Purpose

The purpose of this course is to enable the student to;

• understand types of gears as machine elements

• familiarize with characteristics of gear profiles

• understand the design of gears for particular applications

Expected Outcomes

At the end of this course, you should be able to;

• describe the different types of gears and terms used in gear mechanisms

• apply the law of gearing in analysis of performance of different gears and gearing
systems

• design and select gears for specific applications

Course Outline

Gears; types of gears, terminology and definitions, fundamental laws of toothed gears,
involute properties, interchangeable, and standard gears. Gear trains; Kinematic analy-
sis of planetary gear trains; by formula, tabular and instantaneous centre method. Tooth
load and power flow in branching planetary gear systems. Cams; cam dynamics, dis-
placement diagrams, profiles and derivatives of follower motion, high speed and standard
cams, polynoid cam design. Effect of friction. Computer simulation.

Reference Textbooks
1. Hannah J and Stephens R. C. (1984) Mechanics of Machines - Advanced Theory
and Examples, Arnold International, 4th Ed.

2. Hamilton H. M. and Reinholtz C. F. (1987) Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machin-

ery,

3. Buckingham E. (1988) Analytical Mechanics of Gears, Burkingham Inc.

4. Rattan S. S. (1993) Theory of machines McGraw-Hill, 2nd Ed.

Contents

Purpose i

i
Expected Outcomes i

Course Outline i

Reference Textbooks i

1 Introduction and Terminology 1

1.1 Classification of gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Gears Mounted on parallel Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Gears Mounted on intersecting shaft Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Gears Mounted on skew shaft Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Definition of gear terms (Spur gearing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Motion transmitted by two curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Velocity of sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Conjugate Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.1 Comparison Between Involute and Cycloidal Gears . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Condition for transmission of constant velocity ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Path of contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 Arc of contact and contact ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.9 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9.1 Methods of avoiding interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Rack and Pinion 24

3 Helical gear 25
3.1 Helical gear terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Bearing forces in helical gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4 Spiral gear (Crossed axes helical gears) 29

4.1 Gear ratio and center distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5 Worm and wheel gear 31

ii
6 Gear train 31
6.1 Simple gear train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.2 Compound gear train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.3 Reverted gear train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.4 Planetary gear train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.4.1 Determination of velocity ratio in simple epicyclic train-The su-
perposition method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.4.2 Compound epicyclic gear train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.5 Torque on gear trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.6 Acceleration of gear train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7 CAM’s 45
7.1 Classification of Cam mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

iii
 1 Introduction and Terminology

Gears belong to a special class of mechanisms whose principal function is to transmit

motion and power from one shaft to another. Specifically, gears are usually in the form
of cylinders whose active surfaces are provided with teeth that interlock or “mesh” such
that the rotation of one accurately controls that of the other and the relationship between
their angular speeds as well as torques is constant. When two gears are in mesh, the
smaller of the pair is generally called the pinion, whereas the larger is referred to as the
gear. When the pinion is on the drive shaft, the pair acts as a speed reducer. Conversely,
when the gear drives the pinion, the pair acts as an increaser. Gears are more frequently
used as speed reducers than as speed increasers

• 1.1 Classification of gears

302 Mechanism and Machine Theory
Gears may be classified on the basis of relative orientation of the two shafts carrying the
gears. I

,,"'''
.... -~-'- .....
,.~ ! '\

<:'i~~!(:)----r------
i r2' 0 "
1.1.1 Gears Mounted on parallel Axes
Pitch
Irrespective of the nature of contact, a pair of gears mounted on parallel shaft transmits a
circles ~'.,
uniform motion that is equivalent to rolling motion without slipping between two cyliders
I~/ ! ""'\ C 3;
-----i- _. j__.__._.._._. __
~r i \ r
• Straight spur Gears I I

Gears pairs, having(_ -.-.~.)ii:

parallel axes of rotation, are spur ?~_3_
gears. They have straight
I t '
teeth parallel to the gear axes. This is shown in figure 2. As pair of teeth enters into
\
I I

the engagement, " the contact between ./

l
the two teeth takes place over the entire width
I

, in com
along a line parallel ......to- -the
..... ­ axes of rotation. Thus, there is a sudden application of
, can c
load associated with high impact stresses and excessive noise at high speeds. As show
(a) A gear pair on parallel axes (b) A pair of equivalent cylinders to
the gears rotate further, the line of contact between transmitasame
pair of teeth
velocity ratio goes on shifting T
parallel to itself as shown by representative Fig. 8.2
successive lines a − a, b − b, c − c,
d − d, . . ., in Fig. 1(b). Shape of tooth profile of a straight spur gear is shown in
parallel 3 itself as shown by representative successive lines a-a, b-b, c-c, d-d, .. _, in
Fig. to
Fig. 8.3(b). Shape of tooth profile of a straight spur gear is shown in Fig. 8.31(a).

e 1---------\ e
d d
/-------jc
I-------Ib

(b) A straight spur gear tooth showing

shifting lines of contact

Fig. 8.3 Straight spur gears in mesh.

Figure 1: Straight spur gears in mesh
Helical Spur Gears (or Simply Helical Gears)
In helical gears, the teeth are cut on helices instead of straight across the gear parallel to the axis
[(see Fig. 8.4(a)]. Two mating toothed wheels of 1 helical type must have the same helix angle.
Further the teeth must be of opposite hand as shown in Fig. 8.4(a). B
As a pair of teeth comes in contact, the engagement begins only at the point of leading edge
of the curved teeth. As the gears rotate further, the contact progresses across the tooth along
• 302 Mechanism and Machine Theory

,,"'''
.... -~-'- .....
,.~ ! '\

<:'i~~!(:)----r------
i r2' 0 "
.: If the number of discs within a total thickness b is increased to infinity
Pitch (reducing individual disc to a lamina), the stepped teeth will become I
circles ~'.,
I~/
IleIicoid in form. With stepped gears the load is applied first to a portion L

! ""'\
of the face width, later to the next portion of step and so on so forth. Just Pc
C 3; ~
••
when the last step of first tooth is to go out of contact, first step of the
I
-----i- _. j__.__._.._._. __
~r I i Del.t tooth \ comes into contact with driving r tooth. As a result the teeth
I

(_
-.-.~.)ii:Come in contact with less of impact. ?~_3_
\
I Shapes oft gear tooth profile' of straight spur gear and helical gear can
I I
be compared as shown in Fig. 8.3 I (a) and (b). Imagine a stiff plane to roll
" I
l

· over the./cylindrical surface of base cylinder. In Fig. 8.31(a), a line ab of

, the plane, parallel to the axis of cylinder. is shown to generate involute in com
...... -..... ­-
, surface of tooth profile. In Fig. 8.31(b) a line a'b' of the plane, inclined can ca
(a) A gear pair on parallel axes (b) A pair of equivalent cylinders to shown
• to the axis of cylinder, istransmit
shown to velocity
same generateratioa surface called involute Th
F
helicoid and consists of straight line elements as shown. When a pair of
Fig. 8.2
· gear teeth of helical gears are in contact, the contact takes place between the teeth
parallel to itself as shown by the Figure
successive
representative 2: of line
positions
successive a'b'.
lines a-a, b-b, c-c, d-d, .. _, in
Fig. 8.3(b). Shape of tooth profile of a straight spur gear is shown in Fig. 8.31(a).
1
2
3
4
e 1---------\ e 5
d d
/-------jc
I-------Ib

(a) Shape of tooth profde of (b) Shape of a helical (c) Shifting line
(b) A straight spur gear tooth showing
Figure
a straight spur gear 3: lines of contact
tooth
shifting
gear tooth profile a helical g

Fig. 8.31 Geometry of gear tooth profiles.

• Helical spur Gears (or simply Helical Gears)
Fig. 8.3 Straight spur gearsof in mesh. spur gears mesh,
In helical gears, the teeth When are cut matingon teeth
helices straight
instead of straight across the gear
the contact takes place across the entire face-width.
parallel
Helical SpurtoGearsthe axis
(or (see
SimplyFig.Helical
4a). Two mating toothed wheels of helical type must
·As against this,Gears)
in helical gears contact begins at one
have the same helix angle.
In helical gears, the teeth are cut on Further
endhelices
of the instead the
tooth andofteeth
straight must be
across
progresses of gear
the
across oppositetoothhand
theparallel to theas shown
axis
[(see in Fig.
Fig. 4a. Two mating toothed
8.4(a)]. . (Pig. 8.31c).
wheels Straight diagonal
of helical type lines
must such
have asthe1-1,2­
same helix angle.
As the
Further a pair
teeth of teeth
must be ofcomes 2, in
opposite 3-3,contact,
etc. as
hand the engagement
indicate
shown successive
in Fig. 8.4(a). begins
lines only at the R.H.
of contact. point andof
L.H. B
teeth of
leading
As edge
a pair of ofcomes
teeth the curved . Because
teeth.
in contact, the ofAsgradual
the gears
engagement contactrotate
begins across atthe
the teeth,
further,
only theleadingprogresses
the contact
point of edge
helical gears su
of theacross
curvedtheteeth. As the gears impact
rotate load is
further, reduced
the and
contact gears turn
progresses
tooth along the diagonal line. This is shown in Fig. 4b where the straight out
across to be
the tooth along .
,
I
I
"
I
m
the diagonal line. This is shown stronger.
in Fig. They
8.4(b) have
where longer
the life
straightandlines a-a,
generate
lines a − a, b − b, c − c, d − d, . . ., are the successive lines of contact. These lines are b-b, c-c,
lesser d-d, etc. w
are the successive lines of contact. noise compared
These lines areto the
straight spur of
elements gears.
the involute helicoid. Thus, b
the elements of the involutegradual
in helical gears the load application isThe
helicoid. Thus,
and asinsuch,
direction which
inteeth
helical
impact stresses
gears the
and noise
of a helical
load application
gearare also lessI a
is gradual and as such,.slope impact stresses
is defined as theandhand noise
of theare also
gear. less in
In order to comparison "j to
I
straight spur gears. Helical gearstheare
.determine handused
of aat highgear,
helical velocities
a gear isand can carry higher
to be (b) Helical gears in m
loads compared to straight spur
placed on gears.
its sideShape
as shown of ainhelical gear tooth
Fig. 8.32(a). Teethprofile is shown
in Fig. 5. The angle at sloping whichupwardsthe gear to the
teeth rightarearecut
called right hand
in helical gears is known as FIg. 8.32
the helix angle.

