description of one applies nearly to the other. Flocks varying from
half-a-dozen to twenty or thirty, fly hither and thither over the forest,
screeching as they go, and all alight together on some tree covered
with berries. Here they feast, but with caution; on a slight alarm one
screams, and the whole flock is on the wing, vociferous if not
musical; and brilliant if not beautiful; particularly when the sun shines
on their green backs and crimsoned wings. They generally prefer
lofty trees, except when, in June, the ripe yellow plantain tempts
them to descend, or when the black berry shines upon the pimento.
Of the latter, the flocks devour an immense quantity, and the former
they destroy by cutting it to pieces with their powerful beaks, to get at
the small seeds.
One day in January, when the pimento on the brow of Bluefields
Mountain was about ready for picking, being full-sized, but yet green
and hard, I observed large flocks of Black-bills and a few Parroquets,
flying to and fro with voluble chatter, now alighting to feed on the hot
aromatic berry, now flying off, and wheeling round to the same
neighbourhood again. They were not at all shy, but, with unusual
carelessness of our proximity, scarcely moved at the report of the
gun which brought their companions to the ground. Of two which I
shot on this occasion, I found the craws stuffed with the cotyledons
of the seed alone, the most pungently aromatic part of the berry; the
fleshy part having been, as I presume, shorn off by the beak and
rejected. When alighted, as is often the case, on a dry branch, their
emerald hue is conspicuous, and affords a fair mark for the gunner;
but in a tree of full foliage, their colour proves an excellent
concealment. They seem aware of this, and their sagacity prompts
them frequently to rely on it for security. Often we hear their voices
proceeding from a certain tree, or else have marked the descent of a
flock upon it, but on proceeding to the spot, though the eye has not
wandered from it, and we are therefore sure that they are there, we
cannot discover an individual. We go close to the tree, but all is
silent, and still as death; we institute a careful survey of every part
with the eye, to detect the slightest motion, or the form of a bird
among the leaves, but in vain; we begin to think that they have
stolen off unperceived, but on throwing a stone into the tree, a dozen
throats burst forth into cry, and as many green birds rush forth upon
the wing.
The screaming of this and the following species differs from that of
the Parroquet, so far as to be easily distinguished. That of the latter
consists of a series of harsh screeches, of comparative length; that
of the Parrots is less shrill, more broken into short and rapid
articulations, forming series of varying length, separated by
momentary pauses. It is, in fact, much more like a hurried chattering.
In some specimens, the patch of bright scarlet in the centre of the
wing, is diminished to a slight tinge on the edge, or even entirely
wanting. This is not a difference of sex, but probably of age.
I cannot well identify our Black-bill with Latham’s “Jamaica Black-
billed Green Parrot;” he calls it var. α of Æstivus, which it surely is
not; var. δ agrees in other particulars. Ours seems, as it were, made
up of both descriptions.

YELLOW-BILLED PARROT.[77]

Psittacus leucocephalus.
Psittacus leucocephalus, Linn.—Pl. Enl. 549.
Psittacus collarius, (young?) Ibid.

[77] Length 13½ inches, expanse 22¾, flexure 7¼, tail 4²⁄₁₀, rictus 1,
tarsus ⁸⁄₁₀, middle toe 1⁶⁄₁₀. Irides dark hazel; cere and eyelids greyish-
white. Sexes exactly alike.

The Yellow-bill is less common than either of the only two

preceding, but its habits are the same. The same fruits supply it with
food, but in addition, it divides the oranges, to procure the pips, and
even cuts the acrid cashew-nut, to extract the kernel; which the
others will not do.
 The present and the preceding species build in holes in lofty trees;
often a hollow bread-nut is chosen, and often the capacious and
comfortable cavity chiselled out by the Woodpecker. Four eggs are
usually laid; and when the green feathers begin to clothe the callow
heads of the promising family, they are too often taken by some
daring youth, who having watched the parent to her hole, climbs the
giddy elevation. He feeds the young with ripe plantain or banana, till
they approach maturity, and their appetites can digest plainer food;
for when grown they will eat almost anything.
All the three species learn to speak, but the Parroquet is barely
intelligible; the Black-bill is the most docile, but the beauty and
superior size of the Yellow-bill causes it to be preferred for the cage.
One in full plumage, and able to articulate with distinctness, usually
fetches about twenty shillings in the towns.
Robinson, in enumerating the Jamaican Psittacidæ, distinguishing
them from introduced specimens, mentions in addition to those I
have given, “the Mountain Parroquet.” (MSS. ii. 88.)

