2.

BASICS OF FOOD SAFETY

2.0. OBJECTIVE
1. Define different types of food hazards and their effects on human beings.
2. Explain the concepts and principles of food safety.
3. Describe the common adulterants and impact on human health.
4. Comprehend the integrated approach for the food hygiene and safe food.

2.1. INTRODUCTION
“We are what we eat” is an old proverb. Our nutritional status, health, physical and mental
faculties depend on the food we eat and how we eat it. Safety of food is an essential and
fundamental requirement for quality food. Our Supreme Court has also ruled it in way back
in 2013 as a constitution right, and WHO articulates - “Access to sufficient amounts of safe
and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health.” The food safety &
hygiene which was very well embedded in our Indian ethos is taking backseat in the growing
culture of eating out and fast foods/ take away foods. When we go out for food, our focus is
mainly on ambience of the environment and appearance/flavour of the food and not on the
food safety aspects-particularly on microbiological threats. Even the delicious food can be
unsafe and a potential source of food-borne illnesses if kept or served under unhygienic
conditions. Food-borne diseases constitute a public health concern and could occur for a
number of reasons. These include particularly in reference to our country/ developing
economy: a large unorganized sector in production/ processing and distribution; limited
network of cold chain facilities; changing pattern of food production, procurement, post-
harvest treatment, processing, packaging, distribution and transportation due to technological
advances; new challenges such as- microbial threats and adaptation, environmental pollution
and climate stresses, biotechnological advances; commercialization and increase in
international trade; rapid urbanization and preparation of street foods in slum areas; and
consistent change in lifestyle and consumers demands. The probability of contamination of
food with hazards has increased manifold, in recent times, due to globalization of food raw
materials, processes and products. At the same time, the consumers are becoming aware and
conscious about the importance of food safety and hygiene as well as their rights about Safe
Food. The new scientific based food laws and standards in our country (Food Safety and
Standard Act 2006 and its Rules and Regulations, 2011) and continuous improvement in
enforcement and their harmonization with Codex standards have laid the foundations and

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templates for safe and hygienic food. The safe food can be produced by adopting the good
hygienic practices throughout the food chain from the farm to fork. This module covers the
basic aspects of food safety, types of hazards, adulterants and integrated approach for food
hygiene and safe food.

“Enjoyment of life and its attainment, including right to life and human dignity
encompasses, within its ambit availability of articles of food, without insecticides or
pesticides residues, veterinary drugs residues, antibiotic residues, solvent residues,
etc.” reads the October 22 judgment in response to a petition for an independent
committee to evaluate the harmful effects of soft drinks on human health.
Source: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2013/10/indias-supreme-court-declares-
constitutional-right-to-unadulterated-food/#.V9ZEyMWLDIU

2.2. LEARNING OUTCOMES

After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Identify and characterize different types of food hazards viz. physical, chemical and
biological;
 State the need and importance of safe food;
 Describe the basic principles of food safety;
 Specify common adulterants and their harmful effects on human health; and
 Describe the principles and methods for food hygiene and safe food

2.3. CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF FOOD SAFETY

Food Safety is a concept which implies absence or acceptable level of contaminants,
adulterants, naturally occurring toxins or any other substance that may make food injurious to
health on an acute or chronic basis may be achieved by proper handling of food during its
production.

2.3.1. Definition
“Food Safety” means assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to
its intended use as per the WHO and Food safety and Standard Act, 2006. It calls upon
stakeholders in the food chain to ensure and facilitate that “All conditions and measures that
are necessary during production, processing, storage, distribution and preparation of food that
when ingested does not represent an appreciable risk to health”.

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2.3.2. Principles of Safe food: Five keys for production of safe food as per World Health
Organization (WHO, 2006) are as follows: (a) Keep Clean; (b) Separate raw and cooked
food; (c) Cook thoroughly; (d) Keep food at safe temperature and (e) Use safe water and raw
materials. The chart developed by WHO depicts the how and why of these five keys:

Processes for making food safe: Let us check the processes which makes the food safe. The
following processes help in production of safe food: (a) Safe and Hygiene production and
handling of raw materials and finished products; (b) Safe and Hygiene procurement,
processing, packaging, storage, transportation and distribution of raw materials and finished
products;(c) Safe and Hygiene preparation and serving of different food products; and (e)
Safe disposal of waste materials and expired/recalled/returned/leftover food products.