• Herringbone Gears
Because of helix angle in a single helical gear a component of load, acting on gear
tooth, acts in axial direction producing end-thrust vide Fig. 6. This is considered
to be disadvantage with single helical gear. A herringbone gear is equivalent to two

2
 Gears 345

.: If the number of discs within a total thickness b is increased to infinity Gears 303
(reducing individual disc to a lamina), the stepped teeth will become I ••
IleIicoid in form. With stepped gears the load is applied first to a portion L
of the face width, later to the next portion of step and so on so forth. Just Pc
~
~
•
•• -•
~ """
when the last step of first tooth is to go out of contact, first step of the
Del.t tooth comes into contact with driving tooth. As a result the teeth
I
Come in contact with less of impact. b- roo­
Shapes of gear tooth profile of straight spur gear and helical gear can
be compared as shown in Fig. 8.3 I (a) and (b). Imagine a stiff plane to roll
· over the cylindrical surface of base cylinder. In Fig. 8.31(a), a line ab of
the plane, parallel to the axis of(a)cylinder.
surface of tooth profile. In Fig. 8.31(b)
is shown
line a'b' of
pair inamesh
to generate
the plane,
shifting
involute
A helical gear (b) A helical gear tooth showing
lines ofinclined
• to the axis of cylinder, is shown to generate a surface called involute
contact
..... f; I­
w I­
- :.

Fig. 8.30
helicoid and consists of straight line elements as shown. When a pair of
Fig. 8.4
· gear teeth of helical gears are in contact, the Helical
contactspur gears.
takes place between the teeth along one of
Figure
the successive positions of line a'b'. 4: Helical spur gears
in comparison to straight spur gears. Helical gears can Gears therefore303be used at higher velocities and
can carry higher loads compared to straight spur gears. Shape of a helical gear tooth proftle is
shown in Fig. 8.3 1(b).
1
The angle at which the gear teeth are cut in helical gears is known as 2 the helix angle.
3

»»»»»)
Herringbone Gears 4

~)
5
Because of helix angle in a single helical gear a component
of load, acting on gear tooth, acts in axial direction
producing end-thrust vide Fig. 8.34. This is considered to
be disadvantage with single helical gear. A herringbone gear
Ag. 8.5 Herringbone gear.
. is equivalent
(a)(a)
Shape of tooth
A helical to two(b)helical
profde
gear of
A helicalgears
gearof same
tooth helix
(b) Shape
showing angle but of
of a helical (c) Shifting lines of contact on
a
oppositestraight
pair in spur
hand gear tooth
meshwhich are heldlines
shifting together gear
as an
of contact tooth
integral
Figure 5:piece. In the case ofaherringbone
profile helical gear tooth
gear, the
two rows of teeth are separated by a groove required for tool runout. In view of two rows of
Fig. 8.31 Geometry of gear tooth profiles.
teeth of opposite hand, the axial thrusts mutually cancel out. In view of this, herringbone gears
beFig.
can helical
Whenrun8.4 Helical
atgears
high
mating ofspur
speeds
teeth same gears.
ofwith helix
less of
straight angle butmesh,
vibration
spur gears of opposite
and noise. hand which . are held together
R.H. teeth as an
mparison to straight spur the gears. integral
contact piece.
takesgears
Helical In
placecan the
across case of
the entire
therefore herringbone
be usedface-width. gear, the
at higher velocities and two rows of teeth are separated
Spur by Rack
groove and Pinion
required for tool
arry higher loads compared ·As against this, in
to straight helical
spur gears.gears of runout.
contact
Shape abegins In
helicalatgearoneview
toothofproftle
two rows is of teeth of opposite hand,
n in Fig. 8.3 1(b). In
end this case the spur rack can be considered to be a
the axial thrust mutually cancel out. In view of this, herringbone gears
of the tooth and progresses across the tooth spur L.H.can
teethbe run
. gear
(Pig.
he angle at which the gear teeth of
at high infinite
8.31c). pitch
Straight radius
diagonal
cut in helical
are speeds with gears with
lines
less of its
such.axis
as
is vibration of rotation
1-1,2­
known as the and helix angle.
noise. (a)
2,placed
3-3, atetc. infinity
indicateparallel to that of
successive pinion.
lines The pinion
of contact. R.H. and L.H.
teeth of

»»»»»)
ingbone Gears rotates while the rack translates.
. Because of gradual contact across the teeth, the The combination can

~)
helical gears
be used
impact loadto isconvert either the rotary
turn out motion
to be into .
, I
use of helix angle in a single helical gear reduced
a component and gears I
"
I
translatory
stronger. motion or vice-versa (see Fig. 8.6).
ad, acting on gear tooth, acts Theyin axialhave direction
longer life and generate lesser FIg. 8.6 Spur rack and pinion.
cing end-thrust vide Fig. 8.34. This is considered tospur gears.
noise compared to straight
8.3.2
advantage with single helicalThe
Gears
gear.direction
Mounted
in which
A herringbone
on Intersecting Shaft Axes
gearteeth of a helical gear I
.slope is defined as the hand Ag.In8.5order
Herringbone gear. "j
ivalent to two helical gears Bevel gearshelix
of same are angle
used to of the gear.
of
buttransmit power between to two shafts whose axes intersect. The pitch
Figure 6: isHerringbone
to be gear
I

ite hand which are held.determine

surfaces of
together the
as thehand
an of aare
wheels
integral helical
frusta
piece. Ingear,
of acase
thecones gear which,
of by pure gear,
herringbone rolling themotion,
(b) Helical will
gearstransmit
in mesh the same
ows of teeth are separated placed
motion by aon its side
asgroove
the bevel aswheels
shown
required for in
(seetoolFig.
Fig. 8.32(a).
runout.
8.7). The Teethof intersection
In view
point two rows ofof the two shafts must coincide
of opposite hand, the axial sloping
with thrustsupwards
common mutually to the
apex rightout.
cancel
of both areIn
the called
view right
frustums ofof hand
this, herringbone
cones. Any angle gears can beFIg. 8.32
used as included angle
run at high speeds with less •
between
Spur
of vibration Rack
shaft axes, and
and noise. Pinion
however an angle of . 90° is the most common (see Fig. 8.7). The most
accurateIn this teethcase the spur
are obtained by rack
method canof be considered to be a spur gear of infinite pitch
generation.
Rack and Pinion radius with its axis of rotation placed at infinity parallel to that of pinion. The
case the spur rack can be considered
pinion rotates while the rack translates. The combination can be used to convert
to be a spur
of infinite pitch radius witheither theofrotary
its .axis rotationmotion into translatory motion or vice-versa. (see Fig. 7)
at infinity parallel to that of pinion. The pinion
while the rack translates. The combination can
ed to convert either the rotary
1.1.2 Gears motion into
Mounted on intersecting shaft Axes
atory motion or vice-versa (see Fig. 8.6).
FIg. 8.6 Spur rack and pinion.

Gears MountedBevel gears are used

on Intersecting to transmit
Shaft Axes power between two shafts whose axes intersect. The
pitch surfaces of the wheels are frusta of cones which, by pure rolling motion will transmit
gears are used to transmit power between two shafts whose axes intersect. The pitch
es of the wheels are frusta of cones which, by pure rolling motion, will transmit the same
3 must coincide
n as the bevel wheels (see Fig. 8.7). The point of intersection of the two shafts
ommon apex of both the frustums of cones. Any angle can be used as included angle
en shaft axes, however an angle of 90° is the most common (see Fig. 8.7). The most
te teeth are obtained by method of generation.
ducing end-thrust vide Fig. 8.34. This is considered to
isadvantage with single helical gear. A herringbone gear
uivalent to two helical gears of same helix angle but of
~) »»»»»)
Ag. 8.5 Herringbone gear.
osite hand which are held together as an integral piece. In the case of herringbone gear, the
rows of teeth are separated by a groove required for tool runout. In view of two rows of
h of opposite hand, the axial thrusts mutually cancel out. In view of this, herringbone gears
be run at high speeds with less of vibration and noise. .