Fam.—PICIDÆ.—(The Woodpeckers.)
YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER.[78]

Picus varius.—Linn.
Aud pl. 190.

[78] Length 8¾ inches, expanse 15½, flexure 5, tail 3¼, rictus 1²⁄₁₀,
tarsus ¹⁷⁄₂₀, middle toe ¹⁸⁄₂₀

Four or five specimens of this beautiful Woodpecker, all females,

occurred to us, in the months of December, January, and February;
but at no other time was it seen. I have no doubt it is a winter migrant
from the northern continent, where, however, Wilson states that it
abides all the year. I have nothing to give of its history: its manners,
as far as observed, were those common to the tribe; the stomachs of
such as I dissected, contained wood-boring larvæ.
 RADIOLATED WOODPECKER.[79]

Centurus radiolatus.—Wagl.
Edw. 244.

[79] Length 11 inches, expanse 17¾, flexure 5½, tail 3⁷⁄₁₀, rictus 1¹³⁄₂₀,
tarsus 1²⁄₁₀, middle toe 1³⁄₁₀, versatile toe 1³⁄₁₀, nearly. Irides bright hazel,
or scarlet.

This species greatly resembles the Red-bellied Woodpecker of

Wilson, (C. Carolinus,) from which it may be distinguished by the
plumage of the rump and tail-coverts being barred as the back, and
the tail being black, with the two middle feathers crossed by narrow
bars of white on their inner vanes, and the outmost feathers spotted
with white on the outer edge.
This is among the commonest of Jamaican birds, being abundant
in all situations, from the shores to the summits of the mountains. His
loud screams as he darts along from one dead tree to another,
perpetually betray his proximity even before we see him. Like the
rest of his tribe, his flight consists of a series of undulations, or rather
a succession of arcs of a circle, performed by alternate strokes and
closures of the wings. Though rapid and rushing in its character, it
does not extend to long distances, nor does it appear capable of
protraction, the wings having the shortness and hollowness which
mark a subordinate power of flight. Occasionally he alights on a
horizontal branch, but if so, it is lengthwise, not across, as other
birds perch; neither does he stand up on the toes, elevating the tarsi,
but squats down close to the wood, clinging rather than perching.
Far more usually, however, he flies direct to the trunk, on whose
perpendicular side he alights as suddenly as if he had been stuck
there, and either commences rapping with his powerful beak, or
hops upward till he finds a more promising scene of operations. If he
wishes to descend, which he does but seldom, it is backward and in
a diagonal direction; or sometimes he turns, so as to come down
sideways, but it is never more than a short distance, and is
performed so awkwardly, and in so scrambling a manner, as to
indicate that he is not formed for descending.
His food is not confined to boring larvæ; the large red ants, so
common in the woods, I have found numerous in his stomach; and at
other times, hard strong seeds enclosed in a scarlet pulpy skin. In
March we sometimes find him filled with the white pulp and oval
seeds of the sour-sop. He is said to feed on the beautiful cherries
(Cordia collococca) which in brilliant bunches are ripe at the same
season; and I have seen him engaged in picking off the pretty
crimson berries, that hang like clusters of miniature grapes from the
fiddlewood (Cytharaxylon). Sometimes he extracts the pulp of the
orange, having cut a hole through the rind; and mangoes he eats in
the autumn. He does damage to the sugar-cane, by chiselling away
the woody exterior, and sucking out the juice, and gets shot for this
feat, by the owners.
I have never seen the nest, but I have seen the bird go in and out
of a round hole, far up the stipe of a dead cocoa-nut palm, where
doubtless it was nesting.

