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Table of Contents
Learning Reactive Programming with Java 8
Credits
About the Author
About the Reviewers
www.PacktPub.com
Support files, eBooks, discount offers, and more
Why subscribe?
Free access for Packt account holders
Preface
What this book covers
What you need for this book
Who this book is for
Conventions
Reader feedback
Customer support
Downloading the example code
Errata
Piracy
Questions
1. An Introduction to Reactive Programming
What is reactive programming?
Why should we be reactive?
Introducing RxJava
Downloading and setting up RxJava
Comparing the iterator pattern and the RxJava Observable
Implementing the reactive sum
Summary
2. Using the Functional Constructions of Java 8
Lambdas in Java 8
Introducing the new syntax and semantics
Functional interfaces in Java 8 and RxJava
Implementing the reactive sum example with lambdas
Pure functions and higher order functions
 Pure functions
Higher order functions
RxJava and functional programming
Summary
3. Creating and Connecting Observables, Observers, and Subjects
The Observable.from method
The Observable.just method
Other Observable factory methods
The Observable.create method
Subscribing and unsubscribing
Hot and cold Observable instances
The ConnectableObservable class
The Subject instances
Summary
4. Transforming, Filtering, and Accumulating Your Data
Observable transformations
Transformations with the various flatMap operators
Grouping items
Additional useful transformation operators
Filtering data
Accumulating data
Summary
5. Combinators, Conditionals, and Error Handling
Combining the Observable instances
The zip operator
The combineLatest operator
The merge operator
The concat operator
The conditional operators
The amb operator
The takeUntil(), takeWhile(), skipUntil(), and skipWhile()
conditional operators
The defaultIfEmpty( ) operator
Handling errors
The return and resume operators
The retrying technique
An HTTP client example
 Summary
6. Using Concurrency and Parallelism with Schedulers
RxJava's schedulers
Debugging Observables and their schedulers
The interval Observable and its default scheduler
Types of schedulers
The Schedulers.immediate scheduler
The Schedulers.trampoline scheduler
The Schedulers.newThread scheduler
The Schedulers.computation scheduler
The Schedulers.io scheduler
The Schedulers.from(Executor) method
Combining Observables and schedulers
The Observable<T> subscribeOn(Scheduler) method
The Observable<T> observeOn(Scheduler) operator
Parallelism
Buffering, throttling, and debouncing
Throttling
Debouncing
The buffer and window operators
The backpressure operators
Summary
7. Testing Your RxJava Application
Testing using simple subscription
The BlockingObservable class
The aggregate operators and the BlockingObservable class
Testing with the aggregate operators and the BlockingObservable
class
Using the TestSubscriber class for in-depth testing
Testing asynchronous Observable instances with the help of the
TestScheduler class
Summary
8. Resource Management and Extending RxJava
Resource management
Introducing the Observable.using method
Caching data with Observable.cache
Creating custom operators with lift
 Composing multiple operators with the Observable.compose
operator
Summary
Index
Learning Reactive
Programming with Java 8
Learning Reactive
Programming with Java 8
Copyright © 2015 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the
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Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure
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First published: June 2015

Production reference: 1170615

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place

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ISBN 978-1-78528-872-2
www.packtpub.com
Credits
Author

Nickolay Tsvetinov

Reviewers

Samuel Gruetter

Dávid Karnok

Timo Tuominen

Shixiong Zhu

Commissioning Editor

Veena Pagare

Acquisition Editor

Larrisa Pinto

Content Development Editor

Adrian Raposo

Technical Editor

Abhishek R. Kotian

Copy Editors

Brandt D'mello

Neha Vyas
Project Coordinator

Sanchita Mandal

Proofreader

Safis Editing

Indexer

Mariammal Chettiyar

Production Coordinator

Conidon Miranda

Cover Work

Conidon Miranda
About the Author
Nickolay Tsvetinov is a professional all-round web developer at
TransportAPI—Britain's first comprehensive open platform for
transport solutions. During his career as a software developer, he
experienced both good and bad and played with most of the popular
programming languages—from C and Java to Ruby and JavaScript.
For the last 3-4 years, he's been creating and maintaining single-
page applications (SPA) and the backend API architectures that
serve them. He is a fan of open source software, Rails, Vim, Sinatra,
Ember.js, Node.js, and Nintendo. He was an unsuccessful musician
and poet, but he is a successful husband and father. His area of
interest and expertise includes the declarative/functional and
reactive programming that resulted in the creation of ProAct.js
(http://proactjs.com), which is a library that augments the JavaScript
language and turns it into a reactive language.

First of all, I want to thank my wife, Tanya. I wrote this book

because she told me that I was capable of doing this. She was
with me all these months; I worked late at night and on
weekends, but she didn't mind that. She also helped me with the
content of this book. Thank you, Tanya; I love you and I dedicate
this book to you. I want to thank my baby girl, Dalia. She is the
one who makes me learn and do new things. One day, I want her
to be proud of me—she is my sun. I want to thank my colleagues
from TransportAPI, especially Dave, who helped me with my
English, and Jonathan and Martin, who gave me the courage to
finish the book.

I want to thank Astea Solutions, as they gave me space to write,

as well as my parents, Georgi and Dimana, who did the same for
me on weekends. Finally, I want to thank all my friends who
supported me—Simeon, Rosen, Deyan, Pavel, my sister, Marina,
and many more.
Thank you!
About the Reviewers
Samuel Gruetter holds a BSc degree in computer science from
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland. As
a student assistant and member of the Scala team at EPFL, he
developed RxScala, which is a Scala adaptor for the RxJava
Reactive Extensions library. In this way, he contributed to RxJava.
He was also a teaching assistant for the Principles of Reactive
Programming massive open online course on Coursera, which is the
first online course on reactive programming.