2.3.3. Food Safety Issues: Specific food safety concerns differ markedly and include: (a)
Additives, colours and flavours; (b) Drug residues; (c) Fertilizers and other growing aids; (e)
Irradiation; (f) Microbiological contamination; (g) Naturally occurring food toxicants; (h)
Food supplements; (i) Pesticides; (j) Pollutants; (k) Processing, packaging and labelling and
(l) Adulteration and Misbranding.

Consumers are most concerned about pesticides and additives as both are linked in the
consumer's mind to cancer and other health related diseases. It is also interesting, perhaps
even alarming, that most consumers are not concerned about microbiological contamination,
despite solid evidence that, of all the hazards, it is the one most likely to occur. Many homes
have unsafe food storage and preparation practices. Consumers rarely consider their own

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food practices a hazard. Food industry, however, is most concerned about the microbiological
safety of its products. In addition, many quality control checks are made to ensure that foods
are free of extraneous matter such as glass, machine fillings and insect parts. Large food
companies in many parts of the world adhere to a code of manufacturing practice known as
'Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)'. This code helps to assure that products are
manufactured under conditions of proper storage and sanitation. Many also employ an
elaborate system known as 'Hazard Analysis and Critical Control points (HACCP)' to make
sure that there is no chance of contamination or error during processing.

2.3.4. Need and Importance of Safe Food

According to WHO Fact sheet (2015) on Food Safety:
a) Food-borne diseases takes a major toll on the health. Millions of people fall ill and many
die as a result of eating unsafe food. Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses,
parasites, toxins or chemical substances, causes more than 200 diseases – ranging from
diarrhoea to cancers;
b) An estimated 600 million (almost 1 in 10 people in the world) fall ill after eating
contaminated food and 4,20,000 die every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy
life years;
c) Children under 5 years of age carry 40% of the food-borne disease burden, with 1,25,000
deaths every year;
d) Diarrhoeal diseases are the most common illnesses resulting from the consumption of
contaminated food, causing 550 million people to fall ill and 2,30,000 deaths every year;
e) Food safety, nutrition and food security are inextricably linked; and
f) Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition, particularly affecting
infants, young children, elderly and the sick. Thus, food-borne diseases impede socio-
economic development by straining health care systems, and harming national economies,
tourism and trade.

The advantages of Safe Food are: (a) It provides uncontaminated food of good quality to
consumer and (b) It ensures prevention of food-borne diseases. Thus, it can be said that a safe
food supply that will not endanger consumer health and good quality food is essential for
proper nutrition. It would ensure prevention of food-borne diseases, provide consumer
unadulterated food of good quality. It also promotes participation in International trade in
food products and stimulates economic development.

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Check Your Progress 1:
1. Define food safety and give principles for production of safe food.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Reflect on need and importance of safe food in any developing economy.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2.4. CONTAMINATION AND SPOILAGE

Food contamination refers to the presence of harmful chemicals and microorganisms in food
which can cause consumer illness. A food contaminant has been defined as any substance
not intentionally added to food, which is present in such food as a result of the production,
manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, transport or storage of such food as
a result of environmental contamination. It is important to protect food from risk of
contamination to prevent food poisoning and the entry of foreign objects.
There are three main ways in which food can become contaminated: (i) Microbial
Contamination; (ii) Physical Contamination; and (iii) Chemical Contamination. The details of
contaminants are covered in this module under section 2.5 (Food Hazards).
Spoilage: It refers to damage or injuries to the edible quality and suitability of food that make
it unfit for consumption. It may be due to (a) physical injury; (b) insect damage, (c) microbial
growth and (d) enzymatic action. The causative factors for the food spoilage and food-borne
illnesses are characterized as food hazards.
Sources of Contamination: The food chain from ‘farm to table’ is complex and involves
many operations. The multiple handling from food grower to consumer enhances the
probability of contamination. It could be contaminated at the source- food grower, processor,
packager through poor control methods or mishandling. The contamination could also take
place at the level of storage, distribution and at consumer end. The possible sources of
contamination are: soil, air, water, equipment, insects, packaging material and food handlers.
Control Measures: We as the part of stakeholders must place the check points and control
steps on food chain from farm to fork at the level of production, procurement, storage,
processing, production, packaging, distribution, delivery and serving, to ensure that food is
safe and handled in hygiene environment.