Fam.—CUCULIDÆ.—(The Cuckoos.)
RAINBIRD.[80]

Saurothera vetula.
Cuculus vetula, Linn.—Pl. Enl. 772.
Saurothera vetula, Vieill.—Gal. Ois. 38.

[80] Length 15½ inches, expanse 14³⁄₁₀, flexure 4⁶⁄₁₀, tail 6¾, rictus 2¹⁄₁₀,
tarsus 1⁶⁄₁₀, middle toe 1²⁄₁₀. Intestine 16 inches, very tender; two cæca,
about 2 inches long. Irides hazel; orbits scarlet. The sexes exactly alike.

Interesting to myself, as being the first bird that I obtained in

Jamaica, I mention the fact, because the mode in which I procured it
is illustrative of one of its most remarkable characteristics. A day or
two after my arrival, I was taking a ramble with a little lad, who was
delighted to be my pioneer and assistant; we had climbed a hill
which was clothed with large timber, so densely matted with lianes
and briers as to be almost impenetrable. We had, however, got into
the thickest of it, when a large and handsome bird with a long tail,
beautifully barred with black and white, appeared on a low shrub
within a few feet of us, watching our motions with much apparent
interest. My little friend informed me that it was a Rainbird, but that it
had received also the title of Tom Fool, from its silly habit of gratifying
its curiosity, instead of securing its safety. Without wasting many
words, however, the youth picked up a “rock-stone,” as pebbles are
called in Jamaica, and delivered the missile with so skilful an aim,
that the bird dropped to the ground, and became the first-fruits of an
ornithological collection.
I have often seen the bird since, and always with the same
manners, jumping from twig to twig, or climbing with facility up the
slender stems of the young trees, gazing at the intruder; and if driven
away, flying only a few yards, and again peeping as before. It is little
seen except where the woods are high, but is widely scattered on
mountain as well as lowland.
The wings are remarkably short and hollow, like those of the
Gallinaceæ, the bird displaying the unusual phenomenon of a length
greater than the expanse. Conformably to this, the bird is seldom
seen to fly except from tree to tree; more usually leaping in a hurried
manner along the branches, or proceeding up the perpendicular bole
by short jumps. When it does fly, it glides nearly in a straight line,
without flapping the wings. It often sits on a branch in a remarkable
posture, the head lower than the feet, and the long tail hanging
nearly perpendicularly downward. When sitting it now and then utters
a loud and harsh cackle, unvarying in note, but increasing in the
rapidity of its emission; and sometimes this sound is produced during
its short flights. All the time of this effusion, the beak is held widely
opened. It may be imitated in some degree, by repeating the
syllables, ticky ticky ticky, for about a minute, as rapidly as they can
be uttered. It is frequently seen on the ground in morasses and
woods, when it proceeds by a succession of bounds, the long tail
held somewhat high, the head low: the tail is jerked forward by the
impulse at each pause of motion; and the whole action is like that of
the Crotophaga.
When held, it is fierce, trying with widely opened beak to bite, and
uttering angry screams; the tail expanded. A male, which had been
knocked down with a stone, but not much hurt, on being put into a
cage, was outrageous when one’s hand was placed near the wires,
dashing from side to side, now and then snapping at the hand, and
snarling all the while, exactly in the tone of an angry puppy.
It is extremely retentive of life; sometimes when a wounded one
has come into my possession, I have been distressed at the vain
efforts that I have made to deprive it of life, without absolute
destruction of the specimen. The craw is large and protuberant,
below the sternum, and is usually much distended. I have found in
various individuals large caterpillars, locusts, phasmata, spiders,
phryni, a whole mouse, lizards, &c. Robinson found in one a large
Green Anolis, eight inches long, coiled up in a spiral manner, the
head being in the centre. He says it bruises the heads of lizards, and
then swallows them head foremost, and the stomach being of a
roundish form, he conjectures that the lizard must necessarily be
coiled in this manner. Mr. Hill had one alive for several weeks; it
seized cockroaches and other insects, when put into its box, and ate
fresh meat, if chopped small.
I know nothing of the nest, except what the following note may
afford. A young friend informs me that he once observed a Rainbird
carrying “trash” into the hollow or fork of the divergent limbs of a
logwood tree. Some little while after, passing that way, he observed
a nest-like accumulation of similar substances, but as it was beyond
reach, he took a long stick to poke it out. In doing so, he pushed out
an egg, which was about as long as that of the Tinkling, but not so
broad: its colour white with many spots, but he had no distinct
recollection of what hue they were.
“When pairing,” observes Mr. Hill, “the male bird attracts the
female by gracefully displaying his plumage. His long graduated tail,
which insensibly blends tints of drab-grey with black, and terminates
with a border of white, is then seen expanded. The short rufous
wings are spread out, and the whole plumage, from the sage-grey,
hair-like, downy web of the back, to the soft, dull yellow under
feathers, are in motion, as the bird endeavours by playful dalliance to
win his mate’s attention.”

