CEA 413 AR – TIMBER

AND STEEL DESIGN

STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

Prepared by:
Ma.Victoria V. Umali
Instructor
DEFINITION
• WOOD
- the substance that trees are made out of.
- the hard, fibrous structural tissue that is
commonly found in the stems and roots of the trees.
- the material we obtain from trees.
• TIMBER
- the wood that is still attached to the ground.
- the wood with its bark still on. Timber still has to
be cut and processed for it to be sold for
construction purposes.
- in U.S. and Canada,‘timber’ usually refers to felled
trees.
- square or nearly square sawn lumber that is not
less than125 mm wide.
• LUMBER
- can be either rough or finished.
- The rough lumber is the raw material, which can be
processed and then used for a variety of functions.
- finished lumber is the wood that has already been
processed and usually cut into various sizes.
• WOOD
is a hard fibrous substance that forms the bulk of trees and
shrubs beneath the bark. It is a cellular organic material made up
principally of cellulose, which comprises the structural units, and lignin,
which cements the structural units together.

• WOOD CELL
The basic structural element of wood is its cells. They are
approximately rectangular in cross section with unsymmetrical tapered
ends that overlap (in staggered position) with the cells above and below.
Principally, cell walls consist of cellulose and lignin. Strength of wood
comes from the cellulose, which is the load-carrying material. These are
bind together by the lignin, the "glue" that cements and stiffens the
fibers together and fills the spaces between them.
CLASSES OF WOODS
Species of trees are divided into two classes:
•Hardwoods - which have broad leaves; and
•Softwoods or Conifers - which have needle-like or scale-like leaves.
•The terms "hardwood" and "softwood" are often misleading because they do not
directly indicate the hardness or softness of wood. In fact, there are hardwoods,
which are softer' than certain softwoods.
Hardwood comes from Softwood comes from evergreen
deciduous trees like this oak. Its conifers, like this pine, which has
leaves drop off in the fall and new needles that stay on all year and
ones grow in spring. cones.
PARTS OF WOOD Looking at the cross-section of a log, one may
distinguish several distinct zones:

•sapwood - the bark and light-colored zone;

outer layer containing living cells;

•Heartwood - an inner zone, generally of

darker color;
•however, heartwood, is more resistant to
decay fungi than sapwood, although there is a
great range in the durability of heartwood from
various species.

•pith - at the center.

During springtime, growth is rapid and the newly created cells have relatively large
cell openings (cavities) and thin walls.

• Portions of new wood created during this season are known as earlywood (or
springwood).

• New cells created later in the year, when less moisture is available, have smaller
cavities and thicker walls. This portion of the wood is called latewood (or
summerwood).

• Latewood contains more cellulose per unit of cross-sectional area than earlywood;
consequently, latewood 15x stronger than earlywood.
Annual Rings
• In climates where temperature limits the growing
season of a tree, each annual increment of growth
usually is readily distinguishable. Such an increment is
known as an annual growth ring or annual ring, and
consists of an earlywood and latewood bands.
Medullary Rays
• Ribbonlike bundles of cells arrange in a radial direction
in the tree. That is, they are perpendicular to the annual
rings, running from the center (pith) toward the bark.
Medullary rays are prominent in some species but
nearly invisible in others.
Cambium
• this layer produces new wood cells, formed by cell division. As new cells are added
on the inner side of the cambium, the diameter of the tree increases. At the same
time, the cambium adds new cells to the inner bark, just outside of the cambium
layer.
Pores
• a structural difference between hardwoods and softwoods is that hardwoods have
vessels or pores, while softwoods do not. these are structures whose only
function is to carry water. Pores are large-diameter structures having thin wall
made up of individual cells. In many hardwoods , the pores are large enough to be
seen easily by the naked eye.
MOISTURE CONTENT

