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IPM for the

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Urban Professional:
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A Study Guide for the Associate

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Certified Entomologist

Mike Merchant, PhD, BCE

Richard H. Levine
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IPM for the Urban Professional:
A Study Guide for the Associate Certified Entomologist

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Mike Merchant, PhD, BCE

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Richard H. Levine

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Entomological Society of America Entomological Society of America

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3 Park Place, Suite 307 Certification Corporation

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Annapolis, MD 21401-3722 3 Park Place, Suite 307

Annapolis, MD 21401-3722
+1 301-731-4535 • [email protected]
+1 301-731-4535 • [email protected]

Copyright 2015 by the Entomological Society of America

All rights reserved
ISBN 978-0-9966674-0-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015948296

On the cover, clockwise from left: Pest management professional inspecting drain, photo by Matthew Chism; Florida carpenter ants, photo courtesy
of the National Pest Management Association; pest management professional applying pesticide, photo by American Pest; bed bug on skin, photo
courtesy of the National Pest Management Association. Back cover photo by Matthew Chism.

Images in this book are for illustrative purposes only and may or may not show BCEs and ACEs and other licensed pest control professionals.

2
Table of Contents

Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Study Guide Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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Chapter 1: The Associate Certified Entomologist (ACE) Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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Chapter 2: What Is IPM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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Chapter 3: Inspection Is the Backbone of IPM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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Chapter 4: Monitoring and Action Thresholds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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Chapter 5: Selecting Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
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Chapter 6: Insecticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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Chapter 7: Pesticide Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

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Chapter 8: Insect Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

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Chapter 9: Insect Morphology, Biology, and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

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Chapter 10: Major Structural Pest Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

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Ants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
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Cockroaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
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Wood-Destroying Insects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

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Stored-Product and Fabric Pests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

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Flies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
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Biting and Stinging Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

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Occasional Invaders and General Household Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

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Common Vertebrate Pests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Chapter 11: Problems Beyond the Realm of the PMP: Mystery Bites, Medical Issues,
and Delusional Infestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Chapter 12: Introduction to ACE Exam Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inside Back Cover

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 Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the input of many individuals and organizations.
In particular, ESA would like to extend our thanks to our principal reviewers, including
Jim Fredericks (BCE) and Bennett Jordan from the National Pest Management Association (NPMA),
and Ron Harrison from Rollins.

Additional and invaluable reviews, graphics, and insights were provided by

Bob Davis (BCE), Gerry Wegner (BCE-Emeritus), Gene White (BCE), Rebecca Baldwin (BCE),

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Eric Smith (BCE), Stoy Hedges (BCE), Jerry Heath (BCE-Emeritus), Chelle Hartzer (BCE),

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Roy Parker (BCE-Emeritus), Forrest St. Aubin (BCE-Emeritus), Peter Stiegelmeyer (ACE),

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Austin Frishman (BCE-Emeritus), Coby Schal, Art Appel, Kaci Buhl, Mike Rust,

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Jim Sargent, Dawn Gouge, Maggie Hardy, Rick Vetter, Whitney Cranshaw, Faith Oi,
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Nancy Hinkle, Magdalen Cattle, Matthew Chism, American Pest, and Joseph LaForest
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and the rest of the team at Bugwood.org.

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Foreword
By Austin M. Frishman, PhD, BCE-Emeritus
In my association with the pest management industry, I’ve met many very capable technicians
who do not have the opportunity to seek a higher education. Financial, family, military, and
other obligations prevent them from seeking an advanced degree. The ACE program allows a
dedicated and inquiring mind to achieve higher, recognized status.

From my standpoint, enrolling in the ACE program instantly triggers three actions:

1. It allows a pest management professional to improve his or her knowledge and to be

recognized for it. I have always felt that there is more practical knowledge in the heads

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of field PMPs than is available in textbooks.

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2. It allows customers to feel more comfortable, knowing that the work at their residences

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or commercial facilities is being done by the best of the best.

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of employees, companies, and therefore all of us.

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I applaud all of the PMPs who take the necessary steps to complete the ACE program. Congratulations to you!
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Before writing this foreword, I had the obligation and opportunity to read the enclosed contents of this publication.
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I was able to glean two pertinent points:

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• This is really good! Whether one is eligible for the ACE program or not, a thorough review of this guide will serve
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everyone who works in urban pest management. This is a must-read for anyone in this industry, whether they are
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going for their ACE or not. I found that it really “condenses down” what we as pest management professionals
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should know.
• After more than 50 years in the industry, it is heartwarming to see how far we have advanced as an industry and
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how proud I am to be associated with it. I am sure that over the next 50 years this guide will be revised and
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updated many times over, but this first manual is a giant step forward in verifying that our industry works hard at
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providing a valuable service to all who need us.

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As “Guardians of our Environment,” we have an obligation to lead the way to perform pest management in a manner
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that protects the people, pets, and structures we service. The knowledge obtained by becoming an ACE best equips you
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to do this. Just as medical doctors, pharmacists, and auto mechanics must stay up-to-date to perform their services at
ever-increasing standards, so must we.