Dávid Karnok is a research assistant and PhD student at the

Research Laboratory on Engineering and Management Intelligence
of the Institute for Computer Science and Control of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences.

He has been working with Java and related core technologies since
2005 to bring Java's benefits to manufacturing and logistic
companies.

He was the first to port Microsoft's Rx.NET framework to Java back

in 2010; however, the concept was so ahead of its time that his
library didn't catch much attention until Netflix came out with the
independent RxJava port in 2013. He joined the project not much
later and is a core collaborator and has contributed to about 30
percent of the code in the library over the years. With several years
of reactive programming experience and as a core developer of
RxJava, he frequently answers questions about the library on Stack
Overflow, where he reviews pull requests on the RxJava GitHub
project page and posts bug fixes and enhancements on a regular
basis.

Timo Tuominen develops large-scale software projects from

conception to completion for clients, including major telcos and
device manufacturers. As the technical lead, he has created dozens
of products and services both for consumer and business use.
Working with Futurice, he started using RxJava in 2013 and
designed one of the first pure RxJava architectures on Android. His
novel approach was a result of the uncompromising functional
reactive programming principles that he applied to an existing
platform. Several apps and thousands of code commits later, he is
now convinced that RxJava and FRP represent a new and better
way to build software.

I would like to dedicate this book to everyone who has put up

with my RxJava innovations.

Shixiong Zhu is an RxJava committer and also maintains the

RxScala project. He received his master's of science degree in
computer science from Peking University, China. After that, he joined
MicroStrategy and worked on several big data projects. He has also
worked on the infrastructure team at Xiaomi. Currently, he is living in
Beijing and working on the Apache Spark project, which is a fast and
general platform for large-scale data processing.
www.PacktPub.com
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Random documents with unrelated
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sailing toward unknown dangers. He had great difficulty in calming
their terrors, and was in great danger of perishing in the mutiny they
contemplated. He was saved by the opportune appearance of land
on the 11th of October. He had reached the group of islands lying
between North and South America. The one first discovered was
called, by the natives whom he found inhabiting it, Guanahani. He
named it, in remembrance of his peril, San Salvador—St. Savior.
Supposing he had reached the Indies lying to the eastward of Asia,
and not dreaming of a new continent, he called the inhabitants
Indians. Cuba and Hayti, larger islands lying further south, were
soon after discovered, and he hastened to carry back the wonderful
tidings of his discovery to Spain. He reached home seven months
and eleven days after his departure.
4. He and his discoveries immediately became famous. The world
had never been struck with a surprise so great, and all Europe was
in a ferment at the news. He soon returned as Viceroy of the newly
discovered lands, to establish a colony and extend his researches.
Five years later, in 1498, he discovered the main land near the river
Orinoco, in the northern part of South America. He died in 1506,
unaware of the magnitude of his discoveries, still believing he had
only reached India from the west, and treated with much ingratitude
by the government he had so much benefited by his bold genius.
The first published account of the new continent was by a
Florentine, Amerigo Vespucci, who visited the main land in 1499,
claimed the merit of the discovery, and gave it his name, America.
His claim has long been disallowed, and Columbus duly honored as
the real discoverer, though the name was never changed.
5. It is believed that North America was known to the mariners of
the North of Europe as early as the tenth century; and that
settlements, that afterwards perished, were made from Iceland and
Greenland as far south as the shores of New England. This, however,
is only a dim tradition, there being no detailed and authentic history
of these events left on record so far as is yet known.
 6. An English mariner, by descent a Venitian, disputes with
Columbus the first sight of the main continent in 1498. He first
touched the coast of Labrador, and sailed as far south as Florida in
the next year. It was near a hundred years later before a permanent
settlement was made within the territory that is now the United
States, by the English, though the city of St. Augustine was founded
in Florida by the Spaniards in 1565.
In 1607 a settlement was made at Jamestown, on the Potomac
river, in Virginia, and in 1620 the Puritans of England, persecuted
there for their religious views, sought liberty of worship in the new
world, establishing a colony at Plymouth, in the eastern part of New
England. Others followed in succession until many distinct colonies
had been planted on the eastern coast of the United States; all of
which—except Florida, belonging to the Spaniards, on the south, and
Canada, settled by the French, on the north—were under the control
of, and received their laws from, England.