HUNTER.[81]
Old Man.—Rainbird.

Piaya pluvialis.
Cuculus pluvialis, Gm.—Sloane. pl. 258.
Piaya pluvialis, Lesson.

[81] Length 19½ inches, expanse 19½, flexure 7½, tail 11¾, rictus 2,
tarsus 1¾, middle toe 1½. Irides hazel; feet bluish grey; beak black,
gonys pale grey. Plumage extremely loose and unwebbed. Head dark
grey, merging on the neck into dark greyish-green, which is the hue of the
back, rump, and wings, with metallic gloss. Tail feathers broad,
graduated, glossy black, tipped with white, broadly on the outmost.
Throat and breast white, the latter greyish; the remaining under parts
deep red-brown. Eyelids blackish. Interior of mouth black.

The appellation of Rainbird is indiscriminately applied to both this

and the preceding, as is, in a less degree, that of Old Man. I use a
term by which I have heard it distinguished, in St. Elizabeth’s,
perhaps derived from the perseverance with which it “hunts” (i. e.
searches) for its prey.
The manners of this fine bird greatly resemble those of its relative,
and its prey is also similar. It is a bird of large size and imposing
aspect, and its puffed plumage and long barred tail give it an
appearance of even greater magnitude than it possesses. Its voice is
sometimes a cackling repetition of one sound, increasing in rapidity
until the separate notes are undistinguishable. At other times it is a
hoarse croaking. The craw projects below the sternum, and the skin
of that part of the abdomen is destitute of feathers and even of down.
 The obesity of this bird is often extraordinary; I have seen the fat
lying over the bowels, between the stomach and the vent, three-
fourths of an inch thick. When alive, it has a strong musky odour, like
that of the John-crow.
“In the changes of our mountain roads,” remarks Mr. Hill, “from
deep masses of shadowy forest, with prodigious trees overgrown
with moss, and climbing shrubs and lianes, to luxuriant and park-like
pastures, flowery hedgerows and shrubby thickets,—two sounds,
remarkable and different from each other, prevail. The one is the
tapping of the Woodpecker, broken in its measured monotony by an
occasional scream; and the other the rattle of the Rainbird, varied by
a cry at intervals like the caw of the Crow tribe. The deep forest is
the haunt of the Woodpecker,—the open thickets the resort of the
Rainbird. The insects which form the food of the one, are those that
subsist out of the sun-light, and perforate the alburnum of trees, or
live beneath the bark; those that are the prey of the other, are the
tribes that find their sustenance on the surface of vegetation, exist in
the shade, and only resort to the open air to shift from place to
place.”

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.[82]
May-bird.

Coccyzus Americanus.
Cuculus Americanus, Linn.—Aud. pl. 2.
Cuculus Carolinensis, Wils.
Coccyzus Americanus, Vieill.
Erythrophrys Americanus, Sw.