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2.5. FOOD HAZARDS
The Codex Alimentarius defines “Hazard”: as a biological, chemical or physical agent in, or
condition of, food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect. The hazards are of
three types and these are biological, chemical and physical in nature (Table 1). Food hazards
are the biggest threat to food safety.
A. Biological hazards are living organisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi,
parasites and other biological hazards-such as prions
B. Chemical hazards are in two categories: naturally occurring poisons and chemicals
or deleterious substances. The first group covers natural constituents of foods that
are not the result of environmental, agricultural, industrial or other contaminants.
Examples are aflatoxins and shellfish poisons. The second group covers poisonous
chemicals or deleterious substances which are intentionally or unintentionally
added to foods at some point in the food chain. This group of chemicals can
include pesticides, veterinary drugs, fungicides and environmental contaminants
and well as lubricants and cleaners.
C. Physical hazard is any physical material not normally found in food which causes
illness or injury. Physical hazards include glass, wood, stones and metal which
may cause illness and injury.

Table 1: Examples of hazards

Physical Hazards Chemical Hazards Biological Hazards
Metal Growth stimulants Microbiological
Plasticisers and packaging
Stones Pathogenic Bacteria
migration
Spore forming
Wood Chemical residues
Non-spore forming
Plastic Pesticides Parasites and protozoa
Parts of pests Cleaning fluids Viruses
Insulation Material Allergens Mycotoxins
Toxic metals; Lead and
Bone
cadmium
Fruit pits Food chemicals;
preservatives, processing
aids, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs),
printing inks, Prohibited
substances
Veterinary residues,
antibiotics

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2.5.1. Biological hazard including biotechnological
If food is consumed that has been contaminated by certain, harmful bacteria (pathogenic
bacteria) or their toxins (poisons produced by some of these bacteria), food poisoning may
result. Bacteria are responsible for most food poisoning cases. Symptoms of food poisoning
may include vomiting, diarrhoea, fever and abdominal pain. The symptoms may take some
time to occur depending on the type of bacteria (incubation period).
Food Infections: In general, the bacteria must grow in the food to produce sufficient
numbers to infect the body, multiply within the intestine and cause illness.
Food Intoxication: Alternatively, toxins may be produced in the foodstuff or within the
intestine, to produce symptoms very soon after ingestion.
It is important to remember that foods contaminated with pathogenic bacteria will look, taste
and smell perfectly normal. Steps must therefore be taken to prevent pathogenic bacteria
getting onto food and multiplying to levels that will cause food poisoning
Food poisoning/food- intoxication due to microbes is very common; some of the food-borne
diseases are given below in Table 2:
Table 2: Common Food-borne diseases and their causative organisms
S.No. Causal organism Disease
1. Staphylococcus aureus Gastroenteritis
2. Clostridium botulinum Botulism
3. Bacillus cereus Diarrhoea
4. Salmonella typhi Enteric fever typhoid, food-borne salmonellosis
5. Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis, diarrhoea

Food can also be contaminated with fungus which includes:

Mycotoxin: Toxic substances produced by moulds or fungi are called as Mycotoxin. Some
mycotoxins are mutagenic and carcinogenic in nature. Of these mycotoxins, Aflatoxin is of
most common occurrence in the agricultural produce/ food.
Aflatoxins are produced by a fungus – Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. At
least 18 closely related toxins are known. Of these, aflatoxin B 1, B2, M1, M2, G1, G2 are most
commonly occurring in the farm produce/food. Most susceptible food grains are Maize,
Paddy/Rice, Jowar, Groundnut, Wheat, Barley, Soybean, and their products. These toxins are
heat labile, so their toxicity remains unaffected even after cooking at high temperature. Other

7
important mycotoxins are Citrinin, Ochratoxin, Patulin etc. which are produced by
Penicillium species.
In general, maximum tolerance limit of mycotoxins including aflatoxin in stored food grains
has been recommended at 30 micrograms per Kg (this limit is considered by
CWC/SWC/FCI). Ergot: Ergotin is another mycotoxin produced by fungi Claviceps
purpurea on rye/bajra, where this fungus causes Ergot disease.
Mycotoxins are produced at high moisture content and in temperature range of 12°C to 40°
C. Therefore, the best way of coming over this food hazard is to dry the farm produce
properly and moisture level should be always within the prescribed range.
Biotechnology –related hazards: The genetically modified (GM) food may cause hazard in
developing allergenicity, transfer of genes from GM food to cells of the body or to bacteria in
the in gastrointestinal tract. At present GM Foods are not allowed to be sold in country.