CHAPTER III.
CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF ANGLO AMERICAN COLONIZATION
FROM 1492 TO 1763.
1493—October 12, Christopher Columbus discovered land
belonging the Western Hemisphere—one of the Bahama
Islands. He touches at Cuba and Hayti before his return.
1497—John Cabot, master of an English vessel, and his son
Sebastian, touched at Newfoundland in June, and soon after
explored the coast of Labrador.
1498—Columbus, on his third voyage, discovers the American
Continent, near the mouth of the Orinoco river, in South
America.
—Sebastian Cabot, in a second voyage, first of Europeans,
explores our Atlantic coast as far south as Maryland.
1499—Amerigo Vespucci, or Americus Vespucius, a Florentine
merchant, conducts a vessel to the coast of South America.
Returning to Europe he publishes a book, claiming to have first
discovered the continent, and it receives his name, America.
1500—Columbus is sent to Spain in chains by a Spanish officer
whom the jealousy of Ferdinand, the Spanish King, placed over
him. Treated with injustice and neglect, he died at Valladolid,
Spain, in 1506.
1512—Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard in search of the “Fountain of
Youth,” discovers Florida, near St. Augustine.
1524—John Verrazani, a Florentine, commanding a French
vessel, touches the coast near Wilmington, North Carolina, and
explores it north to Nova Scotia. He wrote a narrative
describing the country and the Indians.
1535—James Cartier, a French navigator, discovers the St.
Lawrence.
1541—He builds a Fort at Quebec, but soon abandons it.
—De Soto, a Spaniard, discovers the Mississippi. He traveled,
with six hundred men, through Georgia and Alabama, and
fought a bloody battle with the Indians near Mobile. These
Indians had a walled town of several thousand inhabitants.
Thence he traveled west to the Mississippi and Red Rivers. He
died at the mouth of the Red river, May 21, 1542.
1553—Persecution of the English Puritans commences.
1562—French Huguenots attempt a settlement in Florida. They
gave the name Carolina to the coast on the north. The first
colony is discouraged, and returns. In the year 1564 another
Huguenot colony is founded on the River May.
1565—Melendez, a Spaniard, founds St. Augustine, September
8th, with five hundred colonists. It was the first permanent
settlement in the United States.
—Melendez destroys the French colony.
1567—The Chevalier Gouges (French) attacks St. Augustine,
and puts to death two hundred Spaniards in retaliation.
1578—The first English settlement contemplated. Queen
Elizabeth grants a patent to Sir Humphrey Gilbert “to such
remote, heathen, and barbarous lands as he should find in
North America.” He makes two attempts to plant a colony—in
1579 and in 1583—fails in each, and perishes with his vessel,
September 23, 1583.
1584—Sir Walter Raleigh receives a similar patent, and sends
two vessels to the shores of Pamlico Sound. Queen Elizabeth
names the country Virginia.
1585—Raleigh sends a colony to Roanoke Island, but it is
unfortunate, and returns home.
1587—He sends another colony, but the Spanish Armada
threatening England, he could not send it supplies for some
time, and when visited, later, no trace of it could be found.
Discouraged, he gives up his patent to a London company of
merchants, who content themselves to trade with the Indians.
1602—Bartholomew Gosnold visits New England.
1603—Henry IV., King of France, grants Acadia (Nova Scotia)
to Sieur de Monts, who founds a colony on the Bay of Fundy,
at Port Royal in 1605.
1606—James I., King of England, establishes the London and
Plymouth companies for settling North America.
1607—The Plymouth company land a colony at the mouth of
the Kennebec river. It is unfortunate, and returns to England.
—The London company send out an expedition, which,
accidentally discovering Chesapeake Bay, enter, and found a
colony on James River, at Jamestown. The romantic Captain
John Smith was one of the colonists. This was the first
permanent English settlement in North America.
1608—Smith seeking, by orders from the London company, a
passage to the Pacific ocean, up the Chickahominy, is taken
prisoner by the Indians, condemned to death, and saved by
Pocahontas.
—Quebec founded by the French under Champlain.
—The English Puritans, persecuted in England, take refuge in
Holland.
1609—Lord Delaware is appointed Governor of Virginia, which
receives a new charter, and a considerable accession of
numbers.
—Part of the expedition, however, was shipwrecked, and the
colony, embracing a large unruly and indolent element, is near
perishing. Pocahontas repeatedly saves them from the Indians.
Hudson river and Lake Champlain discovered.
1610—Lord Delaware, having been delayed, arrives (after the
discouraged colonists had embarked to return to England) with
supplies, and saves the settlement.
1613—Pocahontas marries John Rolfe, an Englishman.
—The Dutch erect a fort at New York.
1615—They build Fort Orange, near Albany.
1619—The first General Assembly elected by the people is
called in Virginia, by Governor Yeardley. Eleven boroughs, or
towns, were each represented by two Burgesses, or citizens. It
was the dawn of civil liberty in Virginia, and a germ of the
future republic.
1620—Convicts are sent to Virginia, and negro slaves
introduced.
—September 6th, the Puritans, discontented in Holland, set sail
in the Mayflower, from Plymouth, England, for America, under
the auspices of the “Plymouth Company.”
—December 21st they land on Plymouth Rock, and, amid great
hardships, found a religious colony.
—James I. grants a charter to the Grand Council of Plymouth
for governing New England.
1621—A district called Mariana granted to John Mason.
—Plymouth colony makes a treaty with Massasoit.
—Cotton first planted in Virginia.
1622—Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason obtain a charter
of Maine and New Hampshire. They plant a colony on the
Piscataqua river.
—An Indian conspiracy nearly proves fatal to the Virginia
colony. March 22d, at noon, an attack is made on all the
settlements, and in an hour nearly a fourth part of the colony
is massacred. The colonists, in a bloody war, thoroughly
chastise the Indians.
1624—Virginia becomes a royal province, but stoutly maintains
its legislative authority.
1625—Death of Robinson, the distinguished Puritan divine, in
Holland.
1629—Massachusetts colony patented, and settlement made at
Salem, by John Endicott.
—Charlestown, Mass., founded.
—The Dutch colonize the west side of Delaware river.
1630—Patent of Carolina made to Sir Robert Heath.
1631—Massachusetts General Court confines the privilege of
voting to church members.
—Clayborne plants a colony on Kent Island.
—The Dutch erect a trading fort at Hartford.
1632—Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore.
1633—Connecticut colony founded.
1636—Roger Williams founds Providence.
1637—Pequod war in Connecticut.
1638—Rhode Island settled by followers of Anne Hutchinson.
—Harvard college founded.
—Swedes and Finns settle Delaware.
—Colony of New Haven founded. Persecution in
Massachusetts.
1640—Montreal, Canada, founded.
1641—New Hampshire united to Massachusetts.
1643—The germ of the American Union is planted by a
confederation of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and
New Haven. It was for mutual protection and support, and was
kept alive about forty years.
1645—Clayborne causes an insurrection in Maryland.
—The Mohawks mediate between the Dutch and Algonquins.
—Witchcraft superstition commences.
1646—John Elliott becomes a missionary to the Indians.
1649—The Mohawk war on the French settlements and Jesuits.
1650—Common School laws passed in Connecticut.
1651—English “Navigation Act” forbids colonists to trade with
any country but England, and restricts trade among the
colonies. Thus the English make all the profits. English
merchants set the price of purchases and sales.
1651—Persecution of the Quakers in Massachusetts.
—Proprietary government subverted in Maryland.
1657—Elliott translates the Bible into the Indian language.
1662—Winthrop obtains a liberal charter for Hartford and New
Haven.