ur Rack and Pinion

is case the spur rack can be considered to be a spur
of infinite pitch radius with its .axis of rotation
ed at infinity parallel to that of pinion. The pinion
es while the rack translates. The combination can
used to convert either the rotary motion into
latory motion or vice-versa (see Fig. 8.6).
FIg. 8.6 Spur rack and pinion.
Figure 7: Spur rack and pinion
2 Gears Mounted on Intersecting Shaft Axes
l gears are used to transmit power between two shafts whose axes intersect. The pitch
ces of the wheels arethe same
frusta motion
of cones as by
which, thepure
bevel wheels
rolling (see
motion, Fig.
will 8). The
transmit point of intersection of the two
the same
on as the bevel wheelsshafts must
(see Fig. 8.7).coincide
The pointwith commonofapex
of intersection of shafts
the two both must
the frustums
coincide of cones. Any angle can be
common apex of both usedtheas included
frustums angle between
of cones. Any angleshafts
can beaxes,
used however angle of 90o is the most common
anangle
as included
een shaft axes, however an angle of 90° is the most common (see Fig. 8.7). The most
rate teeth are obtained by method of generation.
• Straight Bevel Gears
Kinematically, a pair of bevel gears is equivalent to a pair of conical frusta, keyed
to the intersecting shafts. At a particular point along the line of contact, the
peripheral speed of the two frusta are equal. The pitch of the teeth depends on
the distance of the point from common apex. The teeth of straight bevel gears are
straight, along the generator of the cone and vary in cross-section throughout their
length. Straight bevel gears usually connect shafts which run at low speeds. When
two straight bevel gears are of same size connect two shafts at right angles to each
other, the gears are called Mitre Gears
304 Mechanism and Machine Theory
Straight Bevel Gears about the axis of eru
Kinematically, a pair of bevel gears is equivalent shafts.
o a pair of conical frusta, keyed to the intersect~ Figure 8.9 show
ng shafts. At a particular point along the line of generated through 1
ontact, the peripheral speeds of the two frusta such line revolving ~
re equal. The pitch of the teeth depends on the Due to manufacturinl
istance of the point from common appex. only portions (frusta)
The teeth of straight bevel gears are straight, for motion transmiss
long the generator of the cone and vary in Relative motion 1
ross-section throughout their length. True consist partly of roll
hape of such bevel gear Figuretooth is 8:obtained by
Pitch surface of frusta of cone which can transmit same velocity
Fig. 8.7 Pitch surfaces of frusta of cone which along the common lir
ratio
aking a spherical section through the tooth, with cen transmit same velocity ratio. gears. These are use
he centre of the sphere at common apex. Straight bevel gears usually connect shafts which run
Crossed Helical (
low speeds. When two straight
• Spiral bevel gears of
Bevel same size connect two shafts at right angles to
Gears
ach other, the gears are called Mitre The teeth of crossed
It is alsoGears.
possible to produce bevels with spiral and curves spiral teeth, eachwhich
other,offer
which cb
piral Bevel Gears (Ref certain Fig. 8.8) practical advantages. Although straight bevel gears are easy out. to design
For thisand
reason 1
simple to manufacture
is also possible to produce bevels with spiral and curved spiral and give very good service, they become noisy at higher
gears is limited to lig
pitch line
eth, which offer certain- practical velocities.
advantages. Spiral
Although bevel gear is the bevel-counterpart of thea helical
straight gear. gea
crossed helical
evel gears are easy to designItand simple
gives to manufacture
a much smoother and tooth
give action than straight bevel gears and are very in
are manufactured
ery good service, they become noisy for
useful at higher
high pitch
speed line velocities.
applications. The tooth elements are theoreticalfore when crossed
spirals, but b
piral bevel gear is the bevel-counterpart of the helical gear. It gives each other. A pair of
in practice they are made of circular arcs because of ease of manufacture. The
much smoother tooth action than straight bevel gears and are very which are usually of
spiral or helix angle
seful for high-speed applications. The tooth elements are
φ is measured at the mean radius of the gear. Spiral
helix bevel
angle for the II
gears find application in
eoretically spirals, but in practice they are made of circular arcs drive to the differential of an automobile. angle of inclinations
ecause of the ease of manufacture. drive for feed mech;
• Zerol
Spiral bevel gear teeth are conjugateBevel Gears
to a basic crown rack which oil pumps on small
e generated by using a circular cutter. The spiral or helix angle q,
measured at the mean radius of the gear. Spiral bevel gears find Worm Gears
Fig.48.8 Spiral bevel gear. Worm is a member 1
pplication in drive to the differential of an automobile.
call worm teeth a
erol Bevel Gears combination is simil
ears with curved teeth of spiral type, but with spiral angle q, = 0° are called :lerol Bevel Gears. that the larger whee:
herical section through the tooth, with cen transmit same velocity ratio. gears. These are use
of the sphere at common apex. Straight bevel gears usually connect shafts which run
Crossed Helical (
ds. When two straight bevel gears of same size connect two shafts at right angles to
the gears are called Mitre Gears. The teeth of crossed
each other, which cb
vel Gears (Ref Fig. 8.8) out. For this reason 1
ossible to produce bevels with spiral and curved spiral gears is limited to lig
h offer certain- practical advantages. Although straight a crossed helical gea
are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give are manufactured in
ervice, they become noisy at higher pitch line velocities. fore when crossed b
l gear is the bevel-counterpart of the helical gear. It gives each other. A pair of
oother tooth action than straight bevel gears and are very which are usually of
high-speed applications. The tooth elements are helix angle for the II
y spirals, but in practice they are made of circular arcs angle of inclinations
the ease of manufacture. drive for feed mech;
bevel gear teeth are conjugate to a basic crown rack which oil pumps on small
ed by using a circular cutter. The spiral or helix angle q,
d at the mean radius of the gear. Spiral bevel gears find Worm Gears
Fig. 8.8 Spiral bevel gear. Worm is a member 1
in drive to the differential of an automobile.
Figure 9: Spiral bevel gear call worm teeth a
vel Gears combination is simil
curved teeth of spiral type, but with spiral angle q, = 0° are called :lerol Bevel Gears. that othe larger whee:
Gears with curved teeth of spiral type, but with spiral angle φ = 0 are called Zerol
such that it partially
Bevel Gears.
ears Mounted on Skew Shaft Axes have a line contaC
power. The worm-v
plications demand gears to connect two non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts.
pair and are shOWl
s with patallel axes or intersecting
1.1.3 GearsshaftMounted
axes, uniformonrotary
skew motion
shaft byAxes
pure rolling
any angle between
obtained by gears of this type.
velocity of worm "
ears Several applications demand gears to connect two non-parallel and of gear pairs.
non-intersecting
shafts.
t is necessary to have Unliketogears
a gear similar with
a bevel gearparallel
but havingaxes or intersecting
an off set between shaft axes, uniform rotary mo-
hypoid gear becomes the obvious choice. The discs through which
tion by pure rolling cannot be obtained by gears motion is type.
of this 8.4 NOMENC
are frusta of hyperboloides. Hypoid gears are based on hyperboloids of revolution. SPUR GI
y condition to connect two non-parallel non-intersecting shafts by hyperboloids, is
• Hypoid Gearsthe same line (i.e., their line of contact) Almost any tooth J
hyperboloids must be generated by revolving
Some times it is necessary to have a gear similar to bevel gear but gear as longanasoff
having tJ
set
between shaft-axes, then hypoid gear becomes the obvious choice. Hypoid gears
are based on hyperboloids of revolution (see Fig. 10. A necessary condition to
connect two non-parallel non-intersecting shafts by hyperboloids, is that the two
hyperboloids must be generated by revolving the same line (i.e their line of contact)
about the axis of each of the two connected shafts. Relative motion between gears
of this type consist partly of rolling and partly of sliding, along the common line,
Geilrs 30S
and has much in common with worm gears.
atiout the axis of each of the two connected
shafts.
Figure 8.9 shows one such hyperboloid
generated through successive positions of
Sbch line revolving about the axis of a shaft.
Due to manufacturing difficulties, in practice,
QDly portions (frusta) of hyperboloids are used
for motion transmission.
Relative motion between gears of this type
consist partly of rolling and partly of sliding, fig. B.9 A hyperboloid.
along the common line, and has much in common with wormFigure 10: Hperboloid
Bears. These are used to drive wheel axles.
• (Splrsl
Crossed He1/csl Gesrs Crossed Helical Gears (Spiral Gears)
Gears)
The teeth of crossed helicalThe gearsteeth
have aofpoint
crossed
contacthelical
with gears have a point contact with each other, which
changes to line contact
each other, which changes to line contact as the gears wear as the gears wears out. For this reason the use of double
out. For this reason the use helical
of doublegears or gears
helical spiralorgears
spiral is limited to light loads. There is no difference between
Bears is limited to light loads.a There
crossed helical
is no gearbetween
difference and a simple helical (spur) gear. The difference comes when
a crossed helical gear and a simple helical (spur) gear. They
are manufactured in the same way. The difference comes to
fore when crossed helical gears are mounted in mesh with 5
each other. A pair of meshed crossed-helical gears have teeth
which are usually of the same hand. By a suitable choice of
helix angle for the mating gears, the two shafts can have any
 Gears 305
of each of the two connected

8.9 shows one such hyperboloid

through successive positions of
about the axis crossed helical gears are mounted in mesh with each other. A pair of meshed
of a shaft.
crossed-helical
:mIU1Ura.CtUIlng difficulties. in practice, gears have teeth which are usually of the same hand. By a suitable
(frusta) of hyperboloids are used
choice of helix angle for the mating gears, the two shafts can have any angle of
.transmission.
inclinations (Fig. 11). These gears find use in the drive for feed mechanisms on
motion between gears of this type
machine tools, camshafts
of rolling and partly of sliding,
and oil pumps on small I.C engines.
FIg.8.9 Ahyperboloid.
to. O()lDIoon line, and has much in common with worm
are used to drive wheel axles.

of crossed helical gears have a point contact with

Gears 305
which changes to line contact as the gears wear
this reason the of use of double
each helical
of the two gears or spiral
connected
limited to light loads. There is no difference between
helical gear8.9and a simple
shows helical
one such (spur) gear. They
hyperboloid
lIlufact\irred inthrough
the same successive
way. Thepositions
differenceof comes to
about the axis of a
crossed helical gears are mounted in mesh withshaft.
A pair:mIU1Ura.CtUIlng difficulties. in practice,
of meshed crossed-helical gears have teeth
(frusta) of hyperboloids are used
usually of the same hand. By a suitable choice of
.transmission.
for the mating gears, the two shafts can have any
motion between gears of this type
inclinations (Fig. 8.10).and
of rolling These
partlygears fmd use in the
of sliding, FIg.8.9 Ahyperboloid.
feed mechanisms on machine tools, camshafts
to. O()lDIoon line, and has much in common withand
worm
on small I.e. engines.
are used to drive wheel axles. Flg.8.10 Spiral gears.
Figure 11: Spiral gears.