2.5.2. Chemical Hazards including Allergenic hazard

Contamination may occur through environmental pollution of the air, water and soil, such as
the case with toxic metals, PCBs and dioxins, or through the intentional use of various
chemicals, such as pesticides, animal drugs and other agrochemicals. Chemicals, including
pesticides, bleach and other cleaning materials can contaminate food if not used carefully.
The impact of chemical contaminants on consumer health and well-being is often apparent
only after many years of prolonged exposure at low levels (e.g. cancer). Chemical
contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal processing (unlike most
microbiological agents). Chemical contaminants can be classified according to the source of
contamination and the mechanism by which they enter the food product.
a) Agrochemicals are chemicals used in agricultural practices and animal husbandry with the
intent to increase crops and reduce costs. Such agents include pesticides (e.g. insecticides,
herbicides, rodenticides), plant growth regulators, veterinary drugs (e.g. nitrofuran,
fluoroquinolones, malachite green, chloramphenicol), and bovine somatotropin (rBST).
b) Environmental contaminants are chemicals that are present in the environment in which
the food is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed, and consumed. The
physical contact of the food with its environment results in its contamination. Possible
sources of contamination are:
 Air: radionuclides (137Caesium, 90Strontium), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
 Water: arsenic, mercury.

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 Soil: cadmium, nitrates, perchlorates.
 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), dioxins, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)
are ubiquitous chemicals, which are present in air, water, soil, and the entire biosphere.
 Packaging materials: antimony, tin, lead, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA),
semicarbazide, benzophenone, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX), bisphenol A.
 Processing/cooking equipment: copper, or other metal chips, lubricants, cleaning and
sanitizing agents.
 Naturally occurring toxins: mycotoxins, phytohaemagglutinin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
grayanotoxin, mushroom toxins, scombrotoxin (histamine), ciguatera, shellfish toxins
(see shellfish poisoning), tetrodotoxin, among many others.
c) Processing contaminants are generated during the processing of foods (e.g. heating,
fermentation). They are absent in the raw materials, and are formed by chemical reactions
between natural and/or added food constituents during processing. Examples are:
nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), heterocyclic amines, histamine,
acrylamide, furan, benzene, transfat, monochloropropanediol (MCPD), semicarbazide, 4-
hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and ethyl carbamate.
d) Emerging food contaminants: While many food contaminants have been known for
decades, the formation and presence of certain chemicals in foods has been discovered
relatively recently. These are the so-called emerging food contaminants, e.g. acrylamide,
furan, benzene, perchlorate, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 3-monochloropropane-1,3-diol
(3-MCPD), 4-hydroxynonenal and (4-HNE).
e) Allergenic hazards: Food allergens could be hazardous to consumers. The food products
should not contain allergens if not declared on the food label. Symptoms of an allergic
reaction could range from a skin rash or slight itching of mouth, to migraine headaches to
anaphylactic shock and death. This is not to be treated same as food intolerance which is an
abnormal response to a food and symptoms may include cramps, diarrhoea and bloating. The
foods which could be potential source of allergens are: Peanuts, Milk, Eggs, Soya, Wheat,
sulphites, and Mustard.

2.5.3. Physical hazards

Physical contamination can occur at any stage of the food chain and therefore all reasonable
precautions must be taken to prevent this type of contamination. While harvesting, farm
produce comes into contact with variety of external material called as physical contaminant.