1663—Carolina granted to a company of Noblemen.
1664—The Dutch conquer the Swedes on the Delaware.
New York granted to the Duke of York, who sends a force to
dispossess the Dutch. It is done without fighting.
New Jersey granted to Berkely and Carteret.
1665—Lake Superior discovered by Father Allouez.
1668—St. Mary’s, between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, the
first French settlement within the boundaries of the United
States, founded.
1670—Mr. Locke’s philosophical constitution introduced in
Carolina. It soon proved an absurd failure.
1673—The Upper Mississippi discovered by Marquette.
1675—King Philip’s war in New England. He was a warrior of
great ability and activity. Fourteen towns were destroyed by
the Indians, and six hundred inhabitants killed. Philip is killed
August 12, 1676, and the Indian tribes very nearly destroyed.
1676—Three of the Regicides (Judges of Charles I., King of
England) came to New England.
—New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey, at the
suggestion of Wm. Penn.
Bacon’s rebellion in favor of popular rights, in Virginia.
1677—Virginia obtains a new charter.
Massachusetts purchases Maine.
1678—Sir Edmund Andross, royal governor of New York,
usurps the government of the Jerseys.
1679—New Hampshire becomes a royal province, but the
people make a successful stand for their legislative privileges.
—Massachusetts having disregarded the Navigation Act,
Edward Randolph was sent as Inspector of Customs. He failed
to enforce the act, and in 1682 the charter of Massachusetts
was annulled.
1680—Charleston, South Carolina, founded.
1681—Wm. Penn receives a grant of Pennsylvania from Charles
II.
—Penn restores the proprietary government in the Jerseys.
—He founds Philadelphia; makes a treaty with the Indians; and
governs East Jersey.
1682—La Salle visits and names Louisiana.
1686—Sir Edmund Andross being made Governor-General over
New England, proceeds in a very tyrannical manner. He
endeavored to get possession of the charter of Connecticut,
but failed, though he took possession of the government.
1688—New York and New Jersey came under the jurisdiction
of Andross; but James II., the tyrannical King of England,
being deposed, Massachusetts imprisoned Andross. Rhode
Island and Connecticut resumed their charter governments;
but Massachusetts, having given offense by resistance to the
Navigation Act, never recovered her original charter.
—France having espoused the cause of the dethroned king, a
war broke out between France and England, known as “King
William’s” war.
1689—The government of New York is seized by Jacob Leisler
for King William.
1690—May 1st, a Congress of colonial delegates meets at New
York to concert measures for the common defense.
February 18th, destruction of Schenectady, N. Y., and massacre
of the inhabitants by the Indians, sent by the French, from
Canada.
—March 18th, Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, on the Piscataqua
river, is destroyed by the French and Indians. Casco, Maine, is
also destroyed.
—Sir William Phipps, Governor of Massachusetts, invades
Canada, unsuccessfully.
—French Protestants settle in Virginia and Carolina.
1691—Slaughter becomes Governor of New York. He executes
Leisler.
1692—Massachusetts receives a new charter. Her limits are
enlarged, but her privileges restricted.
—Texas settled by the Spaniards, at Bexar.
1695—Rice brought to Carolina, from Africa.
1697—The Peace of Ryswick terminates King William’s war.
1698—Piracies of Captain Kidd. He was tried and executed in
England, in 1701.
1699—Pensacola is settled by the Spaniards.
1701—William Penn grants a new charter to Pennsylvania.
1702—The Jerseys united and joined to New York.
“Queen Anne’s war” breaks out. New England suffered much
from the ravages of the Indians.
—Governor Moore, of South Carolina, attacks St. Augustine,
but without success.
—Mobile founded by d’Iberville, with a colony of Canadian
French.
—The Massachusetts Assembly contend with the royal
governor for their former liberties. Their charter is still further
restricted.
1703—Delaware (called The Territories) is separated from
Pennsylvania.
1706—The French and Spaniards invade Carolina. They are
repulsed with loss.
1707—Detroit, Michigan, settled by the French.
1710—Many thousand Germans, from the Palatinate, settle in
the colonies, from New York to the Carolinas.
1712—A war with the Tuscaroras, in North Carolina, results in
their complete defeat. They unite with the Iroquois.
1713—Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, and Niagara, are
fortified by the French.
The Peace of Utrecht closes Queen Anne’s war.
1715—In a war with the Yamassees, South Carolina loses four
hundred inhabitants, but expels the Indians.
1716—Natchez founded by the French.
1717—Father Rasles, a Jesuit Missionary at Norridgwock,
Maine, excites the Indians to drive out the English from Maine.
He is the last of the Jesuit missionaries, and is slain in the
capture of Norridgwock, in August, 1724, by New England
troops.
1718—New Orleans founded by the French.
1720—A royal government supersedes the proprietary, in
Carolina.
1723—First settlement made in Vermont.
1729—North and South Carolina erected into separate
governments.
1732—A company in England prepare to settle Georgia.
1733—General Oglethorpe, with a colony, arrives in Georgia.
1736—Many Scotch Highlanders and Germans settle in
Georgia.
1738—Insurrection of the slaves in South Carolina.
1740—General Oglethorpe invades Florida. He is repulsed. The
Moravians settle in Pennsylvania.
1742—The Spanish invade Georgia, but retire with loss.
1744—“The Old French War” begins.
1745—The New England colonies raise a force and capture
Louisburg, the “Gibraltar of America,” from the French.
1748—The treaty of peace of Aix la Chapelle, restores
Louisburg to France, to the great disgust of the colonies.
1750—The French and English both claim the Mississippi and
Ohio valleys. Lawrence Washington, and others form the Ohio
Company. Parliament grants it six hundred thousand acres of
land on, or near, the Ohio river. The French dispute the
possession, and threaten summary ejectment.
1753—George Washington is sent by Governor Dinwiddie, of
Virginia, as an envoy to the French and Indians in Ohio.
1754—The French build Fort Du Quesne (now Pittsburgh).
Washington defeats a French party headed by De Jumonville.
The French are reinforced by fifteen hundred men, and
Washington with four hundred men, after defending himself
one day, capitulates.
—The British government, in expectation of a speedy war with
France, recommend the colonies to form a Union for defense.
Delegates from seven colonies meet at Albany, June 14, 1754.
A plan of Union was drawn up by Benjamin Franklin.
Connecticut rejected it as giving too much power to the English
government. Parliament rejected it as giving too much to the
colonies.
1755—Braddock’s defeat in Pennsylvania.
—War with the Cherokees, in Tennessee.
—The French, under Dieskau, are defeated at Lake George.
1756—War was formally declared, two years after it actually
begun.
1757—Fort William Henry, being attacked by an overwhelming
force of French and Indians, surrenders, and the garrison are
massacred by the Indians.
1758—July 6, Louisburg captured by the English under General
Amherst.
—General Abercrombie is repulsed in an attack on Fort
Ticonderoga, and Lord Howe, much liked in the colonies, is
killed.
—August 27, Fort Frontenac, now Kingston, Canada, taken by
Col. Bradstreet.
—November 25, Fort Du Quesne taken by the English, under
General Forbes.
1759—General Wolfe, commander of the English, and General
Montcalm, of the French army, meet in battle on the Heights of
Abraham, near Quebec. Wolfe’s army conquered, but both
commanders lost their lives. Quebec capitulated.
George III. ascends the throne of England.
1760—September 8th, Canada surrendered to the English.
Massachusetts vigorously opposes “Writs of Assistance”
(search warrants for goods that had not paid the duty).
1761—The Cherokees reduced to peace by Colonel Grant.
In October, Mr. Pitt, the English Prime Minister, always a friend
of the colonies, resigns.

