11/28/2023

Operations CONTENTS
7.1. Meaning and nature of quality
management
7.2. Determinants of Quality
7.3. Dimensions of Quality for Goods and Services
7.3. The Costs of Quality
7.4. Quality Circles and Quality Improvement Teams
7.5. International Quality Documentation Standards
7.6. Total Quality Management
7.7. Quality Control and Improvement

 Garvin (1983) identifies five different definitions of quality:

Meaning and nature of quality Transcendent quality: is ‘innate excellence’ – an absolute
and universally recognizable high level of achievement.
What is Quality? Examples of this come from various artistic achievements that
have had profound emotional impact. Transcendent quality
 The American Society for Quality (ASQ) defines
often depends highly on intangible, subjective elements.
quality as “a subjective term for which each
User-based quality: ‘lies in the eye of the beholder’, so
person has his or her own definition. that each person will have a different idea of quality,
 In technical usage, quality can have two based on its fitness for use by the individual.
meanings: Value-based quality: is performance or conformance at an
1. The characteristics of a product or service that acceptable price or cost.
bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied Product-based quality: is a precise and measurable
needs and variable, and goods can be ranked according to how they
score on this measure.
2. A product or service free of deficiencies.” Manufacturing-based quality: is ‘conformance to
 Obviously, quality can be defined in many requirements’, adhering to a design or specification. This
ways, depending on who is defining it and the view of quality takes little account of customer needs or
product or service it refers to. preferences.

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Quality from the Customer’s Perspective Quality from the Producer’s Perspective
 Quality should be aimed at the needs of the  Product or service design results in design
consumer, present and future. specifications that should achieve the desired
 From this perspective, product and service quality.
quality is determined by what the customer  However, once the product design has been
wants and is willing to pay for. determined, the producer perceives quality to
 Since customers have different product be how effectively the production process is
needs, they will have different quality able to conform to the specifications required
expectations. by the design referred to as the quality of
 Define quality as a service’s or product’s conformance.
fitness for its intended use, or fitness for use;  What this means is quality during production
how well does it do what the customer or focuses on making sure that the product
user thinks it is supposed to do and wants it meets the specifications required by the
to do? design.

A Final Perspective on Quality Other common definitions of Quality

We approached quality from two perspectives, the
customer’s and the producer’s Conformance to specifications: How well a
product or service meets the targets and tolerances
determined by its designers.
Fitness for use: A definition of quality that evaluates
how well the product performs for its intended use.
Value for price paid: Quality defined in terms of
product or service usefulness for the price paid.
Support services: Quality defined in terms of the
support provided after the product or service is
purchased.
Psychological criteria: A way of defining quality
that focuses on judgmental evaluations of what
constitutes product or service excellence.

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Dimensions of Quality for Goods Dimensions of quality: Service

 Performance: The basic operating characteristics of a
product; for example, how well a car handles or its gas mileage.  Tangibility: Is the physical evidence of services. Restaurant
waiter’s staff wears and cleanness of the uniform are some of the
 Aesthetics: appearance, feel, smell, taste. tangible that you observe when you go to eat.
 Features: The “extra” items added to the basic features of a  Reliability/ Consistency: relates to the consistency of the
product. performance. The same level of service provided to each
customers.
 Reliability: The probability that a product will operate properly  Competence: relates to workers having the required skill and
within an expected time. knowledge to properly perform the services.
 Conformance: The degree to which a product meets pre-  Courtesy: this refers to the politeness, respect and consideration,
established standards. and friendliness of contact person.
 Credibility: refers to the characteristics of truth worthiness,
 Durability: How long the product lasts; its life span before believability, and honest of the service worker. It is the degree of
replacement. trust you place on the service worker.
 Serviceability: The ease of getting repairs, the speed of repairs,  Accessibility and convenience: How easy is it to obtain service?
and the courtesy and competence of the repair person.  Security: it refers to freedom from any danger or risks.
 Safety: Assurance that the customer will not suffer injury or  Understanding customers: refers to how well the service workers
make the effort to understand the specific needs of each customer.
harm from a product; an especially important consideration for
automobiles.  Responsiveness: refers to the willingness and readiness of
employee to provide services.
 Perceived quality: indirect evaluation of quality