[82] Length 13 inches, expanse 16½, flexure 5⁴⁄₁₀, tail 5½, rictus 1²⁄₁₀,
tarsus 1, middle toe 1.

All our Cuckoos but the present are permanent residents; this is
but a summer visitor. Nor is it at any time very common, a few only
taking up their abode with us, while their brethren continue their
vernal migration from the southern to the northern continent. In the
“Notes of a Year,” before quoted, Mr. Hill has the following
observations on this species. “The visit of the May-bird is one of the
precursors of the spring rains in this island. The hazy atmosphere
which precedes the showers of the vernal season, has already
dimmed the usual lustre of the sky; the winds have ceased; the heat
has begun to be irritably oppressive; the air to assume a steamy
denseness, hot and heavy; the butterflies have left the parched and
blighted pastures to congregate wherever they can find any kind of
moisture, and the insects to attract the Nightjars to the lowlands,
when the stuttering voice of this Yellow-billed Cuckoo is heard
among the prognostics of the coming rain.
“The May-bird, unlike the other Cuckoos with us, that never
migrate, prefers straggling trees by the wayside to hedgerow
thickets. With the first rain that falls, the hedge-trees, cleared of their
dust, have begun to put forth fresh foliage, and to form those closer
bowers favourable to the shy and solitary habits of this bird. It is
[comparatively] long-winged, and its swift arrowy flight might be
mistaken for that of some of the wild-pigeons. It ranges excursively,
and flies horizontally with a noiseless speed, dropping on the
topmost stems of trees, or descending into the middlemost
branches. When alighting, it betrays its presence by a sound like the
drawling cuck-cuck-cuck of a sauntering barn-door fowl.”
One which was slightly wounded, on being put into a cage with
some Pea-doves, began to attack them by munching out their
feathers. It was therefore placed by itself, when it sat moody and
motionless; attempting occasionally, however, to seize cockroaches
which were put in to it, and biting spitefully at the hand when
approached.
In skinning this bird, an operation very difficult from the tenderness
of the skin, my attention was called to a number of Entozoa, which
were writhing about on the surface of the sclerotica of the eyes,
within the orbit. They were very active, about half an inch long, and
as thick as a horse-hair. Under a lens, they appeared whitish,
pellucid, cylindrical, but tapered at each end; the intestinal canal
distinctly visible, much corrugated and in motion. There were traces
of transverse wrinkles. Sam informed me that he had observed them
once before in the eyes of the same species.

BLACK-EARED CUCKOO.[83]

Coccyzus seniculus.
Cuculus seniculus, Linn.—Aud. pl. 169.
Erythrophrys seniculis, Sw.

[83] Length 12½ inches, expanse 15½, flexure 5, tail 6¾, rictus 1⁴⁄₁₀.
tarsus 1¹⁄₁₀, middle toe 1¹⁄₁₀, versatile toe ⁹⁄₁₀. Intestine 10 inches; two
cæca, 1¼ inch long, about 1½ inch from cloaca.

The tawny underparts, contrasted with the sober grey of the upper,
glossed like shot-silk, and the long tail beautifully barred with black
and white, render the subject before us one of the handsomest of
this genus of Cuckoos. It is a dull, and, so to speak, a stupid bird; we
not unfrequently see it suddenly fly out from the woods, and crossing
the road rest on a branch at a short distance, where it sits little
disturbed by the proximity of passengers: or jumps to another twig
near, and thence to another. I have never heard it utter a sound. It
lives on soft insects, large spiders, &c., which are stationary, and
which it seeks by thus peeping among the trees, and for the capture
of which long flights would be unnecessary.
I know nothing of its domestic economy; but in January I have
found eggs in the ovary, as large as dust-shot.
The shortness of the intestinal canal, and its freedom from
convolutions is remarkable, and struck me forcibly by comparison
with that of a White-winged Dove, which I happened to dissect on
the same day with this. The length of the intestine in the granivorous
bird was forty-one inches, that in the insectivorous, ten.
 SAVANNA BLACKBIRD.[84]