Be aware that ACE is a certification program, not a certificate. As with any other professional certification (medical,
teaching, etc.), you are mandated to keep up with your professional training in order to keep your certification active.
This is what makes the achievement so meaningful.

The culmination of the ACE program fulfills a dream of mine. In 1960 while an entomology student at Cornell University
(the only entomology undergraduate in the entire university), I worked full-time in the summers and part-time while in
school for a conscientious pest management company. I saw the need to have entomologists provide training to produce
individuals that could work full-time in the urban pest management industry. Now that the Entomological Society of
America and the National Pest Management Association are partnering to create, promote, and implement the ACE
and ACE-International Programs, my dream is coming true.

I rest assured that our industry is engaged in creating a plethora of competent people to carry on the task of ever
improving our services.

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Study Guide Introduction
The primary purpose of this book is to help individuals who
are studying to take the Associate Certified Entomologist
(ACE) exam by consolidating information from many
sources into one document. However, others in the pest
management industry and students learning the principles
of Integrated Pest Management may also find it useful.
Readers who plan to take the ACE exam are advised to
skip ahead to Chapter 12, which provides information
about the exam and test-taking tips, and then to start

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It should be clear to the reader that this book is NOT

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insect-identification key, or as a comprehensive book

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encompassing all aspects of the pest management
profession. Instead, it is a study guide that explains: R
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(IPM)
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In addition, when appropriate, an attempt is made to direct the reader to other sources of information
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for more in-depth coverage of these topics. For example, the NPMA Field Guide to Structural Pests—
which includes detailed information on nearly 200 different pests and nearly 1,000 photos and
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drawings—is highly recommended reading material for ACE applicants. This reference and
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additional suggestions for further reading are also listed at the end of this book and on the ACE
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website at www.entocert.org/books-study-ace.
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In order to qualify to take the ACE exam, one must have at least five years of proven work experience
in the pest management industry, so it is assumed that the reader has a certain amount of knowledge
already. This study guide aims to explain pest-management science, regulations, terminology, and
concepts in everyday language that is easy to understand. The goal is to educate PMPs—the men
and women who improve our lives by applying the science of pest management to everyday
problems—to whom this book is dedicated.

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CHAPTER 1

The Associate Certified Entomologist (ACE) Program

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his book is primarily designed for pest condition of employment. Having a certified
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management professionals who are professional on staff can give a company

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preparing to be designated Associate the edge it needs to compete successfully

Certified Entomologists (ACEs) by the with other pest control providers. In addition,
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Entomological Society of America (ESA), employees benefit from an increased sense

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the largest organization in the world serving the of pride and accomplishment when they
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professional and scientific needs of entomologists achieve certification.

and individuals in related disciplines. Founded in
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1889, ESA has nearly 7,000 members today.

What are the benefits of ACE Certification?
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become the model for professionalism and training

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required to excel in the pest control industry in the • An embroidered uniform patch.
United States and, increasingly, around the world. • A lapel pin to wear during business or social
The ACE program is designed to benefit the functions.
practicing pest management professional. One
• A static-cling decal to display on office or
does not need an advanced degree to participate,
vehicle windows.
just a solid grasp of the practical aspects of
applied entomology. • A certificate of accomplishment.
• A free online subscription to the ESA newsletter.
Why should I become ACE Certified? • A discounted rate to attend the ESA Annual
Many institutions and organizations such as Meeting.
schools, hospitals, government agencies, factories, • A copy of the ACE Code of Ethics that assures
and food-handling facilities require independent their employers and customers that they ascribe
certification for their contractors. Many employers to the highest ethical standards.
are now considering ACE certification as a desired

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 CHAPTER 1: THE ASSOCIATE CERTIFIED ENTOMOLOGIST PROGRAM

• Advertising assistance (upon request) in Both programs additionally require applicants to

developing copy for radio, television, and print submit two letters of reference from professional
advertisements to promote their certification colleagues (other ACEs or BCEs, employers, past
and business. employers, colleagues, major clients, government
• The right to display the letters “ACE” after their officials, etc.) and to sign the ACE Code of Ethics.
names (e.g., John Doe, ACE). The heart of the ACE program is the exam. The ACE
• The right to use the ACE logo in their promotional exam is rigorous and should not to be taken lightly.
advertisements (employers can use the logo It is designed to test practicing pest management
as long as they have one or more Associate professionals on the practical aspects of applied
Certified Entomologists on their full-time staff). entomology. It has been said that the ACE exam is
among the toughest tests in structural pest control,
and applicants are encouraged to take their
preparation for it seriously. Applicants for ACE
A certificate, once obtained, needs no certification take just one exam. ACE-International

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that covers pesticide safety.
in perpetuity. A college degree is essentially a