Determinants of Quality The Costs of Quality

Quality of design  However, quality has many other costs, which can be
Quality of conformance divided into two categories.
Ease of use  The first category consists of costs necessary for achieving
Service after sale/delivery high quality, which are called quality control costs. These
are of two types: prevention costs and appraisal costs.
 The second category consists of the cost consequences
 The nine fundamental factors (9 M’s), which are affecting
the quality of products and services, are: of poor quality, which are called quality failure costs. This
include external failure costs and internal failure costs.
 Market  To sum up, the cost of quality summarized as follows
 Money  Prevention costs: Costs of preparing and implementing a
 Management quality plan.
 Men  Appraisal costs: Costs of testing, evaluating, and
 Motivation inspecting quality.
 Materials  Internal failure costs: Costs of scrap, rework (amend,
 Machines and mechanization modify), and material losses.
 Mounting product requirements  External failure costs: Costs of failure at customer site,
including returns, repairs and recalls
 Modern information methods .

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Some Quality Related Terms Total Quality Management (TQM)

 Total:- Quality involves everyone and all activities in the
 Quality assurance: All those planned or systematic
actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a company/ made up of the whole.
product or service will satisfy given requirements for  Quality:- Conformance to Requirements / degree of
quality.
excellence product/service provides.
 Quality audit: A systematic and independent
 Management:- Quality can and must be managed/ act, art
examination to determine whether quality activities and
results comply with planned arrangements, and whether &manner &planning, controlling and directing.
these arrangements are implemented effectively and are  TQM:- An integrated effort designed to improve quality
suitable to achieve objectives. performance at every level of the organization.
 Quality control: The operational techniques and  A process for managing quality; it must be a continuous
activities that are used to fulfill requirements of quality.
way of life; a philosophy of perpetual improvement
 Quality system: The organizational structure, in everything we do or QM is the art of managing the
responsibilities, procedures, processes, and resources
for implementing quality management. whole to achieve excellence.

 TQM is viewed from many angles – as a

philosophy, as an approach and journey
Timeline showing the differences between old
towards excellence.
and new concepts of quality
 The main thrust is to achieve customer
satisfaction by involving everybody in the
organization across all functions with
continuous improvement driving all activities.
 It is systems are designed to prevent poor
quality from occurring.
 It is a mgmt. philosophy that seeks to integrate
all organizational function (purchasing,
marketing, production, etc.) to focus on meeting
customers’ needs & organizational objectives.

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Principles of TQM
The philosophies of TQM
 TQM is a philosophy so its elements consist of the
The distinctive approach of TQM can be various strategies, tactics which includes the Following:
summarized as comprising seven basic
Knowledge of tools
principles:
Continuous improvement -- Kaizen
Customer Focus
1. The Approach = Management-led Product Design
2. The Scope = Company-wide Competitive benchmarking
3. The Scale = Everyone is responsible Employee empowerment
4. The Philosophy = Prevention not detection Team approach
5. The Standard = Right-first-time Decisions based on facts
6. The Control = Cost of quality Managing Supplier quality
7. The Theme = Continuous improvement Quality at the source-- Process Management
Champion

Importance of TQM
 Producing quality products or services: These aspects include Barriers to the Implementation of TQM
durability, reliability, performance, and conformance with quality standards
and aesthetics.
 Achieving a high level of customer satisfaction: Signifies that TQM  Poor Planning
enables an organization to achieve maximum customer satisfaction by
providing them quality products and services.  Resistance of Employees
 Building reputation: Refers to the fact that TQM helps the organization
to gain good public image by providing superior quality products and  Lack of Proper Training:
services.
 Making efficient utilization of resources: Signifies that TQM aims at
 Lack of Management Commitment
making an optimum use of available resources by reducing defects in
products.  Shortage of Resources
 Generating high revenue: The TQM approach helps an organization to
reduce wastage, which, in turn, decreases additional costs and generates
high revenue for the organization.
 Motivating employees: Signifies that employees always prefer to be
associated with an organization that has good market image.

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Knowledge of tools Responsibility for Quality

 Cause-and-effect diagrams: A chart that identifies  Quality Control Department cannot be held responsible for
potential causes of particular quality problems. Quality alone.
 Flowchart: A schematic of the sequence of steps  Quality is the responsibility of each and every individual
involved in an operation or process. working for the organization.
 Checklist: A list of common defects and the number of  If we look into any organization be it a manufacturing or
observed occurrences of these defects. service provider we can see the following departments
 Control charts: Charts used to evaluate whether a working diligently for achievement of Quality.
process is operating within set expectations.  Top management
 Scatter diagrams: Graphs that show how two variables  Design department
are related to each other.  Procurement department
 Pareto analysis: A technique used to identify quality  Production/operations department
problems based on their degree of importance.  Quality assurance Department
 Histogram: A chart (diagram, table, and map) that shows  Packaging and shipping Department
the frequency distribution of observed values of a
variable.  Marketing and sales Department
 Customer service Department