Crotophaga Ani.—Linn.
Pl. Enl. 102.
[84] Length 14¾ inches, expanse 17¾, flexure 6¼, tail 7¾, rictus 1³⁄₁₀,
height of beak ⁹⁄₁₀, tarsus 1⁸⁄₁₀, middle toe 1⁹⁄₁₀.
Irides deep hazel, feet black; beak black, the ridge semitransparent,
furrowed perpendicularly. Plumage black, with rich purple reflections,
most conspicuous on the wing-quills; the clothing feathers have the disk
of an intense black, with a lighter border, brilliantly iridescent; the borders
on the neck are larger in proportion, and are sometimes brassy.
Intestine 12 inches; two cæca, 1½ inch long, 2 inches from the cloaca.
The young have not the scaly character of the plumage, nor any ridge
upon the beak.

In all open places, but particularly savannas and pastures which

are occupied by cattle or horses, these birds are seen all day long,
and all the year round. They are perhaps the most common of the
birds of Jamaica. Familiar and impudent, though very wary, they
permit a considerable acquaintance with their manners, while an
approach within a limited distance, in a moment sets the whole flock
upon the wing, with a singular cry, which the negroes please to
express by the words, going-awa-a-ay, but which may be as well
described, according to the fancy of the hearer, as How-d’ye? or Anī.
The appearance of the bird in its gliding flights is unusual; the body
is slender, the head large, and the beak enormous; and as in flying it
assumes a perfectly straight form, with the long tail in the same line,
without flapping the wings, it takes the aspect, on a side view, rather
of a fish than of a bird. The centre of the upper mandible is hollow,
and the surrounding part is composed of cells of very thin bone, as is
the lower mandible. It thus bears a great resemblance to the beaks
of the Toucans and Hornbills. The belly is thin and lank, and the bird,
even though fat, has always the appearance of meagreness: the
shabbiness of the downy feathers that clothe the belly and the long
tibiæ, adds to this effect. In these particulars, as well as in general
aspect and manners, the Blackbird displays a strong affinity to the
Cuckoos and Toucans; indeed, if I may judge from a living
Rhamphastos carinatus which was some time in my possession, it
seems nearer to the latter than to the former.
The food of our Blackbird, though consisting mainly of insects, is
not confined to them. We usually find the stomach distended with
caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers, beetles, and other insects, to such
a degree that we wonder how the mass could have been forced in.
But I have found these contents mixed up with, and stained by the
berries of the snake-withe; and in July I have found the stomach
crammed with the berries of the fiddle-wood, (Cytharaxylon,) which
had stained the whole inner surface of a bright crimson. Flocks of
these birds were at that time feeding on the glowing clusters
profusely ripe upon the trees. Stationary insects are the staple food;
to obtain which, they hop about grassy places, and are often seen to
jump, or to run eagerly at their prey; on which occasions the long tail,
continuing the given motion after the body has stopped, is thrown
forward in an odd manner, sometimes nearly turning the bird head
over heels. It is probably to protect the eyes from the stalks of weeds
and blades of grass in these headlong leaps, that the projecting
brows are furnished with a row of short but very stiff overhanging
bristles; but what purpose was served by the high and thin knife-
blade of a beak, I was ignorant, till informed by Mr. Hill, who
observes that it “enables the bird to open out the soft earth, and seek
for its insect food; it also facilitates its access to the vermin
imbedded in the long close hair of animals. I am assured,” he adds,
“that if a patch of cows’ dung be examined after Crotophagas have
been searching for the larvæ of insects, it will be found furrowed as if
a miniature plough had passed through it.”
The form of this organ has given occasion, in Hayti, where also it
is common, to the appellation of “bout de tabac,” that is “bowl of
tobacco pipe;” it is also called there Judeo.
The name Crotophaga, (tick-eater,) is no misnomer, as has been,
without foundation, asserted by some who never saw the living bird.
Almost every one in Jamaica is aware that the Savanna Blackbird,
as well as the Grakle, feeds on the parasites of cattle. I made
particular inquiries about this soon after my arrival, and was assured
of the fact by persons who had witnessed it multitudes of times, and