is a member of crossedscrew
having helical gears
like haveand
thread a point
it is contact
usual towith
which changes
orm teeth as threads. A• worm to line
Worm contact
andGearsas the gears wear
worm-wheel
this reason the use of double helical gears or spiral
is similar to a pair of mating Worm spiral
is agears excepthaving
member Wonnscrewlike thread and it is usual to call worm teeth as
limited to light loads. There is no difference between
larger wheel (usually) has a
helical gear and a simple
hollow
threads. or concave
helicalA(spur)
worm shape
and
gear. Theyworm-wheel combination is similar to a pair of mating spiral
at it partially encloses thesame
worm. way.For this reason,comes
lIlufact\irred in the gears Theexcept thatthey
difference thetolarger wheel (usually) has a hollow or concave shape such
line contactcrossedand are capable
helical gears of
are transmitting morewith
The worm-wheel is usually
that
the
itmounted
driven
ismember in mesh
partiallyof
encloses the worm. For this reason, they have a line contact
theteeth
A pair of meshed crossed-helical gears have
d are shownusually in Fig. 8.11.
of the sameTheandtwo
hand. are
By capable
shafts of
may choice
a suitable havetransmitting
of more power. The worm-wheel is usually the driven
for the mating member
gears, the two
gle between them, but normally it is 90°. The sliding of the
shafts canpair
have and
any are shown in Fig. 12. The two shafts may have any angle
inclinations (Fig.
of worm wheel is higher compared 8.10). These
between gears
them,
to any fmd
otheruse
but normally it is 90o . The sliding velocity of worm wheel is higher
in
type the
pairs. feed mechanisms on machine tools, camshafts and
on small I.e. engines. compared to any other type of gear pairs
Flg.8.10 Spiral gears.

NOMENCLATURE FOR STRAIGHT

is a member having screw like thread and it is usual to
SPUR GEARS
worm teeth as threads. A worm and worm-wheel
any tooth profile can be
is similar to aused successfully
pair of forgears
mating spiral a spur
except Wonn
long as larger wheel (usually)
the mating has a hollow
tooth profile or concavefor
is compatible shape
that it partially encloses the worm. For this reason, they
a line contact and are capable of transmitting more
The worm-wheel is usually the driven member of the
and are shown in Fig. 8.11. The two shafts may have
angle between them, but normally it is 90°. The sliding
of worm wheel is higher compared to any other type
pairs.

NOMENCLATURE FOR STRAIGHT

SPUR GEARS
any tooth profile can be used successfully for a spur
as long as the mating tooth profile is compatible for
Figure 12: Worm gear in mesh

6
1.2 Definition of gear terms (Spur gearing)

In order to analyze or design a gear system, it is important to understand the following

terms and definitions.
Pitch surfaces. Two imaginary cylindrical surfaces having their axes coinciding with
those of meshing gears in question and transmitting same velocity ratio through friction
alone (without any slip), are called equivalent pitch surfaces.
Pitch circle. Circle obtained by taking transverse section of pitch surface (i.e., using
section plane normal to the axis of pitch cylinder) is called pitch circle. Being imaginary
by nature, the size of pitch circles for a given pair of mating gears changes with centre
distance.
Pitch point (P). The point of tangency of the pitch circles.

Figure 13: Basic gear terminologies

Pitch diameter (Dp ). The diameter of the pitch circle.

Circular pitch(Pc ). The distance from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point
on an adjacent tooth measured on the pitch circle. Alternatively, it is the circumference
of the pitch circle divided by the number of teeth
πDP
Pc =
T
(Note: Mating gears have the same circular pitch)
Diametral pitch (PD ). Is the number of teeth per millimeter of p.c.d

T1 T2 π
PD = = =
Dp1 Dp2 Pc

The diametral pitch is a more convenient number to use in defining the size of a gear
than a physical dimension. It denotes the relative size of the teeth. Note that the smaller
the diametral pitch, the larger the teeth. Also, since circular pitch is defined as
πDP
Pc =
T

7
and diametral pitch is given by
T
PD =
Dp

then the relationship between the circular pitch and pitch is obtained as

PD Pc = π

Module (m). Is the number of millimeters of p.c.d per tooth

D1 D2 1
m= = =
T1 T2 PD
The module system is generally used in countries that have adopted the metric system.
Standard modules are 12 × 21 ∼ . . . 6 12 , 7 × 1 ∼ 16, 18, 20, 25, 30, 35
Base circle The circle from which an involute curve is generated
Involute This is the curve formed by the path of a point on a straight line called the
generatrix as it rolls along the convex base curve
Addendum (A) This is the height of tooth above pitch circle or the radial distance
between pitch and the top of the tooth. Standard addendum is equal to (m)
Addendum radius (RA ). The maximum radius of the gear.
Dedendum(B) This is the depth of tooth space between the pitch circle or the radial
distance between the pitch circle and the bottom of the tooth. Standard dedendum is
equal to (1.25m)
Dedendum Radius (RD ). The radius of the root circle.
Working depth (HK ). The sum of the addendums of two mating teeth. Standard
working depth=2(m).
Whole depth This is the total depth of the tooth space equal to addendum+dedendum.
It is equal to working depth+clearance
Tooth space. Distance between faces of adjacent teeth, measured along the pitch circle.
Clearance. The space measured on the line of centers between the addendum circle of
its mating gear.
Backlash. The difference between the tooth width and tooth space measured along the
pitch circle. Some backlash is necessary to compensate for inaccuracies in the forming
of the tooth to provide space for a lubricant and allow for thermal expansion. Without
backlash, gears could not mesh without jamming.
Face width. The thickness of the gear measured from the front face of the gear to the
back face. This is also termed the face of the gear.
Tooth face. The contacting surface of the tooth from the pitch circle to the addendum
circle.
Flank of tooth. The surface of the tooth from the pitch circle to the dedendum circle.
Fillet (F). The rounded corner between the flank and dedendum circle.
Top land. The top surface of a tooth.
Bottom land. The surface of the bottom of the tooth space.
Circular tooth thickness (or tooth thickness). The width of tooth measured along
the pitch circle.
Chordal tooth thickness. The length of the chord subtending the circular tooth
thickness arc.
Chordal addendum. The height from the top of a tooth to the chord subtending the
circular thickness arc.

8
 Center distance (C). Sum (for external gears) of difference (for internal gears) of the
pitch radii of two mating gears. For example, the center distance between two external
gears, 1 and 2, is given by
D1 + D2
C =
2
 
1 T1 T2
= +
2 PD PD
T1 + T2
=
2PD

Path of Contact. In general, the path of contact is the curve traced by the point of
contact of two teeth from the beginning to the end of engagement. In the case of involute
gears, the path of contact is along a straight line tangent to base circles.
An: of Contact: The path described by a point on tooth on pitch circle, from beginning
to the end of engagement of given tooth pair, is called an arc of contact.
Contact Ratio. In order to reduce average load shared by a pair of teeth, it is desirable
that on a time basis, more than one pair should remain in contact at all the time.
Contact ratio is defined as the average number of pairs of teeth which are in contact.
Mathematically,
Length of arc of contact
Contact ratio =
08 Mechanism and Machine Theory
circular pitch
The contact ratio usually is not a whole number
Pressure angle (ψ). The pressure angle ψ is the angle which the common Further. from theto
normal
Contact Ratio = length of arc of contact
the contacting tooth profiles,
circular at the point of contact, makes with the common n tangent
pitch
to the two pitch circles at the pitch point. This is also known as the angle Gear
of ratio
obliquity.
The contact ratio usually is not a whole number. If the ratio is 1.5, it does not mean that
Significance
there are always of teeth
1.5 pairs of pressure angle can
in contact. The be
realunderstood by considering
meaning is that there are Fig. 14, Again,
whichfor depicts
same
pitch circles of two mating gears and common normal to
alternately one pair and two pairs of teeth in contact and on a time average basis the the contacting tooth profiles,
average is 1.5.making angle
Theoretical ψ with
minimum theofcommon
value tangent.
contact ratio is 1.0 but the recommended
practice is to have a contact ratio of minimum 1.4. A contact ratio of minimum 1.0 Hence, from equ
ensures that at least one pair of teeth
Gear ratio
remains in contact for continuous action. No. of
The larger the contact ratio, the smoother teeth=t _ - . J ......
n ;

the gear operation. It will be shown EXAMPLE 8.1'

subsequently that the path of contact and If module is 10 d
hence the contact ratio can be increased a torque of «<Jj
by increasing the addendum of the gears. if pressure ang1~
xxv) The Pressure Angle "1': The pressure angle Solution: If p·t
"I' is the angle which the common normal and pinion rellP'l
to the contacting tooth profiles, at the
point of contact, makes with the common n '1
tangent to the two pitch circles at the
pitch point. This is also known as the No. of
~
angle of obliquity. Significance of pressure teeth T .. ~

angle can be understood by considering .qj

Fig. 8.13 which depicts pitch circles of
r~
two mating gears and common normal to
Asgear~
the contacting tooth profiles, making Flg.8.13 Illustration for significance of pressure
Figure 14: Illustration for significance of pressure angle .~
angle "I' with the common tangent. angle. ;!j