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The ACE program is available as a career-building to date in their profession should find the ACE exam
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option for the majority of PMPs around the world. challenging, but fair.
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ACE-International.*
Program website (www.entocert.org) offers
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ACE is the right program for you if you are a information about other study materials (see the
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permanent resident of the USA, hold a current Suggestions for Further Reading section at the
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pesticide applicator’s license, and have a minimum end of this book). Review classes administered
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of five years of experience in structural pest control. by certified entomologists may also be available in
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Your applicator’s license must be issued by a state, your area, or online. For more information about
federal, military, or tribal authority, and it must allow review courses, contact ESA.
you to apply pesticides without supervision. If none
The major categories of competency covered by the
of the licenses issued in your area allow for
ACE examination include:
unsupervised application, then you must hold the
highest level of license that is issued in your area. • The concept of Integrated Pest Management
(IPM)
ACE-International is the program for you if you are
not a permanent resident of the USA but do have at • Inspection as the backbone of IPM
least five years of structural pest control experience. • Monitoring and sampling
• Determining action thresholds

*The requirements shown are correct at the time of publication, but may adjust over time. For current requirements, please consult the website at www.entocert.org/ACE.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

• Selecting control methods product development, management, extension, or

• Insecticides and how they work regulatory fields. Both programs are designed to
provide better credibility in the field of entomology
• Pesticide rules and regulations and to provide greater career opportunities.
• Insect classification
There are differences in both the examination and
• Basic insect biology the recertification requirements for ACEs and BCEs.
• Important arthropod groups The BCE exams have many parts and tend to cover
• Rodents, birds, bats, and ectoparasites general principles of entomological science, as well
as more in-depth knowledge of one or more fields
• Mystery bites and delusory parasitosis of certification. The recertification requirements for
BCEs are also more demanding and detailed than
Once I become an ACE, how do I for the ACE program. If you have earned a degree
maintain the ACE certification? in entomology or a closely related field, you should
ACE is a certification program, as opposed to a consider applying to become a BCE.

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entomologist?

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program. A certification program, however, requires career-enhancing opportunity and a great way to
maintenance, and ACE is no exception. The ACE
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differentiate yourself from others in the field, you
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credential is renewed every three years. The process are not an entomologist when you become an
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includes: ACE—you are an Associate Certified Entomologist.

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• Submitting the required number of continuing- dictionary definition of an entomologist is a scientist

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education units (CEUs) that were accumulated who studies insects. However, the Certification
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in the prior three-year period. Board’s definition includes the holding of an

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• Reaffirming adherence to the ACE Code of Ethics. advanced degree in entomology or related disciplines.
In fact, Section 3.4 of the ACE Code of Ethics
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• Submitting a current copy of the pesticide

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stipulates that ACEs must refer to themselves as

applicator’s license (USA-based ACEs only; Associate Certified Entomologists or ACEs—not as
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program).
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• Paying the current fees.

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CONTACT INFORMATION:
What’s the difference between an
Entomological Society of America and
ACE and a BCE? Entomological Society of America Certification
The BCE (Board Certified Entomologist) program is Corporation
a separate program governed by the same Certification 3 Park Place, Suite 307
Board as the ACE program. The difference is that Annapolis, MD 21401-3722
the ACE program is designed around knowledge
of applied entomology—the kind of knowledge Phone: 301-731-4535
needed to work in the structural pest management Fax: 301-731-4538
business. The BCE program, on the other hand, Email: [email protected]
is geared toward professionals with one or more
academic degrees in entomology (or a related field), For more information about the ACE and
and who tend to work more in research, teaching, BCE programs, visit http://www.entocert.org.

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CHAPTER 1: THE ASSOCIATE CERTIFIED ENTOMOLOGIST PROGRAM

The Associate Certified Entomologist Program Code of Ethics

Current as of August 2015 (see www.entocert.org for updates)

PREAMBLE
The profession of Entomology is increasingly important to the welfare and progress of human society.
Associate Certified Entomologists (ACEs) have the position and authority to render effective service to humanity,
in keeping with high standards of ethical conduct. In order that the honor and dignity of the profession be
advanced and maintained, the Entomological Society of America (ESA) has established the following code to
define the professional conduct and ethics binding on ACEs.

OBLIGATIONS TO SOCIETY

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1.1 The ACE’s knowledge and skills will be used for the betterment of human welfare.

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1.2 The ACE will share in sustaining the laws, institutions, and burdens of the community.

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OBLIGATIONS TO THE PUBLIC

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2.1 The ACE will follow standard IPM guidelines in the performance of all of his or her professional duties—
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ensuring proper regard for the safety, health, and welfare of the public and environment; documenting
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findings as appropriate and required; and keeping all stakeholders informed of the process.
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knowledge and honest conviction, and will be factual in all estimates, reports, and testimonies.
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OBLIGATIONS TO THE PROFESSION

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3.1 The ACE will strive to advance the science and art of entomology, to guard and uphold its high
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standard of honor, and to conform with the principles of professional conduct.

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3.2 The ACE will cooperate in edifying the profession by exchanging information with entomologists, and
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by contributing to the work of technical societies and the technical press, where disclosure of such
information does not conflict with the interests of clients and employers.

3.3 The ACE will strive to promote the public’s awareness and perception of pest management, pest
management professionals, and all facets of the pest management business, taking special care of his/
her responsibilities as an ACE to defend the honor and prestige of the entomological aspects of the pest
management profession that are encapsulated by the ACE program.