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Physical contamination consists of two major groups viz., organic matter and inorganic
matter. The former includes plant parts, debris, weed seeds, poisonous seeds of Dhatura and
Akra, other food grains, dead insects, excreta, damaged grains, broken, fragments, nooks,
rodent hair, uric acid etc., while the latter consists of lump of earth, pebbles, stones, dust etc.
The proportion of these contaminants in the sample determines the quality of the produce and
also the shelf life. However, the produce must be cleaned, graded and packed in suitable
gunny bags/ packing material free from any infestation before storing or marketing the same.
Examples of physical contamination include:
• Pieces of machinery which can fall into food during manufacture. Most manufacturers
protect against this type of contamination by installing metal detectors on the
production lines which reject food if anything metallic is present.
• Stones, pips, bones, twigs, pieces of shell.
• Foreign objects can enter food during handling so care must be taken to adhere to
good food handling practices (e.g. do not wear jewellery or smoke in a food room).

Check Your Progress 2:

1. What are the sources of contamination of food?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is food hazard?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. List the types of food hazards along with examples.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Differentiate between food infection and food intoxication.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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2.6. ADULTERANTS
Food adulteration takes into account not only the intentional addition or substitution or
abstraction of substances which adversely affect the nature, substances and quality of foods,
but also their incidental contamination during the period of growth, harvesting, storage,
processing, transport and distribution.

2.6.1. Definition
As per the Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006 “Adulterant” means any material which is or
could be employed for making the food unsafe or sub-standard or mis-branded or containing
extraneous matter;

2.6.2. Common Adulterants

The following table gives a compilation of the types of adulterants (excluding microbial
contaminants) detected in different food items.
FOOD ITEMS ADULTERANT DETECTED
Milk Antibiotics residues, formalin, boric acid, pesticide residues,
neutralizers like sodium bi- carbonate, urea, water, sugar,
starch, foreign fat.
Milk powder Pesticide residues, sugar, starch, fat, deficiency, excessive
moisture.
Ghee and Vanaspati Extraneous colour, animal body fat, hydrogenated vegetable
oils, excessive moisture.
Edible oils Castor oils, mineral oil, argemone oil, triorthocresyl
phosphate, oil soluble colours, aflatoxin, pesticide residues,
and cheaper vegetable oils.
Spices Non- permitted colours, mineral oil coating, husk starch,
foreign seeds/ resins, extraneous matter, exhausted spices.
Non-alcoholic beverages Saccharin, dulcin, brominates vegetable oil, non-permitted
colours, and excessive permitted colours.
Confectionary, sweets Non- permitted colours, aluminium foil, permitted colour
and savouries more than prescribed limit.
Coffee Chicory, date or tamarind seeds, artificial colour.
Tea Colour, iron filings, foreign leaves, exhausted leaves.

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 Pulses and their products Foreign pulses like Lathyrus sativus, Vicia sativa, Lens
like besan esculenta, artificial colours, talc, foreign starch, extraneous
matter
Cereals and their Fungal infestation, pesticide residues, sand, dirt, foreign
products like maida, suji, starch, powdered chalk, iron filings.
flour

Although simple forms of adulteration like addition of water to milk and coloured starch to
turmeric are still prevalent, newer forms and types of adulteration are emerging such as
pesticides residues, coating insect- infested dry ginger with ultramarine blue to cover holes
and other damage; urea in puffed rice to improve texture; injecting colour into poor quality
fruits, vegetables.

2.6.3. Stages of Adulteration

There are three stages at which food gets adulterated as shown below:

PRODUCER RETAILER
DISTIBUTOR

 Poor agricultural  Poor storage  Poor hygiene and

practices conditions sanitation

 Improper processing,  Improper conditions  Improper storage

storage & packaging of transportation
 Intentional addition
 Intentional addition of  Intentional addition of adulterant or
adulterant or of adulterant or substitution of
substitution with substitution with cheaper materials
cheaper materials. cheaper materials

2.6.4. Harmful effects of adulteration: There are many adulterants which might prove to be
a hazard to our health especially if consumed over a long period of time.
 Chemicals like urea, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, formaldehyde and
hydrogen peroxide added to increased shelf life of milk can be harmful when
ingested. They can damage the intestinal lining irritating it.