Remembering that load from one member to the other is transmitted along common, normal
;Ii
And therefore i
contacting surfaces, let n - n be the common normal to the pinion and 9 gear teeth profiles Therefore .~
presented by pp and gg. Let FII be the force transmitted from pinion to gear along n - n.
Resolving this force along the tangent I - t and also along common line of centres (radial and J
mponent), Further. _
Load from one member to the other is transmitted along common, normal to contacting
surfaces, let n − n be the common normal to the pinion and gear teeth profiles repre-
sented by pp and gg. Let Fn be the force transmitted from pinion to gear along n − n.
Resolving this force along the tangent t − t and also along common line of centres (radial
component),
Ft = Fn cos ψ and Fr = sin ψ (1)

The component Ft produces driving torque (= Ft × R3 ) and is the useful component,

while the component Fr tends to separate the shafts at O2 and 03 apart. The component
Fr is undesirable as it produces bending in the shaft and increases bearing loads. From
purely load transmission point of view therefore, it is desirable to have pressure angle ψ
as small as possible (From other considerations however, a larger value of ψ is preferable).
If R2 , ω2 and t be the pitch circle radius. angular velocity and number of teeth on pinion
respectively and R3 , ω3 and T be the pitch circle radius, angular velocity and number of
teeth on gear respectively, then for common module m,
   
2R2 2R3
= =m (2)
t T

Further, from the definition of gear ratio,

T R3
Gear ratio G = = (3)
t R2
Again, for same pitch line velocity at pitch point,

vp = R2 ω2 = R3 ω3 (4)

Hence, from eqs. (3) and (4)

Gear ratioG = (T /t) = (R3 /R2 ) = (ω2 /ω3 ) (5)

o
The standard pressure angles are 14 21 and 20o

Example 1.1 A spur gear drive transmits a gear ratio of 4.0 over a centre distance of
500 mm. If module is 10 mm, determine the pitch circle diameters of pinion and gear. If
pinion transmits a torque of 6000 Ncm, find (i) pressure between the teeth and (ii) load
transmitted to bearing if pressure angle is 200 .

Solution

If D and d be the pitch circle diameters and T and t be the number of teeth on gear and
pinion respectively, then for a centre distance of C = 500 mm,

500 = (d + D)/2
1 1
= (mt + mT ) = (1 + T /t)
2 2
1
= (10)t(1 + G)
2
10
As gear ratio G = 4.0, above ratio gives,
500 × 2
t= = 20
10 × (1 + 4)
And therefor
T = G × t = 80
Therefore
d = 20 × m = 200 mm
and
D = 80 × m = 800 mm

Further, assuming 100% transmission efficiency,

(Torque × ω)p = (Torque × ω)g

Hence, Torque on gear = (ω2 /ω3 ) × 6000 = 2400 N.cm

If Ft and Fr be the tangential and radial components of tooth load on gear and Fn be
the load transmitted by pinion
 
Torque on gear 24000
Ft = = = 600 N
D/2 80/2

Again from Eq. 1

(Ft /Fr ) = coth ψ

Fr = Ft tan ψ = 600 × tan 20o
Fr = 218.4 N
Fn = Ft / cos ψ = 638.5 N

1.3 Motion transmitted by two curved surfaces

vAx is the velocity of point A as seen from body x and vAy is the velocity of point A seen
from body Y . A is the point of contact. We can write the following.

vAx = ωx OA

vAy = ωy P A

Along the common normal the component of these velocities are:

vAxn = vAx cos α

vAyn = vAy cos β

If the two surfaces are to remain in contact, these two components must be equal

vAx cos α = vAy cos β

11
 Common normal

ωx ωy
O
vAy D
α vAx

β
Q
P

X Y
A

Common tangent
to the curved surfaces

Figure 15:

ωx OA cos α = ωy P A cos β

But OA cos α = OC and P A cos β = P D. Therefore

ωx OC = ωy P D

ωx PD
⇒ = (6)
ωy OC

Further the triangles QOC and QDP are similar triangles

PD PQ
⇒ =
OC OQ

Hence expression 6 become

ωx PQ
= orωx OP = ωy QP
ωy OP
That is to say’
The ratio of the angular velocities of X and Y is inversely proportional to the ratio of
distances of P from O to Q or , the common normal at A intersects the line of centers
at P , which divides the center distance inversely as the angular velocity. Thus, if the
velocity ratio is to be constant, the contact surfaces must be so shaped that the common
normal intersects the line of centers at a fixed point P .
The motion transmitted from x to y will be identical to that transmitted by pure rolling
contacts between two cylindrical surfaces with axis through O and Q, and the line of
contact through P . P is the pitch point, and circles through P with OP and QP as
the radii are pitch circles. The above is the basic condition which must be satisfied by
profiles adopted for teeth of the gears.

12
1.4 Velocity of sliding

The component of vAy and vAx in the direction of the common tangent in A are respec-
tively
vAx sin α and vAy sin β

The velocity of sliding of Y relative to X at A is

vrel = vAy sin β − vAx sin α

= ωy P A sin β − ωx OA sin α

= ωy AD − ωx AC

= ωy (AQ + QD) − ωx (CQ − QA)

= [AC = (CQ − QA) and AD = AQ + QD]

= (ωx + ωy )QA + (ωy QD − ωx QC)

But

ωy OQ CQ
= =
ωx PQ DQ

⇒ ωy QD = ωx CQ

ie ωy QD − ωx CQ = 0

Therefore

vrel = (ωx + ωy )QA

Thus the velocity of sliding at the point of contact is given by the sum of angular velocities
multiplied by the distance from the pitch point to the point of contact.

13
1.5 Conjugate Curves

When two mating tooth profiles satisfy the law of gearing, they are said to be conjugate
curves. Although it is possible within limits to select a profile for the teeth of a given
gear and then construct a conjugate profile for the teeth of the mating gear, in practice,
only two types of tooth profiles have been in common use. They are the cycloidal and
involute.

• An involute profile (see Figure 16a). The path formed by a point on a string
held taut as it is unwound from a cylinder. This is the most widely used tooth
profile for several reasons, most important of which include its ease of manufacture
and the fact that the line of centers of a pair of involute gears can be varied without
changing the velocity ratio. The involute may also be described as the path of a
point on a straight line as it rolls around a base circle.

• A cycloidal profile (see Figure 16b). The path formed by a point on the circum-
ference of a circle as it rolls on a pitch circle. If the circle is rolled on the outside
of a pitch circle, the curve generated is called an epi-cycloid. If the circle is rolled
on the inside of the pitch circle, the curve generated is termed a hypo-cycloid.
As shown in Figure 16b, the cycloidal tooth profile is a combination of both epi-
cycloid (used to generate the tooth face) and hypocycloid (used to generate the
tooth flank). The cycloidal profile was the earliest profile to be employed in gear
design and it is still used in clocks and watches

(a) Involute (b) Cycloidal

Figure 16: Gear profiles

1.5.1 Comparison Between Involute and Cycloidal Gears

In actual practice, the involute gears are more commonly used as compared to cycloidal
gears, due to the following advantages :

14
 1. The centre distance for a pair of involute gears can be varied within limits without
changing the velocity ratio. This is not true for cycloidal gears which requires exact
centre distance to be maintained.

2. The pressure angle, from the start of the engagement of teeth to the end of the
engagement, remains constant. This is necessary for smooth running and less wear
of gears. In cycloidal gears, the pressure angle is maximum at the beginning of
engagement, reduces to zero at pitch point, starts decreasing and again becomes
maximum at the end of engagement. This results in less smooth running of gears.

3. The face and flank of involute teeth are generated by a single curve where as in
cycloidal gears, double curves (i.e. epi-cycloid and hypo-cycloid) are required for
the face and flank respectively. Thus the involute teeth are easy to manufacture
than cycloidal teeth.

Note: The only disadvantage of the involute teeth is that the interference occurs with
pinions having smaller number of teeth. This may be avoided by altering the heights of
addendum and dedendum of the mating teeth or the pressure angle of the teeth.

Cycloidal gears have have the following advantages over involute gears.

1. They have wider flanks, therefore the cycloidal gears are stronger than the involute
gears, for the same pitch. Due to this reason, the cycloidal teeth are preferred
specially for cast teeth.

2. The contact takes place between a convex flank and concave surface, whereas in
involute gears, the convex surfaces are in contact. This condition results in less
wear in cycloidal gears as compared to involute gears. However the difference in
wear is negligible.

3. The interference does not occur at all

Though there are advantages of cycloidal gears but they are outweighed by the greater
simplicity and flexibility of the involute gears.

1.6 Condition for transmission of constant velocity ratio

In the Figure. 17, O1 and O2 are the centers of the pinion and the wheel respectively,
I1 I2 is the common normal at the point of contact c. vc1 is the velocity of point c on the
pinion. vc2 is the velocity of point c on the wheel. To remain in contact the component
of vc1 and vc2 along the common normal I1 I2 must be equal.
That is
vc1 cos α = vc2 cos β

ω1 O1 C cos α = ω2 O2 C cos β

15
 ω1
O1

o sψ
ψ
addendum circle

R1 c

R1
α

I1A
ψ

vc1
p
vc2

α
β
c I2
pitch circle B

osψ
base circle
R2 c
R2

β
ψ

ω2

O2
Figure 17:
p
⇒ ω1 O1 I1 = ω2 O2 I2 A (ρ 2-
R 22
I2 c os 2
ψ) 0.5
-R2 s
inψ
ω1 O2 I2 O2 P
ω2
=
O1 I1
=
O1 P
I2

Thus for constant velocity ratio ωω12 , p must be the pitch point for the two wheel i.e
The common normal at the point of contact must pass through the pitch point. This
condition is fulfilled by teeth of involute form, provided that the base circle from which
R2

ρ2

the profiles are generated are tangential to the common normal. The common normal is
o sψ

also called the line of contact. This is because all points of contact lies on this line. The
velocity of sliding at point c is equal to
R2 c

ψ (ω1 + ω2 )P C

Therefore, the maximum velocity of sliding occurs at the first or last point of contact i.e
A and B.