3.4 The ACE, when referring to the certification granted by the Entomological Society of America, shall
always use the full title of Associate Certified Entomologist or ACE, rather than abbreviating to Certified
Entomologist or only Entomologist. The ACE will seek to inform others of the prestige of entomology
and will immediately report to the ESA any misuse or misrepresentation of the terms entomology,
entomologist, Associate Certified Entomologist, Board Certified Entomologist, or derivatives thereof.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

OBLIGATIONS TO EMPLOYERS AND CLIENTS

4.1 The ACE will act as a faithful agent or trustee for each employer or client, and will not knowingly engage
in illegal work or unethical practice, or knowingly cooperate with any person so engaged.

4.2 The ACE will undertake only those entomological assignments for which he or she is qualified. The ACE
will obtain, or advise the employer or client to obtain, the assistance of specialists whenever the employer’s
or client’s interests are so served best, and will cooperate with such specialists.

4.3 The ACE will indicate to the employer or client alternatives to recommended courses of action and the
expected consequences of each recommended action and alternative.

4.4 The ACE will inform the employer or client of any financial interest, or other conflicting interest, he or
she has in any person, material, device, or concept which is or might become involved in a project

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or work for the employer or client. Decisions regarding entomological or business services to be performed

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shall not be influenced by such interests.

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4.5 The ACE will act fairly and justly toward vendors and contractors, selecting their products and services on

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the basis of merit and value.

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4.6 The ACE will not disclose information concerning the business affairs or technical processes of present
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4.7 The ACE will not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than one party for the same
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service, or for other services pertaining to the same work, without the consent of all interested parties.
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OBLIGATIONS TO FELLOW PROFESSIONALS

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5.1 The ACE will give credit for pest management and entomological work or advice to whom it is due.
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5.2 The ACE will promote solidarity and harmony with fellow pest management professionals, respect their
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judgment, and support them collectively and individually whenever possible against unjust claims and
accusations.
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5.3 The ACE will not accept any engagement to review the professional work of a fellow pest management
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professional (except in litigation and editing of technical or scientific papers) without the knowledge of
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such person, unless the person’s connection with the work has been terminated.
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5.4 The ACE will not injure intentionally the professional reputation, prospects, or practice of another pest
management professional. However, proof that another ACE or BCE has done anything unethical, illegal,
or unfair in a professional capacity should be communicated to the ESA as soon as possible.

5.5 The ACE will provide a prospective pest management employee with complete information on working
conditions and the proposed status of employment, and during employment will keep the employee
informed of any changes therein.

5.6 The ACE who employs or supervises other pest management professionals will endeavor to encourage
and provide opportunities for their professional development and advancement.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 2

What Is IPM?

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professional (PMP) needs a strategy or philosophy tactics because experience has shown this to be the
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of how to best control pests. Like many other most effective way to manage pests, and because
trades that have developed “best management it allows pest management professionals to depend
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practices,” the pest management industry today less on pesticides. Besides the obvious health and
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follows the principles of Integrated Pest economic benefits, using pesticides less frequently
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Management (IPM). can also reduce the potential for pests to develop
pesticide resistance.
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IPM is a science-based, environmentally sound

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approach to pest control that was first developed in Today’s pest management professional must
the 1970s in response to environmental and human- understand, and know how to apply, IPM concepts
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health concerns about the overuse of pesticides. to real-world problems. Consider a kitchen with an
However, as IPM programs evolved it became ant infestation. Prior to adopting IPM principles,
evident that an IPM approach, whether used in standard pest control treatments would typically
agriculture or in structural pest control, was superior have consisted of protocols based primarily on
to strategies that relied heavily on routine pesticide treating the perimeter of the kitchen with a liquid
applications. The IPM concept is not universally insecticide. While such an approach was simple
followed in structural pest control today, but the and required little training for a technician, return
number of professionals adhering to IPM principles visits were often necessary, and pesticide residues
is growing. could be unacceptably high.

Integrated Pest Management is a strategy based A company using the IPM approach would be more
on multiple control tactics to ensure that 1) pest likely to have protocols calling for 1) identifying
populations are managed at acceptable levels, the ant, 2) determining the source of the problem
2) risks to people, other non-target organisms, and (for example, a point of entry from the outdoors or
the environment are minimized, and 3) pest control sanitation deficiencies), and 3) cleaning up ant-trail
is practical and economical.

13
CHAPTER 2: WHAT IS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT?

pheromones and sealing known or suspected entry

points. Then, if additional treatments were necessary, What IPM Is Not
an IPM approach would include 4) applying an
appropriate insecticidal bait, dust, or spray in areas Sometimes when explaining a concept, it
where ant activity had been observed. Finally an is helpful to think about what it is not. Here
IPM approach would require the technician to
are a few things that IPM is NOT:
5) communicate with the client (in writing) about
what actions were taken, which pesticides were • Applying pesticides on a schedule
used, and how sanitation or building-maintenance
without regard to actual pest problems.
improvements might prevent future pest problems.
• Initiating new customers with standard
Under the IPM approach, pesticides may still play “cleanout” treatments, without first
an important role, but they are used only when
determining locations of pest harborages.
needed to solve a problem, and they are targeted
toward a specific pest. When pesticides are used, • Basing ongoing service visits only after

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the IPM professional selects the least-toxic customer complaints.