• A tree develops functionally in the presence of moisture, and throughout its life
the tree remains moist or "green". Moisture Content (MC) is the weight of the
water contained in wood, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the oven-
dry wood. As wood loses moisture, the water in the cell cavity is evaporated first.
• Wood in use gives off or takes on moisture from the surrounding atmosphere
with changes in temperature and relative humidity until it attains a balance
relative to the atmospheric conditions. The moisture content at this point of
balance is known as the Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC).
GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS

• Wood contains certain natural growth characteristics such as knots, slope of

grain, compression wood, and shakes which may, depending on their size,
number, and location in a structural member, adversely affect the strength
properties of that member. Structural grading rules take into account the effects of
these growth characteristics on the strength of wood in establishing working
stress values for stress-graded lumber and glued laminated timber.
THREE PRINCIPAL AXES OF WOOD

• Wood is non-isotropic. It is orthotropic which means that its physical and

mechanical properties differ in the three main mutually perpendicular directions -
longitudinal, radial, and tangential. This is because of the orientation of its
cells and the manner in which it increases in diameter. Strength and elastic
properties corresponding to these axes may be used in design. The difference
between properties in the radial and tangential directions is seldom of importance
in most structural designs; for structural purposes, it is sufficient to differentiate
only between properties parallel and perpendicular to the grain.
WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, WHICH ARE OF
MOST INTEREST IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN:
• Compressive strength parallel to the grain
• Modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain
• Tensile strength parallel to the grain
• Compressive strength perpendicular to the grain
• Modulus of rupture (bending strength)
• Longitudinal shear strength (horizontal shear)
• Shear modulus (modulus of rigidity)
TYPES OF FAILURE UNDER FACTORS AFFECTING THE
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS OF
GRAIN WOOD:
• Species
• Crushing
• Moisture content
• Grooming
• Specific gravity (indicator of cellulose amount)
• Shearing
• Duration of loading
• Splitting
• Size and shape of the wood member
• Wedge split
• Nature, size, and location of defects (strength-
• Combined shearing and splitting reducing characteristics)
STRENGTH-REDUCING DEFECTS IN TIMBER
-are imperfections or irregularities in wood that compromise its structural integrity, making
it less capable of bearing loads and resisting forces. These defects can occur naturally or
result from improper handling, storage, or processing.
• SHAKES – are separations between the annual growth rings, either extending along the grain or
between growth rings. They often originate during the tree's growth or as a result of stress and
drying.
• BOW- characterized by a warp along the length of the wood where it bends in a single plane,
forming a gentle curve. This defect occurs due to uneven drying or internal stresses within the
wood.
• TWIST - occurs when the wood warps in such a way that it rotates around its longitudinal axis.
As a result, one end of the timber may be turned or twisted relative to the other, creating a helical
distortion.
• CHECKS/ SPLITS - are cracks that occur along the wood grain, typically as a result of drying.
Splits are similar but extend through the entire thickness of the timber.
• KNOTHOLES - occur when a knot, which is the base of a branch or limb embedded in the
wood, falls out or is removed, leaving a hole or void in the wood.
• WANE – refers to the presence of bark or the lack of wood along the edge or corner of a
piece of timber. It often occurs when the wood is cut too close to the edge of the log, resulting
in a section where the bark remains, or where the wood is not fully square or rectangular in
cross-section.
• CUP- characterized by a concave or convex curvature across the width of a board, resembling
the shape of a shallow dish or cup.
• CROOK - type of warp in timber where the wood bends along its length in the direction of
its edge, forming a curve or bow along the width of the board. Unlike a bow (which affects the
face), crook affects the edge of the timber.
DRYING or SEASONING of TIMBER
Seasoning is the controlled- drying of timber. This is done to reduce the moisture content to a
level close to the equilibrium MC for the conditions under which the lumber will be used. There
are two. methods of drying timber: the air drying/seasoning and kiln drying/seasoning.