16
 ω1 ω1
O1O1

R1 c osψ
ψ ψ

osψ
addendum circle

R1 c
addendum circle

R1
R1
α α
1.7 Path of contact
I1 I1

ψ
ψ
AA vc1v
p p in Figure 17, thec1first and the last points of
With the pinion being the driver as shown
BB vc2vc2

α
contact are A and B. AB =Path of contact.

βα
β
c c I2 I2
pitch AP =
circle Path of approach
pitch circle

R2 c osψ
o sψ
base circle
base circle

R2 c
R2
R2
P B = Path of recess
β β
ψ ψ
AB = AP + P B

ρ1 and ρ2 are the radii of the ωaddendum

2 ω2 circle. Path of approach AP is given by;
q
AP = AI2 − P I2 = (ρ22 − R22 cos2 ψ) − R2 sin ψ
O2O2

p p
A A(ρ 2(-ρ 2
R 2-2Rc 22
I2 I2 osc2oψs 2
) 0ψ.5)-0.5
R2-sRi 2s
nψin ψ
I2 I2
R2
R2

ρ2
ρ2

R2 c osψ
osψ
R2 c

ψ ψ

Figure 18:

Path of recess P B is given by;

q
P B = BI1 − P I1 = (ρ21 − R12 cos2 ψ) − R1 sin ψ

Therefore, path of contact AB is given by;

q q
AB = (ρ22 − R22 cos2 ψ) + (ρ21 − R12 cos2 ψ) − (R1 + R2 ) sin ψ

17
Example 1

Two gear wheels of 100 mm and 150 mm pitch diameter have involute teeth of 3.75 m
diametral pitch and pressure angle of 17o . Addendum of each is 3.175 mm, determine
the length of path of contact

Solution

r = 50 mm, R = 75 mm

P (Diametral pitch) = 3.175 mm

ψ = 17o − Pressure angle

Addendum = 3.175 mm

ra = (50 + 3.175) mm = 53.165 mm

Ra = (75 + 3.175) mm = 78.175 mm

Assuming the pinion is the driver.

Path of approach is given by
p
= (Ra2 − R2 cos2 ψ) − R sin ψ

p
= (78.1752 − 752 cos2 17o ) − 75 sin 17o

= 9.17 mm

Path of recess
p
= (ra2 − r2 cos2 ψ) − r sin ψ

p
= (53, 1752 − 502 cos2 17o ) − 50 sin 17o

= 8.64 mm

Path of contact = Path of approach+ Path of recess

9.17 mm + 8.64 mm = 17 mm

18
1.8 Arc of contact and contact ratio

This is the arc of the pitch circle between the initial and the final points of contact. The
arc is given by
Path of contact
cos ψ

Contact ratio is the ratio of arc of contact to circular pitch

Arc of contact
circular pitch πD
T

It gives the number of pairs of teeth in contact

Example 2

Two gear wheels with 95 and 20 teeth of involute form and pressure angle of 20o rotating
in opposite direction. The module of the teeth is 4 mm and the contact ratio is 4.5. The
smaller wheel runs at 2500 rpm and is transmitting power to the larger wheel. The arc
of recess is 1.2×arc of approach. Determine

(a) Addendum of the two wheels

(b) The greatest speed of mating between the two wheels

Solution

q
Path of approach = (ρ22 − R22 cos2 ψ) − R22 sin ψ
p
(ρ22 − R22 cos2 ψ) − R22 sin ψ
Arc of approach =
cos ψ

m1 T1
ρ2 = (R2 + a2 ), R1 =
2

4 × 20
R1 = = 40 mm
2

4 × 95
R2 = = 190 mm
2

πD
Circular pitch = = πm = π × 4 = 13.68
T

19
 Arc of contact = Contact ratio × circular pitch = 1.5π × 4 = 18.85 mm

Arc of approach+Arc of Recess = Arc of contact

Arc of approach +1.2 Arc of approach = 18.85

2.2 Arc of approach = 18.85

18.85
= = 8.57 mm
2.2

Therefore, arc of recess=10.28 mm

Path of approach = (Arcof approach × cos ψ)

= 8.57 cos 20o

= 8.05 mm

Path of recess = 10.28 cos 20o

= 9.66 mm
q
Path of approach = (ρ22 − R22 cos2 ψ) − R2 sin ψ = 8.051
q
Path of recess = (ρ11 − R12 cos2 ψ) − R1 cos ψ = 9.66

2πN 2π × 2500
ω1 = = = 261.8rad/s
60 60

20
ω2 = × 261.8 = 55.11 rad/s
95
Maximum sliding velocity=(ω1 + ω2 )(9.66)=3.061 m/s

Example 3

A pinion of 16 teeth drives a wheel of 50 teeth at 800 rpm, the pressure angle of the
teeth is 20o and the module is 10 mm. If the addendum is 12 mm on the pinion and 8
mm on the wheel, calculate
20
 (a) The arc of contact

(b) The maximum velocity of sliding

(c) The maximum and minimum number of teeth in contact

Solution

2π × 800 T 50
t = 16 T = 50, ω1 = = 83.77rad/s, ω2 = .ω1 = ×83.77 = 261.6rad/s, ψ = 20o
60 t 16

Addendum for pinion = 12 mm

Addendum for wheel=8 mm

mt 10 × 6
r = = = 80 mm
2 2

ra = (12 + 80) = 92 mm

mt 10 × 50
R = = = 250 mm
2 2

Ra = (250 + 8) mm = 258 mm

p
Path of approach = (Ra2 − R2 cos2 ψ) − R sin ψ

p
= (2582 − 2502 cos2 20o ) − 250 sin 20o = 21.15 mm

p
Path of recess = (ra2 − r2 cos2 ψ) − r sin ψ

p
= (922 − 802 cos2 20o ) − 80 sin 20o = 25.67 mm

Path of contact = (25.67 + 21.15) = 46.82 mm

Path of contact 46.82

Arc of contact = = = 49.82 mm
cos ψ cos 20o

Maximum velocity of sliding=(ω+ ω2 )×Path of recess.

= (261.6 + 83.77) × 25.67 × 10−3 = 8.86 m/s

Maximum and minimum pair of teeth in contact

Arc of contact
=
Circular pitch

21
 πD π × 500
Circular pitch(p) = = = 31.42 mm
T 50

Therefore, teeth in contact,

 
49.82
= = 1.58 : Max = 2, Min = 1
31.47

1.9 Interference

The point of contact of two mating teeth should lie in the involute profile but depending
on the length of addendum, contact may occur between the tip of one tooth and non-
involute portion of the mating tooth between the base circle and dedendum circle. This
is referred to as interference. It is undesirable as it could lead to under cut. The profile
of gear tooth must be chosen bearing in mind the following

1. All gears must mate and mesh with uniform action

2. The tooth must have a section sufficiently strong for the applied loads

3. The tooth must be free from weakening undercut

4. The tooth will mesh at the correct shaft center distance

5. The profile of the tooth offer no manufacturing difficulties

6. Geometry provide adequate tooth overlap, hence avoiding interference

1.9.1 Methods of avoiding interference

Interference may only be prevented, if the addendum circles of the two mating gears cut
the common tangent to the base circles between the points of tangency. Interference can
be avoided by:

(a) Making the center distances for two mating gears larger than the standard cen-
ter distance. This however, increases the pressure angle leading to higher tooth
pressures for a given torque transmitted and backlash is also increased.

(b) Making cycloidal instead of involute the part of the flank of the pinion tooth which
lies within the base circle and the part of the face of the gear tooth which engages
with it.

(c) Modifying the addenda of the teeth of the wheel and pinion i.e reducing the ad-
dendum of the wheel by the amount necessary to avoid interference and increasing
that of the pinion. As much as possible, the addendum of the pinion should be
increased by exactly the same amount addendum wheel is reduced so that the full
standard working depth is retained.

22
Assignment 1

1. Show that for no interference

2
T1 ≥ p
G2 + sin2 ψ(1 + 2G) − G

Where,

R2
G=
R1
2. Two mating gears have 20 and 40 involute teeth of module 10 mm and 20 pressure
angle. If the addendum on each wheel is such that the path of contact is maximum
and interference is just avoided, find the addendum for each gear wheel, path of
contact, arc of contact and contact ratio.

23
2 Rack and Pinion

A rack may be regarded as a wheel of infinite radius; the teeth are straight-sided and
are normal to the line of contact. Referring to Fig. 38 and assuming the pinion to be
the driver.

sψ
R1 co

ρ1
I
ψ

A p

a
X
B
pitch line

Figure 19:

O1 I1 = R1 cos ψ

a = Rack addendum

a
Path of approach = AP = = a csc ψ
sin ψ

Path of recess = P B = BI − P I

Path of recess = P B = BI − P I
q
= ρ21 − R12 cos2 ψ − R1 sin ψ

T heref ore

q
Path of contact = AB = (ρ21 − R12 cos2 ψ) − R1 sin ψ + a csc ψ

24
For no interference between rack teeth and pinion flank, the maximum rack addendum
is given by

amax = Ip sin ψ (= I1 Q)

= R1 sin2 ψ

Maximum path of contact = IB

q
= ρ21 − R12 cos2 ψ

For standard addendum

2R1
m= ≤ R1 sin2 ψ
T1

Therefore

T1 ≥ 2 csc2 ψ

1o
If ψ = 20o , T1 ≥ 18 and If ψ = 14 , T1 ≥ 32
2

(Read about Internal gears)

3 Helical gear

In order to minimize noise and increase smoothness of operation, the teeth of spur wheel
may be cut so that each one form part of a helix. The teeth of 2-mating gears are of
opposite hand.