CHAPTER IV.
CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES,
FROM 1763 TO JULY 4, 1776.

In February, 1763, The Peace of Paris, concluded between the

governments of England and France, closed the war in America that
had been so painful to the colonies from the part which the French
persuaded the Indians to take in it. But, while the colonies bore a
large part of the burden, (they had raised $16,000,000 of its
expenses, and had lost, in battle or in hospital, 30,000 men,) of a
war that drove the French out of all their possessions in Canada and
east of the Mississippi river; they were, at the same time, trained to
act in concert, which paved the way for a future confederation, and
hardened them to war. Being called into battle under celebrated
English commanders, and to fight side by side with European
veterans, they had opportunity to learn the art of war, as well as to
compare themselves with the soldiers of the mother country and of
France. This comparison was favorable to them, and inspired them
with confidence in their own ability.
The fatal blunders of Gen. Braddock, and the skill and bravery of
Washington and his provincial troops which, alone, saved the British
army from entire annihilation in the Pennsylvania wilderness, was
never forgotten. They felt themselves, even as raw militia, equal to
the best European soldiers, when on their own ground.
It was a great mistake of the Home Government to put on an
arrogant tone with them just when they had learned their strength.
In the year 1764 that government, plunged in debt by its long wars
with the continental powers, (it amounted to $700,000,000,) and on
the plea that the colonies who had been protected, should bear a
fair share of the pecuniary burden, determined to impose taxes on
them. Previously they had restricted their commerce to English
ports, had laid duties on various imports, and assumed authority to
change the governments of the colonies without their consent. This
had produced much dissatisfaction, but had no further immediate
effect than to lead them to remonstrance, evasion, or legal
resistance. The proposal to lay internal taxes was quite another
affair. Submission to this they thought would be fatal to their
liberties. They resisted with general moderation, respectfully, but
with determined resolution.
The British ministry were provoked by this resistance, holding it to
be rebellion; and determined to put it down, by force, if need be.
The struggle continued for ten years with growing obstinacy on
either side. The home government was exceedingly obtuse or it
would have either proceeded to extremes at once or yielded the
whole case, as it finally determined to do in 1776, when it was too
late. In this period of lively discussion, and of organization to secure
the strength of union in resistance, the separate colonies were
gradually moulded into a nation, imbued with common sympathies
and ideas, and moved by common interests. They had not thought
of independence during all this preliminary struggle. The war had
lasted a year before that idea became prominent. That was not,
even then, regarded as an end, so much as an indispensable means
to secure their liberties. Thus we see that no taint of conspiracy
attached to the revolutionary struggle. The colonies were thoroughly
loyal, until loyalty came to mean loss of liberty, and the rights
enjoyed by Englishmen in England. The exercise of arbitrary power
they felt it right to resist; but they exhausted all other modes and
means of resistance before they resorted to arms.
They did not even make a first attack. They waited till armies were
sent to subjugate them, and until those armies commenced the
attack; then the whole country rose in the stern resolve to right their
wrongs.

1763.