who could not “mistake” the Blackbird for the Grakle, their whole
form, voice, and motions, being different.
Afterwards, however, I had repeated opportunities of personal
observation on this point. One day I noticed a cow lying down,
around which were four or five Blackbirds, hopping on and off her
back, and eagerly picking the insects from her body; which service
seemed in no wise unpleasing to her. I have also seen them leaping
up on cows when grazing; and, on another occasion, jumping to and
from a horse’s back; and my lad Sam has repeatedly observed them
clinging to a cow’s tail, and picking insects from it, as far down as the
terminal tuft. Had cattle been pastured near where I resided, I should
doubtless have had many more ocular demonstrations: but the
evidence is amply sufficient. In some of these cases, the occurrence
was close to me, so that there was no possibility of deception,
especially as, being aware of the conflicting statement, I looked with
the more interest to satisfy myself.
But stationary insects are not the only prey of the Crotophaga; in
December, I have seen little groups of them engaged in the
evenings, leaping up from the pasture about a yard into the air,
doubtless after flying insects, which they seemed to catch. One day
in March as I sat at dinner, my attention was arrested by what
seemed to be a green bird chased by several Crotophagas, near the
top of a lofty tree at some distance, I presently saw that it was a very
large lepidopterous insect; it flew over the woods about a quarter of
a mile before I lost sight of it, when it appeared to alight on the top of
a tree. The birds did not pursue the chase far. I have seen one with a
dragon-fly in its beak, which it had just caught, but it may have been
while resting. At another time I saw that a Blackbird had actually
made prey of one of our little nimble lizards (Anolis). These
circumstances show, that like the Toucans, the Ani is to some extent
omnivorous.
Though its usual mode of progression on the ground is by
hopping, or rather bounding, the feet being lifted together, the
Blackbird is seen occasionally to run in a headlong manner for a
short distance, moving the feet alternately. He is fond of sitting in the
morning sun on a low tree with the wings expanded; remaining there
perfectly still for a considerable time. In the heat of the day, in July
and August, many may be seen in the lowland plains, sitting on the
fences and logwood hedges with the beaks wide open, as if gasping
for air; they then forget their usual loquacity and wariness. Often two
or three will sit in the centre of a thick bush, overhung with a matted
drapery of convolvolus, whence they utter their singular cry in a
calling tone, as if they were playing at hide-and-seek, and requiring
their fellows to come and find them.
The statement that the Blackbird builds in company, forming an
immense nest of basket-work by the united labours of the flock, is
universally maintained by the inhabitants of the colony. It is said to
be usually on a high tree, where many parents bring forth and
educate a common family. Mr. Hill, whose statements in Jamaican
Ornithology are worthy of unlimited confidence, observes: “Some
half-a-dozen of them together build but one nest, which is large and
capacious enough for them to resort to in common, and to rear their
young ones together. They are extremely attentive to the business of
incubation, and never quit the nest, while sitting, without covering the
eggs with leaves, to preserve them at an equal temperature.” The
only instance in which I ever met with a nest, while it is not
conclusive, is rather in favour of this opinion than the opposite. In
July I found a Blackbirds’ nest in a Bastard Cedar (Guazuma); it was
a rather large mass of interwoven twigs lined with leaves. Eight eggs
were in the nest, and the shells of many more were also in it, and
scattered beneath the tree. The eggs were about as large as a
pullet’s, very regularly oval, of a greenish blue, but covered with a
coating of white chalky substance, which was much scratched and
eroded on them all, and which was displaced with little force. On
being broken, the interior was peculiar; the glaire was less tenacious
than usual, but more jelly-like, yet at the same time thinner in
consistence; but what surprised me was, that in each egg this glaire
filled at least three-fourths of the whole space, while the yolk,
flattened in form, not larger in diameter than a coat-button-mould,