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  Un- permitted food additives or permitted food additives added in excess; both can
cause serious damage of health. Whether they are flavouring, colourings,
preservatives, antioxidants etc. They are all chemicals which are safe only if eaten in
very small quantities.
 The use of certain colours has been banned as they are well known or their toxicity in
experimental animals. Non- permitted colours like auramine, Rhodamine B, Sudan
red, malachite green, Orange II lead to retardation of growth and affects the proper
functioning of vital organs like liver, kidneys, heart spleen, lungs, bones and the
immune systems. The commonly used metanil yellow could be injurious to the
stomach, ileum, rectum, liver, kidney, ovary and testis. All he non- permitted colours
can also bring about changes in genes, most having been identified as potential
cancer- causing agents.
 Toxicity of permitted colours is also well demonstrated as allergic response to these
colours e.g. Tartrazine.

2.6.5 Impact of Adulteration on Economic Sector: Economic losses involve value of food
rendered unfit for consumption. In addition, there is the cost of treating people who have
fallen sick, been disabled or the heavy cost of lives lost.
 If exported foods do not meet rigorous quality standards, they would have to be
recalled, cases would be filed in court and the product credibility would be lost in the
local and international market.

2.6.6. Methods for detection of common adulterants

There are three types of simple tests for detecting adulterants. These are:
 Simple visual tests;
 Simple physical tests;
 Simple chemical tests.

Simple visual tests for detecting adulterants

S. Food Adulterant Method of detection
No.
1. Pulses, whole Kesari dal Kesari dal is wedge shaped, with a slant on one side
and split and a square face on the other side.

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2. Mustard Argemone Argemone seeds have a rough surface with a little tail
seeds seeds at one end. Mustard seeds are smooth. Upon pressing,
mustard seeds are yellow inside while argemone seeds
are white.
3. Black pepper Papaya Papaya seeds are comparatively shrunken, oval, and
seeds greenish brown to brownish black in colour.

Simple physical tests for detecting adulterants

S. Food Adulterant Method of detection
No.
1. Milk Water Measures the specific gravity with a lactometer by
immersing it in milk kept in a deep vessel. The normal
value lies between 1.028-1.032. lower value indicates
added water. But this is not a fool proof method as in
addition to water, sugar, urea may have been added to the
milk to increase its specific gravity.
2. Tea Iron Easily separated by passing a magnet over surface of food.
leaves, fillings
suji
3. Honey Sugar A cotton wick dipped in pure honey burns smoothly when
solution lighted. If water is present it will not allow the honey to
burn. Even if it does, a crackling sound is produced. (The
test is for water which is there in the sugar solution added
as an adulterant to honey).
4. Coffee Chicory Sprinkle coffee powder on the surface of water in a glass.
Coffee floats while chicory starts sinking leaving a trail of
colour, due to a large amount of caramel.
5. Tea Artificial Put the tea leaves on a moistened blotting paper.
colour Artificially dyed tea will impart colour to the moistened
blotting paper immediately.
6. Milk Developed Place a test tube containing 5 ml of the milk sample in a
acidity boiling water bath and hold for about 5 minutes. Remove
the tube and rotate in an almost horizontal position. The

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 film of milk on the side of the test tube is examined for any
precipitated particles. Formation of clots is indicative of
developed acidity in the milk due to microbial spoilage.
Such milk is unsuitable for consumption.

Simple chemical tests for detecting adulterants

S. Food Adulterant Method of detection
No.
1. Milk, milk Starch Mix sample in the test tube with water, add a few
products, drops of iodine solution. Blue colour indicates the
powdered spices presence of starch.
2. Milk, milk powder Neutralizers To about 5 ml of milk in a test tube, add 5 ml of
like alcohol and a few drops of rosalic acid solution
carbonates and mix the contents of the test tube. A rose red
colour is obtained in the presence of a carbonate
whereas pure milk shows only a brownish
colouration.
3. Ghee, butter Margarine In one tea spoon-full of completely melted
or vanaspati sample, add 5 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Shake for 5 minutes; add a pinch of sugar or
furfural. Appearance of pink colour in the acid
layer indicates added vanaspati.
4. Sweetmeats, ice Metanil Extract colour with lukewarm water from food
cream and yellow samples and add a few drops of concentrated
beverages, sela hydrochloric acid. A magenta colour indicates the
rice, pulses, spices presence of metanil yellow.
5. Pulses, whole and Kesari dal Put a sample in dilute hydrochloric acid. Pink
split, besan colour develops indicating the presence of kesari
dal.
6. Silver foil Aluminium To metal foil, add 2 drops of concentrated nitric
foil acid in a test tube. The silver foil will completely
dissolve whereas the aluminium foil remains
undissolved.