The Peace of Paris was signed in February of this year. July 7th
began “Pontiac’s War,” with the simultaneous attack on all the
forts in the peninsula of Michigan, and the whole frontier of
Pennsylvania and Virginia. Pontiac was an Ottawa chief, of
great ability, and had drawn many Indian tribes into the war. It
was virtually ended in September of the same year.

1764.

April 5.—“The Sugar Act” was passed in the English Parliament.

This levied duties on coffee, pimento, French and East India
goods, and forbade iron and lumber to be exported except to
England. It was for the avowed purpose of raising a revenue,
and raised instead a storm of indignation. The Massachusetts
House of Representatives said: “If we are taxed and not
represented, we are slaves.”

1765.

Feb. 27—Was passed the obnoxious Stamp Act. Also the

military law was made to authorize the ministry to send any
number of troops to the colonies, for whom the colonists were
to find “quarters, fire-wood, bedding, drink, soap, and
candles.”
May 29—Patrick Henry introduced five “Resolutions” into the
Virginia House of Burgesses, claiming for Virginians the rights
of British subjects; that only their own representatives could
lawfully tax them; declaring the attempt to vest that power in
any other hands subversive of both British and American
liberty.
Sept. 1—The Pennsylvania Assembly passed similar resolutions.
Oct. 7—A congress of delegates, or committees, from nine
colonies, met in New York. It was the first Continental
Congress. Its spirit harmonized with that of Massachusetts,
Virginia, and Pennsylvania, and its “Declaration of Rights and
Grievances” was cordially approved by all the colonial
assemblies.

1766.

Mar. 29—The Stamp Act could not be enforced in America, and

it was repealed by Parliament; but the repeal was followed by
another act asserting the power and right of Parliament “to
bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.” Thus yielding the
thing and asserting the principle, they both strengthened the
colonies by a sense of their power, and exasperated them by a
total denial of their Declaration of Rights.
May—Yet their triumph filled the colonies with joy, and
gratitude toward the King and their English friends. Virginia
voted the King a statue.

1767.

June—But their exultation was short-lived. In this year taxes

were levied on tea, paints, paper, glass, and lead. This led to
the determination, on the part of the colonies, to pay no more
taxes or duties at all.
Oct. 28—The Governor of Massachusetts having refused to call
the General Court (or legislative body of the colony) together, a
public meeting was held and resolutions passed to encourage
“economy, industry, and manufactures,” and a committee
appointed to get subscribers to an agreement to discontinue
the importation of British goods not absolute necessaries. This
was imitated in other colonies.

1768.

Feb. 11—Massachusetts General Court issues a general circular

to other colonial assemblies, inviting coöperation for the
defense of colonial rights. Those bodies mostly gave cordial
replies. This General Court having July—been dissolved, the
new one being called on to rescind this circular, refused by a
vote of ninety-two to seventeen. These seventeen became the
butt of public scorn.
Sept. 12—Four regiments of British troops ordered to Boston.
” 22—The governor had been desired, by a Boston “town
meeting,” to call a General Court. He refused, and the
“meeting” issued a call for delegates from the towns to a
colonial convention. More than a hundred towns were
represented in the convention meeting this day. Their main
effort was to vindicate the ” 28—colony from the charge of a
rebellious spirit. The day after this meeting adjourned two
regiments of British troops arrived in Boston.

1769.

Jan’y—Parliament severely censures all the colonial acts, and

directs that persons arrested in the colonies for treason be
sent to England, to be tried.
May—The Virginia Assembly take strong ground against this,
and agree with the Massachusetts Convention.
” 31—The Massachusetts General Court assembles, but refuses
to transact business in the midst of an armed force. After long
contest with them the Governor adjourned them to Cambridge.
June 13—Required to support the troops, they respectfully and
temperately, but firmly, refuse, and decline to vote any
supplies for government till their grievances are redressed.
July 15—All the colonies manifest the same spirit.

1770.

Mar. 5—The indignation of Boston at the presence of troops

breaks out into an affray. The troops fire on the citizens. Three
are killed and five wounded. It was called the “Boston
Massacre.”
April—British Parliament repeals the last tax on all articles but
tea. The non-importation agreements had exerted a great
influence in promoting economy, encouraging manufactures,
and bringing “home-made” into fashion. The graduating class
in Harvard College took their degrees in “home-spun” this year.

1771.

Throughout this year the same disputes were maintained

between the governors and colonial legislatures as formerly;
but as the home government did not push the struggle to an
issue, there was comparative quiet, but no yielding.

1772.

June 10—The Gaspe, a British revenue schooner, burned by a

party from Providence, Rhode Island. Parliament offers six
hundred pounds sterling and a pardon to any accomplice who
will confess and give up the offenders. They were well known
by colonists, but no legal evidence could ever be obtained.
Oct. 28—A committee appointed in Boston to state the rights
of the colonists and correspond with other sections on this
subject. They publish an address, which is extensively
circulated. Franklin, agent for the colonies in England,
republishes it there.

1773.

March—This address led to the first measures for a political

union of the colonies.
July—The British ministry attempt to import tea into the
colonies.
Oct. 2—The people of Philadelphia declare that any one who
shall “aid or abet in unloading, receiving, or vending the tea is
an enemy to his country.”
Nov. 3—The Boston consignees required by the people to
resign. They refuse.
” 5-19—A legal town meeting takes them in hand, and at
length they resign.
Dec’r—Three ships loaded with tea having arrived, the people
labor for near a month to have them sent back. Not
succeeding, the cargoes are all emptied into the sea.

1774.