• AIR DRYING/SEASONING - is the

method in which the timber is stacked
and layered with air-space in open sided
sheds to promote natural drying. This
method is relatively inexpensive with
very little loss in the quality of timber if
carried out correctly.
DRYING or SEASONING of
TIMBER
• KILN DRYING/ SEASONING - is the
method in which timber is dried out in a
heated, ventilated, and humidified oven.
This requires special equipment and is
more expensive in terms of energy input.
One advantage of this method is that the
temperatures used are sufficient enough
to kill any decay-causing organisms
present in the wood.
GRADING of LUMBER
GRADING is the process of classifying lumber according to quality for a particular use. Structural designers
are interested in strength and stiffness, so stress grading rules were developed. In stress grading, qualities that
affect various strength properties and stiffness are evaluated. Two methods are:
• VISUAL STRENGTH GRADING
- based on the physical observation of strength-reducing defects. The grader examines each piece to determine
the type, location, and size of various defects that might affect its structural strength. This method is inherently
subjective since the technique is based on the experience and judgement of the grader.
• MACHINE STRENGTH GRADING
- generally carried out by conducting bending tests on planks of timber which are fed continuously through a
grading machine. Each piece is first subject to visual grading, then it passes through the machine which bends
the piece to predetermined curvature and measures the force required to bend (deflect) it. The required force
and deflection are then used to determine the modulus of elasticity. From this value of E, the allowable stress
levels are determined.
CLASSIFICATION OF LUMBER BASED ON ITS USES / APPLICATIONS
• YARD LUMBER - is defined as lumber of all sizes and patterns, intended for general budding
purposes. The grading of yard lumber is based on the intended use of the particular grade and is
applied to each piece with reference to its size and length.
STRIPS - yard lumber less than 50mm (2") thick and less than 200mm (8") wide.
BOARDS - yard lumber less than 50mm (2") thick and 200mm (8") or wider.
TIMBERS - yard lumber 125mm (5") or more in least dimension.
DIMENSION LUMBER - is a surfaced lumber of 50mm (2") through 100mm (4")
nominal thickness designed for use as framing members such as studs, joists, and small timbers.
• FACTORY/ SHOP LUMBER - comprise of factory plank graded for doors, window frames,
moldings, furniture, sash, and other cuttings 25mm (1") to l 00mm (4") thick and 1 25mm (5") or wider,
intended for general millwork and other industrial commodities.
STRUCTURAL LUMBER - a lumber intended for use where working stresses are required, may be
classified as:

BEAMS and STRINGERS (B&S). Lumber of rectangular cross-section with 250mm

(10") or more in width and with depth more than 50mm (2") greater than the
width. These are graded with respect to their strength in bending when loaded on
the narrow face.
 JOISTS and PLANKS (J&P). Lumber of rectangular cross-section with 50mm (2") to
250mm (5") width, and 100mm (4")' or more in depth. These are graded with respect to its strength in
bending when loaded on the narrow face as a joist or on the wide face as a plank.

POSTS and TIMBERS (P&T). Lumber of square or approximately square in cross-section