Continuous Improvement
Approaches of Continuous Improvement
 The Philosophy that seeks to make never-ending
improvements to the process of converting inputs into  The four approaches to wards
outputs. continuous improvement are:
 Represents continual improvement of process & The plan–do–study–act (PDSA) cycle,
customer satisfaction, involves all operations & work Benchmarking
units.
Quality circles and
 Other names Kaizen (Japanese), Zero defects.
Taguchi Concepts.
 Kaizen: is the Japanese word for continuous
improvement; kai (“change”) Zen (“good’’).

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3. Study: originally called check. It is called as study

 Plan –Do-Study-Act (PDSA) Cycle: describes
to reflect a more thorough analysis of the plan than
the activities a company needs to perform in a simple check.
- Plan is assessed to see if it is achieving goals
order to incorporate continuous improvement established in earlier stages and see if any new
problem is developed.
in its operation.
4. Act: Plan is implemented and quality improvement
1. Plan: a process or situation is studied, identifying
(QI) is made part of the normal operation.
problems and planning how to solve them.
 The process then returns to stage 1 to start the
- Customer expectations is determined and goals
to measure quality improvement are established. cycle over again to identify new quality problems
2. Do: Plan is implemented in a test basis, and develop plans to solve them- the continuous
improvement is measured and results improvement of a committed quality mgt program.
documented.

III. Benchmarking
Plan –Do-Study-Act (PDSA) Cycle:  Selecting best practices to use as a standard for performance
 Determine what to benchmark Use internal
benchmarking
 Form a benchmark team if you’re big
 Identify benchmarking partners enough
 Collect and analyze benchmarking information
 Take action to match or exceed the benchmark
Best Practices for Resolving Customer Complaints
Best Practice Justification
• Make it easy for clients to complain. • It is free market research.
• Respond quickly to complaints. • It adds customers and loyalty.
• Resolve complaints on the first
contact. • It reduces cost
• Use computers to manage complaints. • Discover trends, share them, and
• Recruit the best for customer service align your services.
jobs. • It should be part of formal
training and career advancement

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II. Quality Circle

Steps to problem solving in quality circles
A)Quality circle- a small voluntary group of workers and supervisors
from the same area who address production problems.  A typical problem-solving process using quality
 Trained in planning, problem solving, and statistical methods. circles is as follows:
 Brainstorming is used to generate ideas and evaluated later. 1. Quality circle forms and meets.
B) Process/Quality improvement team- includes members from the
2. Members select problems and projects they wish to
interrelated functions or departments that make up a process.
tackle.
 Focuses on cross- functional or business process than separate
company functions. 3. Members generate solutions and evaluate them at
another meeting, particularly looking at cost-
 Essential conditions for success of quality at circle: effectiveness.
 Well educated workforce( competent, motivated) 4. Recommendations go to senior management for
 Employees are willing to exchange views approval.
 Employees see themselves as working for the good of the 5. Quality circle implements solutions when approved.
organization 6. Quality circle monitors solutions by gaining feedback
 Management who are willing to share information about operations from operators.
 Senior management who implement the suggested improvements. 7. Quality circle makes a review of solutions to generate
 QC is very effective when done properly improvements.

IV. Taguchi Concepts

Quality Circle  Most quality problems are the result of poor product and process design.
 Identify key component and process variables affecting product variation.
Organization  Taguchi Concepts aimed at improving both product and process
8-10 members quality
Same area
Supervisor/moderator  Quality robustness and Quality loss function
Quality Robustness
Training
Presentation Group processes  Ability to produce products uniformly in adverse manufacturing
Implementation Data collection and environmental conditions
Monitoring Problem analysis
 Remove the effects of adverse conditions
 Small variations in materials and process do not destroy product
quality
Quality Loss Function
Problem Identification  Shows that costs increase as the product moves away from what
Solution
List alternatives
Problem results
Consensus
the customer wants
Brainstorming  Costs include customer dissatisfaction, warranty and service,
Problem Analysis internal
Cause and effect scrap and repair, and costs to society
Data collection and
analysis  Traditional conformance specifications are too simplistic
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International Quality Documentation  How many standards are there in ISO-9000

Standards series?