25
 γ

pn γ

pa
p

pn
Figure 20:

pa
γ: Helix angle (must be the same for mating gears
p
pn : Normal pitch (Measured at right angles to the teeth)

pa : Axial pitch

p: Circular pitch

pn
γ

Figure 21:
pn
p=
cos γ
Thus the pitch circle diameter of a helical wheel with a given normal pitch is
1
× Pitch circle diameter of a spur wheel with the same number of teeth and pitch
cos γ
NB: Since the normal thrust between the teeth is inclined to the axis of rotation, there
is an axial thrust on each shaft. To prevent this axial thrust the teeth are cut in the
form of double helix

26
 Figure 22:

In this arrangement equal and opposite thrust are provided on each wheel and no axial
thrust is transmitted to the shaft. The profiles of the helical gears are of involute shape.
The action of the teeth is essentially the same as for the spur gears. The gradual
engagement of each pair of the teeth contribute to the smoothness of operation and at
the same time increases the load carrying capacity.

3.1 Helical gear terms

1. Lead [L]: This is the distant which a point on the helix advances parallel to the
axis of the gear in moving one revolution around the helix

γ
L
L

γ
πD

Figure 23:

πD Pitch circle circumference

tan γ = =
L L
2. Normal diametral pitch
π
Pn =
pn (normal circular pitch)

3. Normal module
= m cos γ
4. Pressure angle: This is the angle between common normal to two teeth in contact
and common tangent to the pitch circle in a plane normal to the gear axis
5. Normal pressure angle: This is the true pressure angle on a plane normal to the
tooth axis

27
3.2 Bearing forces in helical gears

The first step in helical gear design is to determine the desired direction of thrust. When
the direction of thrust has been determined and the relative position of driver and driven
gears are known, the direction of the helix may be found. The thrust bearing are then
selected based on axial load arising from the applied torque.
Driven (left hand)

Thrust bearing

Driver (Right hand)

Thrust bearing

Figure 24:

The direction of the thrust depends on the direction of the helix, the relative position of
the driver and driven gears and the direction of rotation

ψ
Fd Fn σ ψn
h l
Fr Ft
Fa lsecσ

Figure 25:

Let Fn =Resultant force between the teeth and it is assumed to act normal to the teeth
surface. Fr and Ft are the radial and tangential components of Fn . Ft can be resolved
to the axial (thrust) force Fa and perpendicular force Fd . Fd is the driving force on the
wheel. Let R be the pitch circle radius and T be the torque on the wheel.

Therefore,

28
 T
T = Fd .R ⇒ Fd =
R
Fa
= tan γ ⇒ Fa = Fd tan γ
Fd
Fd
Ft = = Fd sec γ
cos γ

i.e

Fr = Ft tan ψn

= Fd sec γ tan ψn

Fn = Ft sec ψn

= Fd sec γ sec ψn

4 Spiral gear (Crossed axes helical gears)

These are helical gears used to connect non-intersecting and non-parallel shafts. The
pitch surfaces are cylindrical and the teeth have point as opposed to line contact in
helical gears. Spiral gears are therefore suitable for transmitting small powers. A pair of
meshed spiral gears usually have the same hand i.e a R.H driver goes with R.H driven.
The shaft angle θ is the angle through which one shaft has to be rotated relative to the
other about a line joining the wheel centers to bring the shaft parallel and rotating in
opposite direction. For possible tooth arrangement

θ = γ1 ± γ2

(+) for teeth of the same hand and (−) for teeth of opposite hand. If the spiral angle
are defined as acute angle which the teeth make with their respective axes a specified
motion between the wheel become impossible for any arrangement for which the above
relation is not fulfilled.

4.1 Gear ratio and center distance

For spiral gears, the normal module mn is the same for each wheel but modules m1 and
m2 depend on the spiral angles
mn = m cos γ (Helical/spiral gears)

29
 D
m= (For all gears)
T

Thus

mn = m1 cos γ1 = m2 cos γ2

Gear ratio

ω1 T2 m1 D2
G = = =
ω2 T1 m2 D1
D2 cos γ2
=
D1 cos γ1

center distance

1
c = (D1 + D2 )
2

D = mn sec γ.T

Therefore

1
c = mn (T1 sec γ1 + T2 sec γ2 )
2

Assignment II

(a) Show that the efficiency of the drive in spiral gearing is given by
1 − µ tan γ2
η=
1 + µ tan γ1

(b) Show further that the maximum efficiency ηmax is given by

1 + cos(θ + φ)
ηmax =
1 + cos(θ + φ)

Where, θ = γ1 + γ2 and φ is the friction angle.

30
 Figure 26:

5 Worm and wheel gear

These gears are usually used with non-intersecting shafts which are usually at shaft angle
90o
The worm is the member having screw like threads which may be single or multi-start.
The teeth of the gear wheel are inclined to the axis at the lead angle of the screw. The
teeth of the wheel are concave so as to give line contact.
The lead of the worm which is the axial advance of the thread per revolution. This is
equal to the length between pitch of the same threads.

lead = np

Where, n=Number of threads and p=Pitch

Lead angle of the worm γ corresponds to the helix angle of the wheel and is given by.

L
tan γ =
πd
Where, L=lead and d=mean worm diameter. Let ω=angular velocity of the worm and
Ω=angular velocity of the wheel.
Then
ω No. of teeth on wheel
=
Ω No. of threads on worm

NB: It’s very hard to turn the worm by turning the wheel. The practice is to turn the
wheel by turning the worm

6 Gear train

A gear train is a system consisting of two or more meshing gears, designed to provide
a desired angular speed ratio between the shaft of the input gear and that of the out-
put gear. There are four basic types of gear trains: simple, compound, reverted, and
planetary (or epicyclic).

31
1. A simple gear train is one in which each shaft carries only one gear, as shown
in Figure 27(a). In this type of train, the centerlines of all shafts or axles are
fixed relative to the housing or frame, and all gears have the same diametral pitch.
Simple gear trains are used in applications where the speed ratio is comparatively
low.

2. A compound gear train is one in which one or more shafts carry more than one
gear, as shown in Figure 27(b). Like the simple gear train, the shafts or axles are
also fixed relative to a frame. However, the diametral pitch may or may not vary
from stage to stage. Compound gear trains are used in applications where large
speed ratios are desired.
The advantages of compound train includes

(a) A large speed ratio may be obtained with wheels of smaller diameters.
(b) The drive may be transmitted round bends or corners and even returned upon
itself so that driving and driven shafts are coaxial.

3. A reverted gear train is a compound gear train in which both input and output
gears rotate about coaxial shafts, as shown in Figure 27(c). One of the most
important advantages of this type of train is its compactness. Some common
applications of the reverted gear train include automatic transmissions, industrial
speed reducers, and clocks.

4. A planetary (or epicyclic) gear train is one in which one or more gears rotate
about a moving axis as shown in Figure 27(d). Usually, this type of gear train
consists of four elements: a central gear, the sun gear; a meshing pinion, the planet
gear; a connecting arm, the planet arm; and an internal gear, the ring gear, inside
of which the planet gear rotates.

Special aspect of epicyclic gear train

(a) The input and output shafts lie on a common axis and therefore the train is
compact.
(b) Loads can be spread in the number of parallel gears and therefore high torque
can be achieved.
(c) Static and dynamic forces are balanced if multiple planets are used.
(d) High reductions are possible within very compact arrangement by connecting
2 or more planetary trains in series.
(e) In variable gear boxes such as in car, the gear can remain in mesh all the
times, while brakes are applied to various elements in turn to obtain the
ration required. This reduces wear on the gears.

32
 (a) Simple gear train (b) Compound gear train

(c) Reverted gear train (d) Planetary gear train

Figure 27:

6.1 Simple gear train

Let Na , Nb , Nc . . . be the rotational speeds of A, B and C . . .. Let Ta , Tb . . . be the

number of teeth in A, B. . ., then the velocity ratios
Na Tb
=
Nb Ta
Nb Tc
=
Nc Tb
Nc Td
=
Nd Tc

33
 A

Figure 28:

Then,
Na Na Nb Nc
= . .
Nd Nb Nc Nd
Tb Tc Td
= . .
Ta Tb Tc
Na Td
=
Nd Ta

Hence the ratio of speeds A and D depends on the number of teeth of the two wheels A
and D. The intermediate wheels has no effect on V.R given by the train. However, they
can affect the sense of rotation of D for a given sense of rotation of A. When the number
of intermediate wheels is even the sense of rotation of driver is opposite that of driven.
On the other hand if the number is odd the sense of rotation of driver is the same as
that of driven. Note that this rule can not be applied where shafts intersects such as in
the case of bevel gears.
Intermediate wheels serves to break the gap between the first and the last wheel. They
are also some times used to drive auxiliary incidental to the main train.

6.2 Compound gear train

When each shaft except the first and last carries two or more wheels, the gear train is
referred to as compound train.

34
 Driver

A A
Input
Driver

B B
C C

D Output
Follower D

Follower

Figure 29:

NA TB NC TD
= =
NB TA ND TC

But

NB = NC

NA NA NB NA NC
= . = .
ND NB ND NB ND
TB .TD
=
TA .TC

Thus

Speed of driver Product of teeth on follower

=
Speed of follower Product of teeth on driver

NA TB NC TD NE TF
= , = , =
NB TA ND TC NF TE

But

NC = NB , NE = ND

Therefore

NA NA NC NE TB .TD .TF
= . . =
NF NB ND NF TA .TC .TE

35
 D Output
Follower D

Follower

B C

F
E

Figure 30:

6.3 Reverted gear train

In a reverted train the equation R1 + R2 = R3 + R4 must be satisfied where R0 s are

radius of gears

R4
R1

distance
Center
R3
R2

Figure 31:

m1 R1 m2 R2 m3 R3 m4 R4
+ = +
T1 T2 T3 T4
The teeth numbers that satisfy the equations for gear ratio and center distances are
usually found by trail method
N1 TFollower T2 .T4
= =
N4 TDriver T1 .T3

Example

Two parallel shafts x and y are connected by toothed wheels, wheels A and B form a
compound pair which can slide along but rotate with shaft x. Wheels C and D are
rigidly attached to shaft y and compound pair may be moved so that A engages with

36
C or B engages with D. Shaft x rotates at 640 rpm and speeds of y are to be 340 rpm
exactly and 240 rpm as nearly as possible.Using a module of 12 for all wheels.