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The Food Safety and Standards Authority has published manuals for (a) Detection of
Common adulterants and (b) Testing of Milk and Milk Products (Details of the links are
given in the reference).

Check Your Progress 3:

1. List out the common adulterants in milk and milk products.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the tests for detection of honey and black pepper?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2.7. FOOD HYGIENE

The Codex Document on Food Hygiene (WHO, 2009) defines Food hygiene as “All
conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of food at all
stages of the food chain.”
Food can be contaminated at any point in the food chain from primary production to final
consumption. The presence of unhygienic conditions in the journey of food can lead to
contamination and cause for the Food-borne diseases. These unhygienic conditions must be
identified and eliminated as there is a direct relationship between hygiene and safe food.
Hygiene is a tool to keep the “Safe Food” as “Stay Safe Food”. Hygiene is not equal to clean
but includes free from diseases causing organisms and other hazards/harmful contaminants.
The food safety does not end with stoppage of entry of food hazards in the chain, but also
includes factors responsible for keeping food safe. The factors could be grouped in three
categories:(a) The Food itself: It is safe condition initially and subsequent protection in
preparation and service; (b) People: Those involved in handling the food as employees and
customers and (c) Facilities: The hygienic conditions of the plant facility and the equipment
used in food service operation.

2.7.1. Food: The food could be contaminated with food safety hazards at the time of
production due to presence of chemicals, microbes and pollutants in the environment. The
examples are: Pesticides, Herbicides, Veterinary drugs, Antibiotics, Hormones and

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Pathogens. The factors to minimize the hazards are: (a) Avoid the use of areas where the
environment poses a threat to the safety of food;( b) Control contaminants, pests and diseases
of animals and plants in such a way as not to pose a threat to food safety; and (c) Adopt
practices and measures to ensure food is produced under appropriately hygienic conditions
(Codex, 2009). The food should always be sourced from reputable suppliers and implement
strict receiving procedures to help ensure safe food. The received raw material/ ingredients
should be stored, processed/ prepared/ packaged and served using methods that maintains its
safety.

2.7.2. People: The safety of food depends to a large extent on the people involved in handling
of food i.e. - producer, processors, transporters, and finally the food handlers who prepare it
for ultimate consumers. It is essential to ensure that those who come directly or indirectly into
contact with food are not likely to contaminate food by maintaining an appropriate degree of
personal cleanliness and health wellness. The awareness and training of the food handlers
with reinforced scheduled and their proper supervision and monitoring shall play an
important role in minimizing the level of contamination.

2.7.3. Facilities and Equipment: Codex (WHO, 2009) specifies that on the nature of the
operations, and the risks associated with them, premises, equipment and facilities should be
located, designed and constructed to ensure that(a) contamination is minimized; (b) design
and layout permit appropriate maintenance, cleaning and disinfections and minimize air-
borne contamination; (c) surfaces and materials, in particular those in contact with food, are
non-toxic in intended use and, where necessary, suitably durable, and easy to maintain and
clean;(d) where appropriate, suitable facilities are available for temperature, humidity and
other controls; and (f) there is effective protection against pest access and harbourage .

“Schedule 4” of Food Safety and Standards Regulations, 2011 fives the General Hygienic and
Sanitary practices to be followed by the Food Business operators.

2.8. INTEGRATED APPROACH TO FOOD HYGIENE AND SAFETY

The manufacture of safe food is the responsibility of everyone in the food chain. The
production of safe food requires: (a) Control at source; (b) Product design and process
control, (c) Good hygienic practice and (d) Preventive approach.

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Control of food-borne pathogens at source is not always easy. Many pathogens survive in the
environment for long periods of time. They can be transmitted to humans by a variety of
routes - water, soil, sewage, crops, etc. The safety of foods (especially microbiological) can
be principally assured by:
1. The application of good hygienic practices during production, processing (including
labelling), handling, distribution, storage, sale, preparation and use.
2. The above in conjunction with the application of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Point (HACCP) system. This preventative system offers more control than end- product
testing, because the effectiveness of microbiological examination in assessing the safety
of food is limited.