What is ISO-9000? ISO-9000 Series has 5 standards, viz;

 ISO 9000 is a set of procedures and policies for the ISO-9000
international quality certification of suppliers.
 ISO-9000 is the generic name used to describe the
ISO-9001
International Standard Organization (ISO) 9000 series ISO-9002
of management system standards. ISO-9003
 The peak standard of ISO-9000 series is ISO-9001, ISO-9004
which is titled ‘Quality Systems—Model for quality
assurance in design/development, production,  ISO-9000: provides guidelines for selection
installation and servicing’. in use of a series of ISO-9001, ISO-9002,
 This is the standard to which an organization can be ISO-9003, and ISO-9004.
certificated for the design, development, installation,  This standard, therefore, is not to be used
and maintenance of products and services (e.g.,
software development, operation, and support). for contractual purposes.

What are the applications of each standard?

What are the ingredients of a quality system?  ISO-9001: This is for use when the contract specially
requires that the supplier assure quality throughout the
The ingredients are: whole cycle from the Design through Production,
Clearly defined responsibilities and authority. installation and Servicing.
Documented procedures, Instructions and controls.  ISO-9002: This is for use when the specified requirements
for products are stated in terms of an already established
Knowledge and understanding of responsibilities,
design or specification.
authority, procedures and instructions.
 ISO -9003: This is applicable in a situation where only the
Correct operation of procedures by the authorized and
Suppliers’ capabilities for inspection and tests
responsible personnel.
(conducted on products as supplied) can be satisfactorily
Adequacy of personnel, equipment, facilities and general demonstrated. This standard is for contractual use.
resources.
 ISO-9004: This is for internal use which describes a basic
Effectiveness of the system when correctly operated. set of quality system e1ements which help to develop a
sound and comprehensive quality management system.

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Principles of the ISO 9000 Series What types of systems are required?
 The ISO 9000 series is based on the eight principles
 ISO-9000 requires a documented quality system
of quality management,
comprising the following:
1. Customer Focus:
 A policy document mentioning the Company’s
2. Leadership:
intention to ensure that the system exists and to
3. Involvement of People guarantee consistent product quality.
4. Process Approach  Operating procedures which are instructions on
5. System Approach equipment operation, Inspection and tests,
6. Continual Improvement documentation, etc.
7. Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relation  Specific instructions relating to particular contracts
8. Factual Approach to Decision Making
which include drawings, specific test procedures,
quality plans etc.

What are the quality system requirements  What are the benefits of the ISO-9000
specified by the Standard? standards?
1. Management 11. Inspection, Measuring and
Responsibility Test Equipment
12. Inspection and Test  ISO-9000 Standards have universal
2. Quality System
3. Contract Review
Status acceptance.
13. Control of Non conforming
4. Design Control The supplier audits are fewer and have
product
5. Document Control
6. Purchasing
14. Corrective Action more focus.
15. Handling, Storage,
7. Purchaser-Supplied Packaging and Delivery Easier, faster and more comprehensive
Product
8. Product Identification and
16. Quality Records learning, resulting in increased
17. Internal Quality Audits
Traceability productivity and quality.
18. Training
9. Process Control
19. Servicing Giving rise to better market sales.
10. Inspection and Testing
20. Statistical Techniques

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ISO 14000 Environmental Standard

 What are some of the short-comings of the  ISO 14000 - A set of international standards for
ISO-9000 standards ? assessing a company’s environmental performance.
 It does not tell a Company how to document the  Standards in three major areas: Management
Quality System. systems, Operations, Environmental systems
 It does not specify what makes up an adequate  Management systems:
quality policy.  Systems development and integration of
 It does not mention or make provision for environmental responsibilities into business
continuous improvement. planning.
 It requires no evidence of a satisfactory track  Operations:
record of performance.  Consumption of natural resources and energy.
 It doesn’t differentiate suppliers with respect to  Environmental systems
their Industry base, their Company size and what  Measuring, assessing and managing emissions,
portion of the Company is being registered. effluents, and other wastes.

The ISO 14000 family of standards ISO 24700

 ISO 24700 pertains to the quality and performance of office
equipment that contains reused components.
 ISO/IEC 24700 specifies product characteristics for use in
an original equipment manufacturer’s or authorized third-
party’s declaration of conformity to demonstrate that a
marketed product that contains reused components
performs equivalent to being new, meeting the international
standards.
 Equivalent-to-new component specifications and
performance criteria, and continues to meet all the
safety and environmental criteria required by
responsibly built products.
 It is relevant to marketed products whose manufacturing
and recovery processes result in the reuse of components.