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formulations and active ingredients to effectively

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and economically control the pest.
• Using the same pesticides in an account

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over long periods of time.

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According to the U.S. Environmental Protection
• Always reacting to problems instead of

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Agency:
finding ways to prevent them.
R
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“Integrated Pest Management is an • Spraying baseboards for cockroaches
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effective and environmentally sensitive and other pests.

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approach to pest management that relies • The prohibition of pesticide use.

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on a combination of common-sense
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practices. IPM programs use current, reported that insecticide active ingredients were
PR

comprehensive information on the life reduced by about 90% in University of Florida

E

housing buildings after an IPM program was

AC

cycles of pests and their interaction with implemented. IPM has also been found to be
the environment. This information, in effective at reducing indoor pest-allergen levels
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IN

and pest-transmitted diseases.

combination with available pest control
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methods, is used to manage pest damage IPM does, however, place an additional burden
O
R

on the PMP by requiring greater knowledge and

by the most economical means, and with training for technicians. Pest management
the least possible hazard to people, professionals must be able to correctly identify
property, and the environment.” pests and must have thorough knowledge of their
life cycles and biology, as well as the conditions
IPM techniques have been found to reduce that promote or support the pests. In addition, they
human-health risks, long-term pest control costs, need to understand all of the tools that are available
customer complaints, and work-order requests for to deal with pest problems, and they need to know
pest problems. IPM can reduce risks of human how to use them safely and effectively.
exposure to pesticides by reducing the amount of
Essential ingredients for IPM include: 1) identifying
pesticides needed to control pests. For example, an
the pest(s), 2) establishing thresholds to determine
article appearing in the Journal of Integrated Pest
appropriate actions, 3) conducting thorough
Management in 2012 (“Advancement of Integrated
inspections over time, 4) good recordkeeping,
Pest Management in University Housing,” available
5) using multiple pest control tactics, and 6) gaining
for free at http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/IPM10011)
the trust and cooperation of the customer or client.

14
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 3

Inspection Is the Backbone of IPM

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O
C
W
IE
EV
R
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U
O

Why Inspect? review of the account’s history, a check for work

C

orders, and a thorough inspection. And just as a

EP

Imagine walking into your doctor’s office for your

good physician knows the importance of medical-
annual appointment. As soon as you enter the exam
PR

history records, every IPM-trained pest management

room, the physician looks you in the eye and says,
professional should understand the importance of
E

“Forget about the examination, I know just what

keeping good records of the results of every
AC

you need!” The physician then whips out a needle

inspection.
and asks you to bend over for a shot. How would
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IN

you feel about the medical care you were about to Indeed, a thorough inspection is the foundation
LL

receive? of an IPM service visit. Under IPM, pesticide

O

applications are no longer a necessary part of a

Unfortunately, this is how pest control was often
R

pest control service visit—when there are no visible

performed in the past and sometimes even today.
pests, there is generally no need for spraying. But
Some technicians are instructed to routinely apply
it is impossible to conduct an IPM service visit
sprays, baits, granules, or dusts without regard to
without an inspection.
the presence or absence of a pest problem. If we
don’t appreciate the hasty physician’s examination- This approach to pest control may require adjusting
free approach, why should our customers appreciate the mindset of some customers, who have been
an inspection-free service? Since one of the tenets conditioned to expect a pesticide application for
of IPM is to use pesticides only when justified, a their money. Indeed, there may well be some cases
good inspection is essential. where prophylactic treatments for predictably
returning pests (e.g., some weeds, fire ants, etc.)
Just as every medical visit should begin with
may be justifiable. But the professional IPM
determining a medical history, inquiries about the
practitioner should recognize those exceptions,
patient’s health, and the running of diagnostic tests,
and should work hard to educate customers about
every pest control service visit should include a
the value of a good inspection and why pesticides

15
CHAPTER 3: INSPECTION IS THE BACKBONE OF IPM

should only be used when needed. To return to the This IPM approach is often reflected in the
physician analogy, most medical patients would advertisements that are used today by the pest
rather not pay for expensive drug prescriptions if management industry. In such advertisements, one
they are unnecessary. rarely sees technicians applying pesticides anymore.

The Pest Triangle

Food Sources
Insects and other pests found in houses and other
structures are most likely to be found near reliable
food sources. Sometimes the answer to a pest
problem is to simply eliminate or reduce the food

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source. Sources might include unsealed grain-based

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products (food for weevils and moths), spilled pet food

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(cigarette beetles), a dead animal (blow flies), pet fur

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(carpet beetles), over-watered plants (fungus gnats),

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other insects (e.g., silverfish as food for brown recluse
spiders), or organic debris under or around kitchen R
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equipment (phorid flies or fruit flies).
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Whenever a pest is abundant, ask yourself why? More

U
O

often than not, it is because of an abundant food supply Every pest requires food, moisture, and harborage.
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When these three requisites are found within the

somewhere that is sustaining the pest population. normal range of travel for the pest, conducive
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Knowing pest dietary requirements is important when conditions for that pest exist. Removing even one of
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scouting for and diagnosing causes of a pest problem. these requisites will help manage the pest.
E
AC

Water and Moisture

All arthropods require moisture for growth and reproduction. Some, like the German cockroach, seem
S
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to thrive best when close to water. Others, like spiders, get most of their water from their food and can
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therefore thrive in dry locations. Many wood-infesting beetles survive best in wood with higher moisture
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content (greater than 15%), whereas subterranean termites control the humidity in their wooden galleries
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by maintaining a soil connection. Therefore, humidity and moisture are important factors to consider when
inspecting and developing an IPM plan.