and about twice as thick, was adhering to one side and end. It was
pale, and resembled in appearance that of a hen’s egg, when just
turned by boiling. I examined several, and found all alike.
 I close this account with some pleasing notes of the species by Mr.
Hill. “Though the Savanna Blackbird is classed among the scansorial
or climbing tribe of birds, and has the yoke-formed foot,—like
another class of the Cuckoo tribe among us, of which we have four
or five different kinds,—it is generally a downward, not an upward
climber. It enters a tree by alighting on the extremity of some main
branch, and gains the centre of the foliage by creeping along the
stem, and searching for its insect food. Unlike, however, our
Cuckoos, which are solitary-feeding birds, it does not range from
stem to stem, and search the tree through. The Blackbirds, moving
in flocks of half-dozens, tens, and twelves, seldom penetrate far
among the leaves. They glance along the branches rapidly, and
silently quit the tree they have visited, by dropping one by one on
some inviting spot on the green sward under them, or start away
suddenly, the whole possé together, to some near-by thicket, to
which one among them generally leads with that peculiar shrill and
screaming cry that distinguishes them from every other bird of the
field.
“These Savanna Blackbirds are favourites with me. Other winged
wanderers have their season, but these are the tenants of the field
all the year round. Their life is in the sunshine. Wherever there are
open lands in tillage or pasture, with intermingled trees and shrubs,
there these social birds frequent:—always familiar and seemingly
fearless, but never omitting to set their sentinel watchmen to sound
their cry when any one obtrudes nearer upon them than to a certain
space within their social haunts.
“After a passing fall of rain, one of our sudden mid-day thunder
showers for instance, when the full burst of sunshine, bright and
fierce, breaks again on the freshened landscape;—the first bird seen
creeping out from the thicket to dry his wings, and regain the fields,
is the Savanna Blackbird. The Mocking-bird, ready as he is with his
song, to gladden the landscape once more, is seldom before the
shrill Blackbird, in breaking the hush that succeeds the overpast
shower. Que-yuch, que-yuch, que-yuch is heard from some
embowered clump not far off, and a little stream of Blackbirds, with
their long tails and short gliding wings outstretched in flight, are seen
straggling away to some spot, where insect-life is stirring, in the
fresh, damp, and exuberant earth. The sun is levelling its slant beam
along the plains, and the sea-breeze is breathing fresh and fragrant
with a sense of reviving moisture from the afternoon showers, que-
yuch, que-yuch, que-yuch is heard again, hastily and anxiously
repeated; and the little birds are seen scrambling into the hedge-
rows, and the Blackbirds are pushing from the outer limbs of the
solitary thicket, from whence they sounded their cry of alarm, to gain
the inward covert of the leaves. A hawk with silent stealth is
skimming along the bordering woodland, gliding occasionally
downward to the lesser bushes in the Savanna. The tocsin of the
Blackbird, however, has warned the whole field, and not a voice is
heard, and not a wing is stirring.
“In the hot and sultry days when the dews have ceased to fall, and
all vegetation is parched and languid, the Blackbirds are seen
wending their way at an early hour of the afternoon to the riverside,
trooping in little parties. They have found some spot where an
uprooted tree has grounded in the shallow stream. Here they are
perched, some tail upward, drinking from the gliding waters below,
some silent and drooping, some pluming themselves, and some in
the sands that have shoaled about the embedded trunk of the tree,
washing in the little half-inch depths of water. They will continue here
till sunset, when they will start off laggingly, the signal being first
given by some one of the flock, who has announced, that it is time to
seek their coverts for the night, with the still peculiar cry of que-
yuch.”
I am inclined to attach very little importance to the wrinkles on the
beak as indicating specific difference: these, as well as the form and
size of the organ, varying considerably in individuals from the same
locality; the result, I have no doubt, of age.

Order.—GYRANTES. (Circlers.)
Fam.—COLUMBADÆ. (The pigeons.)
RING-TAIL PIGEON.[85]
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