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Some Quality Awards Cont’d

QUALITY CONTROL AND The Need for Controlling Quality

IMPROVEMENT In the absence of quality, the following will result:
No yardstick for comparing the quality of
 Quality Control (QC) may be defined as a goods/services.
system that is used to maintain a desired
level of quality in a product or service. Difficulty in maintaining consistency in quality.
 It is a systematic control of various factors Dissatisfied customers due to increased
that affect the quality of the product. maintenance and operating costs of products/
services.
 It depends on materials, tools, machines,
type of labor, working conditions etc. Increased rework cost while manufacturing
products/providing services.
 Quality control aims at prevention of
defects at the source, relies on effective Reduced life time of the products/services.
feedback system and corrective action Reduced flexibility with respect to usage of standard
procedure. spare parts. Hence, controlling quality is an essential
activity.

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Steps in Quality Control Objectives of Quality Control

Following are the steps in quality control process: To improve the companies income by making the
1. Formulate quality policy. production more acceptable to the customers, i.e., by
2. Set the standards or specifications on the basis of providing long life, greater usefulness, maintainability
customer’s preference, cost and profit. etc.
3. Select inspection plan and set up procedure for To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses
checking. due to defects.
4. Detect deviations from set standards of specifications. To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large
5. Take corrective actions or necessary changes to scale production.
achieve standards. To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
6. Decide on salvage method i.e., to decide how the
defective parts are disposed of, entire scrap or rework. To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or
services or high quality level, to build customer goodwill,
7. Coordination of quality problems.
confidence and reputation of manufacturer.
8. Developing quality consciousness both within and
outside the organization. To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
9. Developing procedures for good vendor-vendee To check the variation during manufacturing.
relations.

SIX SIGMA
Benefits of Quality Control  Statistically speaking a process is said to be in Six Sigma stage if it does
not have more than 3 or 4 defects per million.
 Improving the quality of products and services.  Most of the organizations measure their quality program in terms of Six
Sigma.
 Increasing the productivity of manufacturing
 Conceptually the Six Sigma Program is designed to reduce defects and
processes, commercial business, corporations requires the use of certain tools and techniques.
 Reducing manufacturing and corporate costs.  Six Sigma Programs are always directed towards quality improvement,
cost cutting and time saving.
 Determining and improving the marketability of
 Six Sigma Programs are employed in:
products and services.
 Design
 Reducing consumer prices of products and  Production
services.  Service
 Improving and/or assuring on time deliveries and  Operation management
availability.  Inventory management

 Assisting in the management of an enterprise.  Delivery

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Six Sigma Management characteristics Six Sigma Process

a.Providing strong leadership. Six Sigma Process has various stages
often organizations combine one or two
b.Defining performance merits. stages for better Monitoring and control
purposes.
c. Selecting projects likely to succeed. Quality Experts normally identify the
d.Selecting and training appropriate people.
following 5 stages.
Define
Six Sigma Technical aspects form a part  Measure
Analyze
and parcel of managerial strategy and aids
 Improve
in cost cutting and defect minimization.  Control

Statistical Quality Control Cont’d

 Statistical quality control (SQC) is the term used  3.Attributes and variables
to describe the set of statistical tools used by  Variables: are quality characteristics such
quality professionals. as weight, length, time, temperature,
 SQC encompasses includes: three broad voltage, tensile strength, shrinkage, or any
categories of;
other characteristics that you measure.
1. Descriptive statistics
 e.g. the mean, standard deviation, and range(variety,
 Attributes: are quality characteristics,
kind, collection) when you observe them, you concentrate
2. Statistical process control (SPC) on defect/defective. These characteristics
 Involves inspecting the output from a process either do or do not exist, and they can be
 Quality characteristics are measured and charted counted.
 Helpful in identifying in-process variations (difference,
distinction)

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Sources of Variation Statistical Quality Control Tools

 Variation exists in all processes.
 Variation can be categorized as either;  Seven QC tools,
1. Common or Random causes of variation:  Check Sheet
 Random causes that we cannot identify
 Pareto Analysis
 Unavoidable(mandatory, inevitable)
 e.g. slight(small, unimportant) differences in  Histogram
process variables like diameter (length, thickness,
width), weight, service time, temperature  Flow Chart
2. Assignable (convertible, transferrable,  Scatter Diagram
moveable) causes of variation
 SPC Chart &
 Causes can be identified and eliminated
 e.g. poor employee training, worn tool, machine  Cause-and-Effect Diagram
needing repair