Suitable Habitats
Every pest species has specific habitat requirements. Some of these requirements may have to do with
physical conditions, such as light, humidity, or temperature. Others may have to do with ease of access
to food and harborage. German cockroaches, for example, prefer to live in crevices or cracks between
1/16–7/16 inch (1.6-11 mm) wide. Brownbanded cockroaches also require protected places, but they
prefer higher temperatures than other domestic cockroaches. For this reason, they tend to live and deposit
their egg sacs in higher, warmer parts of structures. Knowing the habitat requirements of such pests can
aid in locating their hiding spots, and in making recommendations on how the environment might be
modified to make it less suitable for them.

16
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Instead, technicians are seen with flashlights and pest damage or entry, such as holes in walls, tracks,
clipboards as they perform inspections and educate droppings, or cast skins; and 3) the pests themselves.
their clients about pests and their management
strategies. The following tools are useful for detecting the
presence of arthropod pests, determining their
paths, and identifying the pest:
What Inspectors Look For
The first step in pest management is to inspect the Flashlights. The flashlight is perhaps the most
account to determine whether there are conditions important tool for an IPM inspector. Flashlights
that are conducive to pests, and whether pests are illuminate the dark places where pests are most
present. If pests are found, they will need to be likely to hide. Even outdoors in the daytime, a strong
correctly identified and the level of infestation must flashlight is essential for illuminating tree holes,
be determined. dark corners of buildings, and shadowy areas along
rooflines. An inspector without a flashlight cannot
possibly provide an honest or complete assessment
Recognizing Conducive Conditions

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of an account.

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Did you ever wonder why pests are abundant in one

C
site within an account, but not in another? It may

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have something to do with the pest triangle. The

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pest triangle concept is based on the idea that pests

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need at least three essentials in order to thrive:
food, water, and acceptable habitat or harborage. R
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These three things must be reasonably close in

R

proximity to one another, the exact proximity

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depending on the pest species’ mobility. Modifying

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one or more of these three essentials can help make

C

the environment less hospitable for pests, and can

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make control efforts more effective. Part of the

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purpose of an IPM inspection is to note and report

the presence of the three key essentials when they
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AC

are found together. When they are, we often refer to The flashlight is perhaps the most important tool for an IPM
them as conducive conditions. inspector. Photo by Matthew Chism.
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IN
LL

Inspection Tools and Resources Moisture Meters. Many insects, such as carpenter
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Inspections are the backbone of an effective IPM ants or termites, are attracted to moist habitats,
R

program. Besides revealing the presence of pests, a such as damp or rotting wood. All insects need at
proper inspection can also indicate whether sanitary least some external moisture to survive. For this
measures or other actions should be taken. reason, tools to measure moisture levels in a building
have an important role in an IPM inspection.
Direct visual examination of an account is the most Moisture meters, available in different forms, can
common method used by pest control inspectors. determine the moisture levels of wooden structures
However, such inspections should be supplemented, and walls. Some can also reveal the amount of
when possible, by other data-collection tools like moisture (humidity) in the air. However, as useful as
sticky traps, moisture meters, or pheromone traps. moisture meters are, they are sometimes too slow
A careful inspection can reveal 1) conditions that to inspect an entire site, especially if the area is
attract pests, such as potential food or water supplies, extensive.
or suitable nesting places (harborage); 2) signs of

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CHAPTER 3: INSPECTION IS THE BACKBONE OF IPM

Insects and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Humans see only a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, in the 390-700 nanometer range. Light above
and below this range is invisible to the human eye. Light that is longer than 700 nm in wavelength is in the
infrared spectrum, and it is invisible to most animals. Shorter wavelength light from 100-400 nm is referred
to as ultraviolet (beyond violet), also known as UV.

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[nm] 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

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Ultraviolet Visible to Humans Infrared

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Visible to Insects

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The light spectrum. Humans can only see light in the range of 390-700 nm, but insects are able to detect ultraviolet
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light in the range of 300-400 nm as well. Infrared cameras can detect light in the infrared range, which is greater
than 700 nm.
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C

In addition to seeing at least some light colors that are visible to humans, insects can also detect light in
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part of the ultraviolet range (300-400 nanometers). Indeed, many nocturnal insects respond most to the
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ultraviolet portions of the light spectrum. Therefore, most insect light traps must emit energy in this range to
be effective.
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AC

UV lights, or black lights, can be used as part of an inspection program. When selecting a black light for
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detecting urine, rodent hairs, or night-active scorpions, the most effective and safe lamps to use are those
IN

that emit light with a peak wavelength of 365 nm, which is in the UV-A range (320-400 nm). This range
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works well to fluoresce materials with minimal risk to human eyes, although UV-screening eyewear is still
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recommended when working with black lights.