measuring 250mm (5") x 250mm (5") or more. The depth should not be more 50mm (2") greater than
the width.
FINISHES DESIGNATIONS
• Lumber could have rough or smooth surfaces.
• The finishes designations of lumber are based on the roughness or smoothness of its
surfaces. Most lumber used in building design is surfaced on both faces and on both edges
and is referred to as S4S (surfaced on four sides).
• Other combinations are defined by symbols S for sides and E for edges.
• Examples of these combinations include:
S2S 1E - (surfaced on two sides and one edge)
S2S - (surfaced on two sides only)
S1S2E - (surfaced on one side and two edges)
NOMINAL and ACTUAL SIZES of TIMBER
• NOMINAL SIZE - is the commercial size designation of width and depth, and is usually called ROUGH
LUMBER.
• ACTUAL SIZE - is the net dimension/size of timber that has been dressed or planed smooth, and is
sometimes called DRESSED SIZE. Planning reduces the nominal sizes, the amount of reduction depending
upon the side. For sizes from 50mm (2") to 150mm reduce by 9mm (3/8") to get the actual or dressed
Sizes. For sizes bigger than 150mm (6") reduce by 12mm (1/2”). Dressed timber is adopted when it is
exposed to view & has to be dressed.
• ROUGH LUMBER - lumber that has been sawed but has not had its four longitudinal surfaces finished.
Saw marks show on each surface.
• DRESSED LUMBER - lumber whose surfaces have been finished. Dressed lumber may be S1S, S2S, S1E,
or S4S, according to which faces have been finished (surfaced).
• WORKED LUMBER - lumber that has been dressed and has also been matched or patterned. Matched
lumber has a groove on one longitudinal edge and a corresponding tongue on the other. Pattern lumber
fastens together side by side with something fancier than a plain tongue and groove.
NSCP PROVISIONS/REQUIREMENTS on DIMENSION/ SIZE
REDUCTION:
• The reduction in face dimensions of dressed lumber shall not be more than 6 mm (1/4 inch) of
the nominal size.
• Computations to determine the required sizes of member shall be based on the net dimension
(actual size) and not the nominal (rough) size.

• Example: Identify the actual dimensions of a 150 mm x 200 mm S2S lumber.

• Solution: Width = 150 mm — 9 mm = 141 mm
Depth = 200 mm
• Therefore, the actual dimensions are 141 mm x 200 mm.
ALLOWABLE and ACTUAL STRESSES
• ALLOWABLE STRESS - this stress is variously called as Safe Working Stress. It is the stress
obtained or determined by a series of tests/ experiments.
• ACTUAL STRESS - is the stress induced by the applied loads on the structural member which
has to be computed by the designer.

BOARD FOOT
• Board Foot is the measure of the quantity of wood in a timber of a given length and cross
section. It could be measured in cubic inches or cubic feet. Specifically, it is the amount of wood
present in a piece one foot long and having an end area of 12 square inches. Board Foot is
abbreviated as "fbm" (foot-board measure), and sometimes simply "bf' or "BF". Nominal sizes are
used in determining the number of board feet.
• Example: The 170 pieces of 2" x 4" x 8' long lumber has a total board foot of 907.
170 ( 2 x 4 ) ( 8 ) / 12 = 907 BF
FACTOR / MARGIN Of SAFETY
It is a factor that is being included in the design of structural members to ascertain a high
degree of probability that failure will not likely to happen. By definition a factor or margin
of safety Is a statistical concept. The following are some of the reasons why a factor or
margin of safety is required:
• Uncertainty of the Material Properties
• Uncertainty of the Applied Loading in any given circumstance.
• Uncertainty of the calculated shears, moments, axial loads, and stresses.
• Uncertainty of the Quality of the Workmanship of skilled workers.
THREE DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Generally, there are three design philosophies which have been adopted in designing
structural members.

 Allowable / Permissible Stress Design (ASD)