Mar. 25—Parliament retaliated by the “Boston Port Bill,” closing

it to commerce.
May 13-20—Meetings held in the principal cities to consider the
state of affairs, recommended the assembly of a Continental
Congress. This body was appointed in all the provinces but
Georgia. There were fifty-three delegates.
Sept. 4—These assemble at Philadelphia, and Peyton
Randolph, of Virginia, is chosen President. They publish a
“Declaration of Colonial Rights.” They agree on fourteen
articles as the basis of an “American Association” to support
these rights. This body was henceforth the real government,
all their directions being obeyed by the people. They
completed the organization of the Union and took preliminary
measures for defense in case of attack.

1775.

Feb. 1—Lord Chatham introduced a bill in Parliament which

might have accommodated all differences, but it was treated
with great discourtesy. Parliament determines to humble and
subdue the colonies.
April 19—Battle of Lexington. General Gage sends eight
hundred British troops to destroy some colonial military stores
at Concord, twenty miles from Boston. The “minute men”
assembled at Lexington, are fired on and dispersed. The troops
march to Concord, destroy the stores, and hastily retreat
before the gathering minute men, who assail them on all sides.
They would have been completely destroyed but for a timely
reinforcement at Lexington of nine hundred men and two
cannon. The loss of British killed and wounded was nearly
three hundred; of the provincials eighty-five. Boston is
immediately beleagured by some twenty thousand minute
men.
” 22—Massachusetts Legislature assembles. It sends
depositions, proving that the soldiers fired first, to England,
with an address to the English people, declaring that they will
“die or be free.” This body voted a levy of thirteen thousand
men for the protection of the colony.
May 10—The second Continental Congress assembled at
Philadelphia.
Colonels Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold surprise the fortress
of Ticonderoga, on Lake George, New York. Its small force of
three officers and forty-four privates cannot defend it, and they
surrender without fighting. Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, is
occupied without resistance.
Peyton Randolph again chosen President of Congress.
” 24—Peyton Randolph being called home, John Hancock, of
Massachusetts, is chosen President of Congress.
” 25—Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, with large British
reinforcements, arrived at Boston.
June 15—George Washington unanimously chosen
commander-in-chief of the Continental forces.
” 17—The battle of Bunker Hill (or Breed’s Hill), near Boston.
The British were twice repulsed, with great loss, when the
ammunition of the Americans failing, they retreated in safety.
British loss over one thousand; American, four hundred and
fifty. British forces engaged, three thousand; American, less
than fifteen hundred. The British commander burned
Charlestown during the battle. General Warren, American, was
killed.
” 23—Congress issue bills of credit for $2,000,000.
” 30—Articles of War are agreed to in Congress.
July 8—A last petition to the King is sent by Richard Penn,
grandson of William Penn.
” 17—Another million dollars in bills of credit is issued. The
liability for these was distributed among the Colonies.
” 26—Benjamin Franklin appointed first Postmaster General.
Aug. 30—General Schuyler embarks on Lake Champlain, for an
expedition against Canada. He leaves the command with
General Montgomery. Early in September General Arnold starts
with eleven hundred men to Canada by Maine.
Sept. 24—Ethan Allen is taken prisoner, near Montreal.
Oct. 18—Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) burned by the
British.
” 22—Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, died. He was the first
President of Congress.
Nov. 3—Montgomery captures St. Johns, Canada.
” 13—Montreal surrendered to the Americans under
Montgomery.
” 20—$3,000,000 more in bills of credit issued by Congress,
payable in eight years.
Dec. 7—Lord Dunmore, British Governor of Virginia, defeated
near Norfolk, Virginia.
” 13—A navy of thirteen vessels created by Congress. Letters
of marque and reprisal granted.
” 21—The British Parliament pass a bill declaring all American
vessels and goods, and those of all persons trading with them,
a lawful prize, and authorizing the impressment of American
sailors into the royal navy, where they might be required to
fight against their own cause and friends.
” 31—General Montgomery and Colonel Arnold make an
unsuccessful attack on Quebec. Montgomery is killed, Arnold
wounded, and four hundred men killed, wounded, or taken
prisoners. Arnold withdrew, but kept Quebec blockaded
through the winter.

1776.

Jan. 1—Lord Dunmore, Royal Governor of Virginia, ravages the

coast and burns Norfolk, but is obliged to fly to Bermuda.
” 20—Georgia prepares to join the other twelve colonies.
Feb. 4—McIntosh, with an American force, destroys several
vessels loading for England, near Savannah, Georgia.
” 17—Four millions more of paper money issued by Congress.
March 4—Washington fortifies Dorchester Heights, overlooking
Boston, which renders it untenable by the British.
” 10—The inhabitants and merchants of Boston plundered of
their lighter property by the British army.
” 17—The British embark for Halifax, and Washington occupies
the town.
” 18—Sir Archibald Campbell sails into Boston, and his whole
force of seventeen hundred men are taken prisoners.
” 23—Congress declares all British vessels a lawful prize.
April 26—Washington removes his army to New York.
May 3—Sir Peter Parker, with ten ships of war and seven
regiments, joins the force from Boston under General Clinton,
at Cape Fear.
” 15—Congress declared that all authority under the British
crown ought to be totally suppressed and government
conducted by colonial representatives alone. This was only an
expression of their sense of the danger to their interests and
liberties of allowing British agents to act.
June 7—Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, moved the Declaration
of Independence.
” 8—American army in Canada, under General Sullivan, make
an unsuccessful attack on the enemy. They are pressed by
superior numbers, and retreat in good order, though with a
loss of one thousand men prisoners, out of Canada, losing all
their conquests.
” 11—Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson, John Adams,
Benjamin Franklin, and Robert R. Livingston a committee to
prepare the Declaration of Independence.
” 28—British fleet attack Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan’s Island,
near Charleston, South Carolina, but were defeated with loss
of two hundred men, one vessel, and death of Lord Campbell,
the ex-royal Governor.
July 4—Declaration of Independence by the Congress at
Philadelphia.