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A bark scorpion (Centruroides sculpturatus) seen under a black light. Photo by Dawn Gouge.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Care should be taken when using flushing agents

because insects may move in undesired directions
or at inconvenient times. In some cases, flushed
insects may be forced deeper into harborages or into
new areas of a structure, spreading an infestation.
Special care should also be taken when flushing out
cockroaches—especially when using compressed
air and aerosol sprays—because allergens in their
feces and their molted exoskeletons may become
airborne.

Stethoscopes. Stethoscopes, like those used by

medical practitioners, can be useful for listening
Moisture meters can determine whether moisture levels that are inside of wall cavities for rodent activity and for
conducive to pests exist in wall voids and other hard-to-reach-
noises made by bees, ants, and other social insects.

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places. Photo by Mike Merchant.
An advantage of the stethoscope is its relatively low

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cost and ease of use.

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Infrared Cameras. Infrared or thermographic

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Cameras/Borescopes. Small fiber-optic cameras
cameras allow the user to see part of the light

IE
(borescopes) allow visual inspections inside walls

EV
(electromagnetic) spectrum that is normally invisible
and other places that cannot otherwise be seen.
to the human eye, which can only see wavelengths
in the range of 390-700 nanometers. Today’s digital
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Digital cameras are excellent tools for documenting
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evidence of sanitation or maintenance problems,
infrared cameras can quickly reveal subtle temperature
as well as pests.
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gradients that might indicate the presence of insect

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activity or moisture that may be attractive to insects.

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Magnifiers. Magnifying glasses and microscopes

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Such cameras are able to scan a wall or ceiling are essential for identifying tiny pests such as mites.
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many times faster than a hand-held moisture meter. A hand lens with magnifying power from 10-15× is
They can also reveal areas of warmth that might
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ideal because of its portability and usefulness. Some

attract pests, which would not be detectable by a PMPs use higher power (e.g., 30×) portable micro-
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moisture meter alone. scopes for field identification of stored-product pests

AC

and other minute insects. None of these field-carried

An infrared camera can be useful for finding termite
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devices, however, can replace a well-illuminated

tubes or other insects nesting in walls or ceilings,
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dissecting (stereo) microscope in the office for

and it can help identify suspicious areas that can be
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careful insect identification.

further explored with a moisture meter or a borescope.
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Infrared cameras tend to be considerably more

expensive than moisture meters, though relatively
low-cost IR attachments for smart phones may
make the use of infrared inspections more
accessible to pest control companies in the future.

Flushing Agents. Flushing agents are physical

or chemical agents that cause pests to evacuate
harborages. The use of a flushing agent is desirable
when it is necessary to expose a pest in its hiding
place, or to force a pest into a treated or trapped
area. Flushing agents include compressed air, heat
guns, certain aerosol sprays, liquids, and dusts.
In some cases, glue boards or other sticky devices Stereo microscopes like this one are often needed in order to
may be placed near the harborage site to catch properly identify minute insects and other arthropods.
exiting insects, which can then be identified. Photo by G.S. Wegner.

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CHAPTER 3: INSPECTION IS THE BACKBONE OF IPM

Spatulas. Insect pests often hide in small cracks university or well-respected pest control sites.
and crevices where they can be difficult to see. A University websites are usually identifiable by the
narrow-bladed spatula can be very useful in helping .edu (education) domain extension, and often come
dig out pests as well as droppings, nesting materials, up first on search engine sites.
shed wings, molted skins or exoskeletons, and other
clues during an inspection. Spatulas are also helpful One simple way to ensure getting good online
for removing old bait applications that have dried search results is to add the word “extension” to your
and are no longer palatable to pests. search. For example, instead of just searching for
the word “cockroach,” do a search using the words
Collecting Vials. Even the most experienced pest “cockroach” and “extension.” By doing so, you will
management professional will discover insects with likely get search results for trustworthy websites that
which he or she is unfamiliar. In such cases, Petri are owned by university extension services.
dishes, plastic vials, and other containers can be
used for safe storage and transportation. Waterproof Some good websites that are not affiliated with
containers, such as two- or four-dram glass vials universities do exist. Unfortunately, there are also

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containing small amounts of ethanol or rubbing many websites that contain misinformation about

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alcohol, are especially useful for storing ants and pests and pest control, so it is best to corroborate

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smaller pests that are most easily captured with any information you find online with more than one

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a wet paintbrush. Insects with scaly wings—like source.

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moths and butterflies—are best stored dry, but

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Some good sources for online insect identification
almost all other insects can be safely killed and
and IPM information include:
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properly preserved in some form of alcohol for
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future identification. Since the legs, wings, and http://bugguide.net – An insect identification and
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antennae are often needed for proper identification, information social-media site, hosted by Iowa
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it is important, when possible, to collect multiple State University and edited by entomologists from
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specimens in case some are damaged during

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all over the world. You can even submit images for
transport.
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identification.
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Canines. When properly trained, dogs can be used https://npmapestworld.org – The National Pest
to detect bed bugs, termites, and other insects. Management Association website has technical
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However, dogs are only as effective as their training information as well as model forms and reports.
and their handlers. Experts in this area point out However, much of the information is available only
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that effective dog-human teams should have a high to NPMA members.