In this method the factor of safety is introduced by considering the

structural behavior of the member under working or service loads conditions and
comparing the induced stresses to the allowable stress values. The allowable
values are obtained by dividing the failure stress by an appropriate factor of safety.
• LOAD RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD) OR LOAD FACTOR
DESIGN (LFD)
In this method, the factor of safety is introduced by considering the structural behavior of
the member under collapse load conditions. the ultimate capacities of sections based on
yield strength are compared with the design effects induced by the ultimate loads. The
ultimate loads are determined by multiplying the working/service loads by a factor of safety.
• LIMIT STATE DESIGN
In this method the factor of safety is introduced by considering the structural behavior of
the member at collapse load conditions. the ultimate capacities of sections based on yield
strength are compared with the design effects induced by the ultimate loads. The ultimate
capacities are determined by dividing the failure stresses by a partial safety factor and the
ultimate loads are determined by multiplying the working/ service loads by a partial safety
factor.
STRUCTURAL LOADING
• DEAD LOADS - are loads due to the weight of the member itself plus all the permanent
construction on it.
• LIVE or IMPOSED LOADS - are loads due to the weight of any movable body on the member
such as furniture, people, equipment, traffic, the construction loads for roofs, etc.
• WIND LOADS - are loads based on the pressure of the wind and on the environmental situation. In
most cases, the dynamic effects of wind loading are small, in which the static method of analysis could
be used. Some of the factors which should be considered for wind loading: (a) geographical location, (b)
physical location, (c) topography, (d) altitude, (e) building shape, (f) roof pitch, (g) building dimensions,
(h) wind speed direction, and (i) wind gust peak factor.
• SEISMIC LOADS - are loads based on the location (seismic zone map of the Philippines) and on the
environmental situation. The Philippines has two seismic zone classifications, the zone 2 having a seismic
zone factor of Z=0.2, and zone 4 having a seismic zone factor of Z=0.4. Generally, seismic loads were
derived from the ground motion due to earthquakes and from the mass of the structure.
COMMON TYPES OF STRESSES FOR WOODEN
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS:
• Bending (flexure) Stress, fb, parallel to grain
(a) compressive flexural stress, fc, and
(b) tensile flexural stress, ft
• Tensile Stress, ft, parallel to grain
• Compressive Stress, fc, parallel to grain
• Compressive Stress, fc, perpendicular to grain
• Shear Stress, fy, parallel to grain (horizontal shear)
• Modulus of Elasticity, E
• Modulus of Rigidity, G
BASIC KINDS OF STRESS
• Compressive stress results from a force that tends to compress or crush a
member.

• Tensile stress is the stress that results from a force that tends to stretch or
elongate a member. The lower chord and certain web members of trusses and
trussed rafters are in tension.

• Shearing stress results from the tendency of two equal and parallel forces,
acting in opposite directions, to cause adjoining surfaces of a member to slide one
on the other.
Deformation
• Whenever a body is subjected to a force, there is a change in its size or shape;
this change is called deformation. Regardless of the magnitude of the force,
some deformation always takes place, although often it is so small that
measurement is difficult, even with the most sensitive instruments.
Elastic Limit
• Current design practice for structural wood members is based on elastic theory, which postulates
that deformations are directly proportional to stresses. In other words, if an applied force (as
measured by its resulting unit stress) produces a certain deformation, twice the force will produce
twice the amount of deformation. This relationship between stress and deformation holds true
only up to a certain limit, after which the deformation begins to increase at a faster rate than the
increments of the applied load. The unit stress at which this occurs is called the elastic limit or
the proportional limit of a material.
• Elasticity is the property of a material that enables it to return to its original size and shape
when the load to which it has been subjected is removed. This occurs, however, only when the
unit stress does not exceed the elastic limit. Beyond the elastic limit a permanent deformation,
called a permanent set, remains in the member. The allowable unit stresses used in the design of
wood structural members are established so that the elastic or proportional limit of the material
will not be exceeded under service loads.
Ultimate Strength
defined as the unit stress that occurs at or just before rupture. Some structural materials possess
considerable reserve strength between the elastic limit and the ultimate strength, but this "inelastic"
strength is not taken into account directly under the elastic theory of structural design.
Modulus of Elasticity
• a measure of its stiffness. A specimen of steel deforms a certain amount when subjected to a given
load, but a wood specimen of the same dimensions subjected to the same load deforms probably
15 to 20 times as much. We say the steel is stiffer than the wood. The ratio between the unit
stress and the unit deformation, provided the unit stress does not exceed the elastic limit of the
material, is called the modulus of elasticity of the material. It is denoted by the symbol E and is
expressed in pounds per square inch. For structural steel E = 29,000,000 psi [200 GPA] and for
wood, depending on the species and grade, it varies from something less than 1,000,000 psi to
about 1,900,000 psi [7-13 GPa].
• The modulus of elasticity of structural lumber is used in computing the deflection of beams.
• Watch this: Logs to Lumber - An aerial journey through the sawmill
Thanks for listening!