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CHAPTER -9

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

➢ ELASTICITY: The property of a material by which it tries to regain its original

configuration after the removal of the deforming force applied to it is called
elasticity.
CAUSE OF ELASTICIY: When a material is
deformed, the atoms or molecules are
displaced from their equilibrium position
causing a change in interatomic distance
but the interatomic forces try to bring
them back to the equilibrium position
thereby regaining its shape and size.
➢ PLASTICITY: Even after the removal of applied force if object retains its
deformed shape and unable to regain its original size or shape or volume then
this property is called plasticity.

According to degree of elasticity, solids are of three types. The degree of

elasticity depends on the intermolecular force.
(i) Perfectly elastic solids: These are solids which come back to their original
configuration after the removal of deforming forces immediately and
completely e.g. quartz, phosphor, bronze, steel etc.
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(ii) Perfectly inelastic/plastic solids: These are solids which do not come back to
their original configuration at all after the removal of deforming force. They have
a permanent set in their configuration
e.g. bakelite, mud and Putty. Putty and mud are close to ideal plastics.
(iii) Partly elastic solids: They partly regain their original configuration after the
removal of deforming force.
Mostly all solids are partly elastic.
➢ STRESS AND STRAIN:
➢ STRESS: The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a body is called stress
When a deforming force is applied on an object, it changes the configuration of
the object by changing the normal positions of the molecules or atoms of the
body. As a result, an internal restoring force comes into play, which tends to
bring the body back to its original configuration.
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 =
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚
𝐒𝐈 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐬 𝐍𝐦−𝟐

➢ TYPES OF STRESS:

1. NORMAL OR LONGITUDINAL STRESS: If area of cross-section of an object is A

and a deforming force F is applied along the length of the object and
perpendicular to its cross-section, then in this case stress produced in the rod is
known as normal or longitudinal stress.
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Normal force(Fn )
Longitudinal stress =
area(A)
Longitudinal stress is of two types
(a) Tensile stress: When length of the object is increased on application of
deforming force over it, then stress produced in object is called tensile stress.
(b) Compressive stress: When length of the object is decreased on application
of deforming force, then the stress produced is called compressive stress.
2. SHEARING OR TANGNETIAL STRESS:
When the force is applied tangentially to a
surface, then it is called tangential or
shearing stress.
It produces change in shape, volume
remaining same.
𝐓𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 (𝐅𝐭 )
𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 =
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚(𝐀)
3. VOLUMETRIC STRESS: When a force is applied on an object such that it
produces a change in volume such that density and shape remaining same. Then
force per unit area is called volumetric stress.
1. At any point, the force is perpendicular to its surface.
2. At any small area the magnitude of force is directly proportional to its area.
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 (𝐅𝐯 )
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = = 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞(𝐏)
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚(𝐀)

➢ STRAIN:
When a deforming force is applied on a body, there is a change in the
configuration of the body. The body is said to be strained or deformed. The ratio
of change in configuration to the original configuration is called strain.
Strain being the ratio of two like quantities, has no units and dimensions.
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change in configuration
Strain =
Original confiuration
➢ TYPES OF STRAIN:
1. LONGITUDINAL STRAIN: It is defined as the change in length per unit original
length of the object under deformation by the external force.
change in length
Longitudinal Strain =
Original length

Longitudinal strain is of two types:

(a) Tensile strain: If on applying a deforming force, there is an increase of ∆l in
length of a rod, then strain produced
in the rod is called tensile strain.

(b) Compressive strain: If on applying a deforming force there is decrease of ∆l

in length of a rod, then strain
produced in the rod is called
compressive strain.
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2. SHEARING STRAIN: This type of strain is produced when a shearing stress is

present. It is defined as the angle in radians
through which a plane perpendicular to the
fixed surface of the cubical body is turned
under the effect of tangential force.
change in length(Δx)
Shear Strain(θ) =
Original length(L)

3. VOLUMETRIC STRAIN: It is defined as the change in volume per unit original

volume of the body under deformation by the
external force.
change in volume (Δv)
Volume Strain =
Original volume(v)

➢ HOOKE’S LAW: Hook’s law states that within the elastic limit, stress is
proportional to strain. The ratio of stress to strain is a constant called modulus
of elasticity. Modulus of elasticity is a material property which does not depend
on size and shape of the body.
The unit and dimensions of modulus of elasticity is same as stress I,e. Nm-2
𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲(𝐄) =
𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
➢ TYPES OF MODULAS OF ELASTICITY:
1. YOUNG’S MODULAS OF ELASTICITY(Y): It is the ratio of longitudinal stress to
longitudinal strain within the elastic limit.

longitudinal stress F⁄ FL
′
Young s modulus of elasticity(Y) = = A =
longitudinal strain ∆L⁄ A∆L
L

𝐅𝐋
𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐠 ′ 𝐬𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐘 =
𝐀∆𝐋
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𝐒𝐈 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐠 ′ 𝐬 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐢𝐬 𝐍𝐦−𝟐

2. SHEAR MODULAS OF ELASTICITY (η): Shear modulus of elasticity is the ratio
of tangential or shear stress to shearing strain

𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐅⁄𝐀 𝐅 𝐅𝐋

𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲(𝛈) = = = =
𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝛟 𝛟𝐀 𝐀𝚫𝐱
SI unit of Shear modulus of elasticity is Nm−2
Shear modulus of elasticity is less than Young ′ s modulus of elasticity
Y
suchthat η ≈
3
3. BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (B): Bulk modulus of elasticity is the ratio of
volume of hydraulic stress to volume strain.
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 ∆𝐏 𝐕∆𝐏
𝐁𝐮𝐥𝐤 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲(𝐁) = =− =−
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 ∆𝐕⁄ ∆𝐕
𝐕
The negative sign indicates that volume decreases with increase in pressure
𝐁𝐠𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 < 𝐁𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝𝐬 < 𝐁𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐬
4. COMPRESSIBILTY (K): Compressibility is reciprocal of Bulk modulus of
elasticity.
𝟏 ∆𝐕
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐊 = =−
𝐁 𝐕∆𝐏
IMPORTANT NOTE:
1. Solid possess all the three modulus of elasticity.
2. Liquids and gases possess only bulk modulus.
3. For a perfectly rigid body, strain produced will be zero and hence molulii of
elasticity will be ∞.
4. Shear occurs in case of twisting, cutting, tearing.