CHAPTER V.
FORMATION OF THE ORIGINAL UNION.

“The Boston Tea Party” provoked the English Parliament into

passing “The Boston Port Bill,” closing that city to commerce. This
act led to immediate measures for assembling delegates,
representing twelve colonies in North America (Georgia, only, was
not represented), for the purpose of consultation on the measures
required for the protection of colonial rights. This body, called “The
Continental Congress,” assembled in Philadelphia, September 5,
1774. It drew up a “Declaration of Colonial Rights;” and, for the
purpose of enforcing them, agreed to accept as a basis of common
action fourteen articles, known as “The American Association.”
This was the origin of the American Union. Though it did not
assume organic political power, and its ordinances were only
advisory in form, it was better obeyed than most governments.
Arrangements were made for another Congress in May following. Its
day of meeting was hastened by the battle of Lexington, and it
immediately proceeded to assume the powers of a General
Government, at the request of some of the provincial Legislatures,
and with the tacit consent of all. It received its authority from its
representative character; from the imperious necessity of a head to
organize and direct; and from the voluntary obedience rendered to
its mandates. It performed all the functions of a government until all
prospect of reconciliation with Great Britain was lost, when, June 11,
1776, a committee was appointed to prepare “A Declaration of
Independence.” This was adopted and signed July 4, 1776.
On the 12th of July, a committee of one from each State reported
on the terms of confederation, and the powers of Congress; but
differences of opinion, and the pressure of military affairs prevented
action on it. On the 9th of September, 1776, the name “United
Colonies of America” was discarded for that of “United States of
America.” Georgia had appointed delegates on the 4th of July, so
that there were “Thirteen United States.”
On Saturday, November 15, 1777, “Articles of Confederation and
Perpetual Union of the United States of America” were agreed to in
Congress, and sent to the States for approval. Eight of the State
Legislatures had ratified these articles on the 9th of July, 1778; one
ratified July 21st; one July 24th; one November 26th, of this year;
one February 22d, 1779; and the last, March 1, 1781.
This document was little more than a digest of the powers before
assumed by Congress, and tacitly acknowledged by the States from
the commencement of the war. This, now legal, bond had existed
before as a free, though unspoken, submission to the dictates of
prudence and patriotism.

CHAPTER VI.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

This immortal state paper—“the general effusion of the soul of the

country” at the imperiled state of liberty, and of the rights of
Englishmen—was given to the world on the 4th of July, 1776. The
war of the Revolution had been raging more than a year, and many
of the leading minds of the country had been actuated by the hope
that their wrongs would be redressed, and the mother country and
her colonies reconciled. The course of events had convinced them,
however, that there would be no redress, and that no reconciliation
was possible other than that based on a slavish surrender of rights
and privileges dear to free men.
And hence a more decided course was approved by the people,
and finally adopted by their delegates in Congress, on the 2d day of
July, 1776. This resolution changed the old thirteen British colonies
into free and independent States. And now it remained to set forth
the reason for this act, together with the principles that should
govern this new people. By this declaration the new Republic, as it
took its place among the powers of the world, proclaimed its faith in
the truth, reality, and unchangeableness of freedom and virtue. And
the astonished nations, as they read that all men are created equal,
started out of their lethargy, like those who have been exiled from
childhood when they suddenly hear the dimly remembered accents
of their mother tongue.

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

When, in the course of human events, it becomes
necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands
which have connected them with another, and to
assume among the powers of the earth, the separate
and equal station to which the laws of nature and of
nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the
opinions of mankind requires that they should declare
the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men
are created equal; that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among
these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
That to secure these rights, governments are instituted
among men, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of
government becomes destructive of these ends, it is
the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to
institute a new government, laying its foundation on
such principles, and organizing its powers in such
form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their
safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate
that governments long established should not be
changed for light and transient causes; and,
accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind
are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable,
than to right them by abolishing the forms to which
they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses
and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object,
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute
despotism, it is their right, it is their duty to throw off
such government, and to provide new guards for their
future security. Such has been the patient sufferance
of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which
constrains them to alter their former systems of
government. The history of the present King of Great
Britain is a history of repeated injuries and
usurpations, all having in direct object the
establishment of an absolute tyranny over these
States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid
world:
He has refused his assent to laws the most
wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of
immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended
in their operation till his assent should be obtained;
and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to
attend to them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the
accommodation of large districts of people, unless
those people would relinquish the right of
representation in the legislature; a right inestimable to
them, and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places
unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the
depository of their public records, for the sole purpose
of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly
for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the
rights of the people.
He has refused, for a long time after such
dissolution, to cause others to be elected; whereby the
legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have
returned to the people at large for their exercise; the
State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the
danger of invasion from without, and convulsions
within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of
these States; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for
naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to
encourage their migration hither, and raising the
conditions of new appropriations of lands.
He has obstructed the administration of justice, by
refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary
powers.
He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for
the tenure of their offices, and the amount and
payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent
hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat
out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing
armies, without the consent of our legislature.
 He has affected to render the military independent
of, and superior to, the civil power.
He has combined with others, to subject us to a
jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and
unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their
acts of pretended legislation.
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among
us:
For protecting them, by a mock trial, from
punishment for any murders which they should commit
on the inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing taxes on us without our consent:
For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of
trial by jury:
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for
pretended offenses:
For abolishing the free system of English laws in a
neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary
government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to
render it at once an example and fit instrument for
introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies:
For taking away our charters, abolishing our most
valuable laws, and altering fundamentally, the powers
of our government:
For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring
themselves invested with power to legislate for us in
all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, by declaring us
out of his protection, and waging war against us.
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