1. Check Sheet
 Keeps a list of causes of quality problems with 2. Pareto Analysis
the number of defects resulting from each
 Most quality problems & cost result from a
cause;
 Used to develop histograms and Pareto diagrams fewer causes.
up on completion of tallying.  Applied by tallying the no of defects for
COMPONENTS REPLACED BY LAB each possible cause of poor quality and
TIME PERIOD: 22 April to 27 April 2015
REPAIR TECHNICIAN: Abebe
developing frequency distribution from the
data.
TV SET MODEL 1013
 The frequency distribution is called Pareto
Integrated Circuits ||||
Capacitors |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| || diagram
Resistors ||
Transformers ||||
Commands
CRT |

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Pareto Chart 3. Histogram

NUMBER OF 70
(64)
A diagram showing the
CAUSE DEFECTS PERCENTAGE frequency of data related
60
to a quality problem

Percent from each cause

50
Poor design 80 64 % 20
Wrong part dimensions 16 13 40
Defective parts 12 10
Incorrect machine 30 15
calibration 7 6 20
Operator errors 4 3 (13)
(10)
Defective material 3 2 10 (6) 10
(3) (2) (2)
Surface abrasions 3 2 0
125 100 % 5

0
Causes of poor quality 2 6 13 10 16 19 17 12 16 2017 13 5 6 2 1

4. Flow Chart 5. Scatter Diagram

 Is a diagram of the steps in a job, operation or process.
 A graph showing how process variables relate
 Help to identify quality problems by helping the problem
solver better understand the process. to each other.
 Helps focus on where in a process a quality problem  Identifies a pattern that may cause quality
might exist. problems.

Start/
Operation Operation Decision Operation
Y
Finish

Operation Operation

Decision Start/
Finish
X

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6. Statistical Process Control(SPC) Chart

 A chart with statistical upper and lower limits; if An SPC Chart
the process stays within these limits over time,
it is in control and problem does not exist.
 Uses statistics and control charts to tell when Plots the percent of absenteeism
20%
to take corrective action Upper control limit

 Drives process improvement

10%
 Four key steps Coach’s target value
 Measure the process 0%
 When a change is indicated, find the | | | | | | | | |
Lower control limit
assignable cause 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

 Eliminate or incorporate the cause Classes attended

 Restart the revised process

7. Cause- and- Effect Diagram Control Charts

 Also called fishbone diagram; a graph of the cause
of quality problem divided in to categories.  Control charts are tools to study variability in the
 Is developed as part of participative problem solving, process.
which is common in quality circles.
They tell us if a process is showing stability or
Measurement Human Machines
Faulty consistent variation.
testing equipment Poor supervision Out of adjustment
A stable process: is also called an in-control, a
Incorrect specifications Lack of concentration Tooling problems
predictable, or a ‘common cause’ process. It is
Improper methods Old / worn
Inadequate training
said to be in a state of statistical control (SOSC).
Quality An unstable process: on the other hand, is called
Inaccurate Problem
temperature
control Defective from vendor Poor process design
an out-of-control (OOC), unpredictable, or a
Not to specifications
Ineffective quality ‘common plus special cause’ process.
management
Dust and Dirt Material- Deficiencies  The control chart is based on the idea that the average of
handling problems in product design
a sample of several items will tend to cancel out the
normal process variability, so that undesirable changes in
Environment Materials Process
the process will be more visible.

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 X and R charts: are used together on variable data

Types of Control Charts (e.g. measurements of length, diameter, weight,
 There are three types of control charts. These are: etc) to analyze the central tendency and spread of
A. Control Charts for measurable quality or variables ( X a process on a single measurable characteristic.
, and R Chart),  p-chart: is used to analyze attribute data (e.g.
B. Control Charts for fraction defectives or attributes (p good or bad classification), such as the fraction
chart, np chart) nonconforming to a process.
C. Control chart for number of defects per unit (c Chart).  There are three ways of making p-chart: (i)
 When a record shows only the number of items that fraction defective chart or p-chart, (ii) number of
conform and number of items that do not conform to the defective chart or np-chart, and (iii) percent
specifications, then it is a record of attribute type. defective chart or 100p-chart.
 When a record is made of an actual measured quality
 c-chart: is used when attributes data, such as a
characteristics, the quality is said to be expressed by
variables. Actual measurements of length, diameter, count of the number of defects per sample unit, is
temperature, weight, strength, etc are examples of the focus. Sometimes X chart does not give
measurement by variables. satisfactory results.

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