(a) Find the minimum distant between shaft axes.

(b) Suitable teeth for the wheels

(c) Speed of shaft y

Example

Two shafts A and B in the same straight line are geared together through an intermediate

R4
R1

parallel shaft C. The wheels connecting A and C have module of 2 and those connecting

distance
Center
C and B have modules of 3.5. The speeds of B is to be about 0.1 that of A. If the
2 pinions have each 24 teeth. Find suitable number of teeth for the wheels, the actual

R3
R2

ratio and the corresponding distance of shaft C from A.

6.4 Planetary gear train

An epicyclic gear train is also called planetary or sun and planet gear train. Consider a
simple epicyclic gear train.

L
S

Figure 32:

A is the annulus, having internal gears. S is the sun gear, P is the planet gear, L is
the arm. For balancing the number of planet gears may be increased, but adding more
planet gear contribute nothing to kinematic performance. A major application of the
said gears is in automobile differential.
A point on planet gear follows an epicycloidal path hence the name epicyclic gear. For
the differential unit the ring gear acts as planet carrier and its speed can be calculated
as for a single gear train when speed of drive shaft is known. When a car is traveling in a
straight line the two gear rotates in the same direction with exactly the same speed. In
this case there no relative motion between motion between the planet gears and the sun
gears. The planet gear in effect serves only as key to transmit motion from the planet

37
carrier to both wheels. During turning the planet gears rotates about their own axes
thus permitting the sun gears to revolve at different velocity.

6.4.1 Determination of velocity ratio in simple epicyclic train-The superpo-

sition method

Consider a simple epicyclic train

L A
S

Figure 33:

NB: The annulus, arm or sun wheel may be fixed and do not need to be disengaged in
order to obtain different V.R support we need to find V.R of S to L when A is fixed.

Step 1
Rotate each member through one complete revolution clockwise.

Step 2
Hold the arm fixed and rotate the annulus through 1 revolution anticlockwise thus re-
turning to the former position of the annular. Since L is fixed the revolutions of P and S
due to rotation of A are −T
TP
A
and +TTS
A
respectively. Further we deduct a zero revolution
of L

Step 2
Add the corresponding rotation in each member in step 1 and 2 to obtain the resultant
motion. This gives the relative motion of the arm, sun wheel and planet wheel when the
annulus is fixed.
L A P S
(1) Turn whole gear clockwise 1rev +1 +1 +1 +1

−TA TA
(2) Hold L, turn the fixed wheel anticlockwise 1rev 0 -1 TP TS
+

(3) Add (1) and (2) 1 0 1 − TTPA 1+ TTAS

38
Therefore,
TA
NL 1 NL 1 NP 1− TP
= , = , =
NP 1 − TTPA NS 1 + TTAS NS 1+ TA
TS

When all members are rotating the whole member is given +a revolution then the arm
P
held fixed and any wheel is given +b revolution. The motion of other wheels is found in
the same way as above. The resulting motion found by adding (1) and (2) is in terms of
a and b which are thenL evaluated from the known speeds
A of the two members.
S L A P S
(1) Turn whole gear clockwise 1rev +a +a +a +a

+TA .b −TA .b
(2) Hold L, turn the fixed wheel anticlockwise 1rev 0 +b TP TS

(3) Add (1) and (2) a a+b a+ TTAP.b a− TTAS.b

6.4.2 Compound epicyclic gear train

This a combination of 2 or more simple epicyclic gear trains.

A2
A1
P2
P1

Input L
S2
S1
Output

Figure 34:

The annulus A1 of the train A1 S1 L also form the arm of the train A2 S2 A1 . Let A2 be
fixed first obtain the ratio of L to S1 when A1 is fixed.
L A1 S1
(1) Give whole train +1rev +1 +1 +1

TA1
(2) Hold L, give A1 -1rev 0 -1 TS1

TA1
(3) Add (1) and (2) +1 0 1+ TS1
!
NL 1
Therefore, N
when A1 is fixed= TA
1
.
1+ T
S1
Next the whole train with A1 as the fixed arm.

39
 L1 A1 S1 S2 A2
(1) Give whole train 1rev +1 +1 +1 +1
!
TA2 /TS2 +TA2
(2) Hold A1 and give A2 -1rev TA 0 TS2
-1
1+ T 1
S1

!
TA2 /TS2 TA2
(3) Add (1) and (2) 1+ TA 1 1+ TS2
0
1+ T 1
S1

TA
!
2
TS
1+ 2
TA
NL 1+ T 1 NL
S1
Thus, =   =
NS1 1+
TA2 NS2
TS2

NS1 TA NA1 TA
= 1, = 1
NA1 TS1 NS1 TS1

Example

The figure shows epicyclic gear train for a compressor with input shaft R and output
shaft Q, the arm L carry a pin on which compound planet wheels P1 and P2 are free
to rotate. The wheels have the following number of teeth Ts =60, TP1 =28, TP2 =22 and
TA =110. Find the output speed of shaft Q given that the input speed is NR =500 rpm.

Solution

P1 , P2
 S, R
  L, Q A
TA −TP2 TA
(1) Hold Arm L and give A +a revs TP1
a .
TS TP1
a 0 a

(2) Lock all gears and give a whole train b b b b

+b rev
   
TA TP2 TA .a
(3) Add (1) and (2) b+ TP1
a b− .
TS TP1
b a+b

NR =500 rpm.
TP2 .TA
⇒b− = 500
TS .TP1

NA = 0 ⇒ a + b = 0

From which a = −204.88, b = 204.88. Therefore NQ =204.9 rpm

40
6.5 Torque on gear trains

Let
ci =Applied input torque
co =Resisting torque on output shaft
ch =Torque to hold the casting fixed

Output shaft

Casting
Input shaft

Figure 35:

If there is no acceleration of the system the net torque applied to the unit about any
axis must be zero. Also kinetic energy of the system remains constant so that the net
work done per second is zero.

ci + co + ch = 0

ci ωi + co ωo = 0

It is important to assign the appropriate signs to the torques and velocities in these two
equations. If the casting is not fixed cn represent either input or output torque

Case 1: Input and output shafts rotating in the same direction.

In this case the direction of holding torque will depend on relative magnitude of Ci and co

Case 2: Input and output shafts rotating in opposite direction

In this case the direction of holding torque is opposite that of input torque. If there is
friction the efficiency of the unit η is given by
Power output co ωo
η= =
Power input ci ωi

ηci ωi + co ωo = 0

41
 Output shaft

Output shaft

Casting cn co
put shaft
g
ωo
Output shaft
cn

ωi
ωi
ci
Input shaft

Figure 36: Input shaft

ωo

cn
co

ci
ωi

Figure 37:

6.6 Acceleration of gear train

ωB
If any two shafts A and B are rotating in fixed gear ratio G = ωA
, then the accelerations
will also be at the same ratios
αB
=G
αA

Let IA be the moment of inertia of A and IB be the moment of inertia of B. The the
torque to accelerate A is equal to IA αA . Torque to accelerate B is equal to IB αB . Power
required to accelerate the system

P = Tω

= (IA αn )ωA + (IB αB )ωB

But ωB = GωA and αB = GαA .

42
 A

ωA

B ωB

Figure 38:

⇒ P = In αA ωA + (IBG αA )GωA

= (IA + G2 IB )αA ωA

This power is produced by applying torque TA to A

Then power=TA ωA

⇒ TA ωA = (IA + G2 IB )αA ωA
= (IA + G2 IB )αA
TA = Ie αA

Ie is the equivalent inertia of the system referred to A

Consider a simple train as shown in the figure. 39
Let S be the driving wheel and L be the driven shaft. Total kinetic Energy of the system

1 1 1 1
K.E = IS ωS2 + IL ωL2 + 3( IP ωP2 + mP vP2 )
2 2 2 2
ωS2 h  ω 2
L
n  ω 2
P
 ω × v 2 oi
L
= IS + IL + 3 IP + mP
2 ωS ωS ωs

Energy supplied to the system in unit time is equal to gωs

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 P

L A
S

Figure 39:

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7 CAM’s

The transformation of one of the simple motions, such as rotation, into any other motions
is often conveniently accomplished by means of a cam mechanism A cam mechanism
usually consists of two moving elements, the cam and the follower, mounted on a fixed
frame. Cam devices are versatile, and almost any arbitrarily-specified motion can be
obtained. In some instances, they offer the simplest and most compact way to transform
motions.
A cam may be defined as a machine element having a curved outline or a curved groove,
which, by its oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to
another element called the follower. The cam has a very important function in the
operation of many classes of machines, especially those of the automatic type, such as
printing presses, shoe machinery, textile machinery, gear-cutting machines, and screw
machines. In any class of machinery in which automatic control and accurate timing are
paramount, the cam is an indispensable part of mechanism. The possible applications
of cams are unlimited, and their shapes occur in great variety.

7.1 Classification of Cam mechanisms

We can classify cam mechanisms by the modes of input/output motion, the configuration
and arrangement of the follower, and the shape of the cam. We can also classify cams
by the different types of motion events of the follower and by means of a great variety
of the motion characteristics of the cam profile.

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