The integration approach to food hygiene and safety requires:

 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
 Good Animal Husbandry Practices (GAHP)
 Good Veterinary Practices (GVP)
 Good Hygienic Practice (GHP)
 Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)
 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
 Microbiological Risk Assessment (MRA)
 Quality management: ISO series
 Total Quality Management (TQM)

Check Your Progress 4:

1. What is food hygiene? How it differs from cleanliness?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Reflect upon the need for integrated approach to food hygiene and safety.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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2.9. SUMMARY
Food-borne diseases constitute a public health concern, and unhygienic preparation of food
provides plenty of opportunity for contamination, growth or survival of food-borne
pathogens. The probability of contamination of food with hazards has increased manifold, in
recent times, due to globalization, urbanization, changes in consumer’s demand and life style,
international travel, environmental pollution, deliberate adulteration and natural and man-
made disasters. The scenario calls for strong foundations and templates for safe and hygiene
food. Food Safety is a concept which gives assurance that food is acceptable for human
consumption according to its intended use; and five key principles for production of safe food
are: (a) Keep Clean; (b) Separate raw and cooked food; (c) Cook thoroughly; (d) Keep food
at safe temperature and (e) Use safe water and raw materials.

A food-borne disease is caused by ingestion of food contaminated with food safety hazards
that gain access to the food at any point in the food chain, from primary production, through
processing, storage, distribution and at consumer level. The three types of hazards are
biological, chemical and physical. All are important, but biological are of major concern to
the food processing sector. Hygiene is directed towards keeping the safe food as stay safe
food by elimination of food-borne illness through reduction of opportunities for food
contamination and correction of contamination that does occur. The integrated approach for
food hygiene and safety includes: (a) Control at source; (b) Product design and process
control, (c) Good hygienic practice and (d) application of Preventive approach such as
HACCP.

2.10. REFERENCES
FSSAI. 2010. Training Manual for Food Safety Officers, Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India, New Delhi.
FSSAI. 2011. Schedule 4, General Hygienic and Sanitary practices to be followed by Food
Business operators, Retrieved on 13th September 2016.
http://www.fssai.gov.in/Portals/0/Pdf/Food%20safety%20and%20Standards%20(Lic
ensing%20and%20Registration%20of%20Food%20businesses)%20regulation,%202
011.pdf
FSSAI. 2012. Quick Test for Some Adulterants in Food - Instruction Manual - Part I
(Common Methods for Detection at Households), Retrieved on 13 th September 2016
http://www.fssai.gov.in/Portals/0/Pdf/Final_test_manual_part_I(16-08-2012).pdf

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FSSAI. 2012. Quick Test for Some Adulterants in Food - Instruction Manual - Part II
(Methods for Detection of Adulterants), Retrieved on 13 th September 2016
http://www.fssai.gov.in/Portals/0/Pdf/Final_Test_kit_Manual_II(16-08-2012).pdf
FSSAI. 2015. Lab Manual – 1: Manual of Methods of Analysis of Foods - Milk and Milk
Products, Retrieved on 13th September 2016
http://www.fssai.gov.in/Portals/0/Pdf/Draft_Manuals/MILK_AND_MILK_PRODU
CTS.pdf
IGNOU. 2009. Principles of Food Safety and Quality Management, Study material for PG in
Food Safety and Quality Management (PGDFSQM) Programme, IGNOU, New
Delhi.
IGNOU. 2015. Training Manual on Food Safety and Hygiene for Housewives, IGNOU, New
Delhi
Lydia Z. 2013. Food Safety News, Retrieved on 10th September 2016
http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2013/10/indias-supreme-court-declares-
constitutional-right-to-unadulterated-food/#.V9ZEyMWLDIU
WHO. 2006. Five Keys to Safer Food Manual, Department of Food Safety, Zoonoses and
Food-borne Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva.
WHO. 2009. Codex Alimentarius - Food hygiene: Basic Texts, 4th Edition, World Health
Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations,
Rome.
WHO. 2015. Retrieved on 11-09-2016 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs399/en/

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