5. Elasticity of the material get affected by the following :

(a) Hammering and rolling - Increases.
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(b) Annealing (formation of larger crystal) - Decreases.

(c) Presence of impurities - May increase or decrease, depending on the mixing
material.
(e) With increase in temperature, elasticity of most of the material decreases.
RELATION BETWEEN Y,B, η, and σ
Y= Young’s modulus of elasticity
B= Bulk modulus of elasticity
η= Shear modulus of elasticity
σ=
Y = 3B(1 − 2σ)
Y = 2η(1 + σ)
3B − 2η
η=
2η + 6B
9 1 3
= +
Y B η
➢ STRESS – STRAIN CURVE:

Explanation of different parts of stress-strain curve :

(i) OA : In this region, the stress is proportional to strain upto A and Hooke’s law
is obeyed. Point A is called proportional limit. Slope of line OA gives Young's
modulus of material of wire.
(ii) AB : From A to B, strain is not proportional to stress, but if the load is removed
at any point between O and B, the curve will be retraced and the material will
return to its original length. In the region OB, the material is said to be elastic
and the point B is called elastic limit. Upto point B, the elastic forces of the
material are conservative; when the material returns to its original shape, work
done in producing the deformation is recovered.
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(iii) Beyond B : If the wire is loaded further, the strain increases rapidly than the
corresponding stress.
If the load is removed
from any point
beyond B (say C), the
wire does not come
back to its original
length but traverses
the dotted line CE as
shown in figure. Even
on reducing the stress zero, a small strain equal to OE is left in the wire, and the
material is said to have a permanent set.
(iv) Beyond C : If the wire is loaded beyond C, a large increase in strain is
observed until point D is reached at which fracture (failure) takes place. From B
to D, the material is said to undergo plastic flow, which is irreversible. The stress
corresponding to the fracture point is called ultimate or breaking strength.
➢ ELASTIC HYSTERESIS: During loading unloading of a material the stress-strain
curve do not superimpose itself. Some
energy is lost as heat during the loading-
unloading process. The phenomenon of
the stress-strain curve not retracing its
path while unloading is called elastic
hysteresis.

ELASTOMERS: Some materials like tissue

of aorta, rubber etc., can be stretched to over six to seven times its original
length. These materials are called elastomers. When unloaded, the material is
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restored to its original length. But any stage of loading and unloading, strain is
not proportional to stress. The fact that stress-strain curve is not retraced on
unloading, is known as elastic hysteresis.
➢ EXPANSION DUE TO SELF WEIGHT:
Let l = length of wire
A = area of cross section
ρ = density of material
w = ρAlg = weight of entire wire

dx = an element of wire at a distance x from end of wire

wx = ρAxg = weight of element of wire
dl = expansion due to element of wire wx
wx (dx) ρAxg(dx) ρxg(dx)
dl = = =
AY AY Y
l l
l
ρxg(dx) ρg
Total extension of wire = Δl = ∫ dl = ∫ = ∫ x dx
0 Y Y
0 0
l
ρg x 2 ρgl2
Δl = [ ] =
Y 2 0 2Y

𝛒𝐠𝐥𝟐 𝐰𝐥
𝚫𝐥 = =
𝟐𝐘 𝟐𝐀𝐘
If the wire is subjected to external force then extension in addition to weight is
𝐅𝐥 𝐰𝐥
𝚫𝐥 = +
𝐀𝐘 𝟐𝐀𝐘
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➢ ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY DUE TO THERMAL STRESS:

Elastic potential energy due to thermal stress is the work done
in streting a wire
Potential energy due to thermal stress = average work done in stretching
W 1
Potential energy due to thermal stress(Ut ) = = F∆l
2 2
1
Potential energy due to thermal stress = Ut = thermal stress Ax ∆l
2
1 ∆l 1
Ut = thermal stress ( ) Al = thermal stress x thremal strain x volume
2 l 2
𝟏
∴ 𝐔𝐭 = 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐱 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐱 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
𝟐

1
Ut = Youngs modulus x (Thermal strain)2 x volume
2
1 (Thermal stress)2
Ut = x volume
2 Youngs modulus
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➢ POISSON’S RATIO (σ): Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of longitudinal

stress to lateral strain.
In the previous part of our study we have
consider the change in dimension of the body in
the direction of applied force. We have ignored
the change in lateral direction of the body.
when we apply force the logitudinal strain
∆l
=
l
∆r
If r = radius of wire, then lateral strain = −
r
𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
𝐏𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧′ 𝐬 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨(𝛔) =
𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
∆𝐥⁄
= 𝐥
∆𝐫
− ⁄𝐫
𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞.
The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between –1 to 0.5. But in practice,
the value lies between 0.2 to 0.5. The value of Poisson’s for rubber is 0.5.

BENDING OF BEAM:
Beam is the structural member which can
carry transverse load. A simply supported
beam is supported at its ends. A cantilever
beam is fixed at one end.
WL3
Bending of beam = δ =
8YI
WL3
Bending of cantilever beam = δ =
3YI
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where I = geometric moment area

ab3
I= for rectangular cross section
12
πr 4
I= for circular cross section
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