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detection rate (correctly revealing a location where

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bed bugs are present) and a low false-positive rate http://www.bugwood.org – This website has loads
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(incorrectly indicating a location where bed bugs of plant-based information, as well as images of
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are not present) under field conditions. When landscape pests, forestry pests, and household
considering the purchase of a dog, look for animals pests, plus information and phone apps on
that have been certified in accordance with the invasive pests.
“Minimum Standards for Canine Bed Bug Scent
Detection Team Certification,” which can be found http://www.extension.org/urban_integrated_
in Appendix A of the NPMA’s Best Management pest_management – eXtension (pronounced
Practices for Bed Bugs at http://www.bedbugb- “EE-X-tenshun”) is a national one-stop shop for
mps.org/best-practices. Handlers should also information about IPM and a variety of urban pest
be trained and experienced in the handling of problems. Developed by university partners from
scent-detection dogs. nearly all 50 U.S. states, the site is especially
good for IPM in schools, and for fire ant and
Online Tools. Google, Bing, and other search wildlife-related topics.
engines can be great resources for finding insect
identification keys, fact sheets, and even IPM plans
online. However, it is always a good idea to look for

20
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

http://npic.orst.edu – The National Pesticide For example, consider three different cockroach
Information Network (NPIC) is a cooperative species. The American cockroach is an outdoor
agreement between Oregon State University and insect that can move indoors. It requires little food
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. It and a long time to develop. It will readily accept
provides objective information about pesticides baits, but large bait stations are needed. The German
and pesticide-safety issues. This may be a good cockroach, on the other hand, prefers kitchens and
site to recommend to customers who have other sites near food and water, and to manage
questions about the safety of pesticide products. them effectively, smaller bait stations should be
used, along with gel baits, sprays, and dusts.
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides – The U.S. EPA’s Finally, the brownbanded cockroach hides throughout
Office of Pesticide Programs is the principal buildings and is not necessarily found near water,
regulatory agency with authority over pesticide so baits should be placed in upper, warmer parts
labeling and enforcement of pesticide laws. This of rooms. In each case, proper identification is
consumer-oriented site covers lots of topics and is necessary in order to determine the best control
a good place to search for answers to regulatory actions to take.

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questions.

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Fortunately, there are many excellent reference

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books and websites available to help identify pests,
Identifying Pests

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including the NPMA Field Guide to Structural Pests,

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Pest identification is important for determining the Mallis Handbook of Pest Control, and many

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proper control methods and sanitary measures. A others. In addition, most states provide insect
misidentified pest may lead to using the wrong R
diagnostic assistance through their land-grant
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pesticide or control measure. universities. Entomology and plant pathology
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departments are the usual sponsors of these

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diagnostic services.
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Most Common Harborage Sites Remote identification, where a digital image is

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for Cockroaches submitted to a local state or university entomologist,

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is a convenient means of getting an identification

German: Indoors in warm, moist areas, like done quickly. Alternatively, samples can be collected
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AC

kitchens and bathrooms. and mailed or dropped off at a local university

research station or county extension office. To find a
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Asian: Outdoors, in leaf litter. university cooperative extension office near you, visit
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http://nifa.usda.gov/partners-and-extension-map.
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Brownbanded: Indoors, throughout the

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home, especially in warmer locations. Collecting Pests for Identification

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Oriental: Cool places close to the ground, If you are able to obtain a specimen of a suspected
like basements, sewers, and crawl spaces. pest and wish to send it to an expert for identification,
here are a few tips:
American: Sewers, basements, wall voids,
• Carry a pair of flexible tweezers or a paintbrush
attics. for picking up small, delicate specimens. Paint-
brushes can be dipped in alcohol and then put
Smokybrown: Mostly outdoors in wood piles
on small arthropods, like mites or springtails,
and tree holes, but also in attics and soffits. to make collection easier. In a pinch, clear tape
can also be used to collect minute insects or
mites. However, taped samples will prevent easy
observation, so this should be avoided when
alternatives are available.

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CHAPTER 3: INSPECTION IS THE BACKBONE OF IPM

• Most specimens can be killed and stored in past. Because of their diligence and dedication
alcohol—either ethanol or rubbing alcohol to having the pests identified, several invasive
(70% isopropyl alcohol is readily available in the species, like the Japanese cockroach
pharmacy section of most stores). Moths and (Periplaneta japonica), have been identified in
butterflies are best preserved dry and stored the United States.
in envelopes. Do not put insect specimens in
containers with cotton or cotton balls, as Taking Pictures of Pests for Identification
delicate insect legs and antennae (especially)
Digital cameras, even cell phones, can be very
can become entangled and break off in the
useful for obtaining a fast ID. Here are some tips for
cotton fibers. Also, if moist cotton is added,
getting good pictures that will help the identifier:
it may promote mold growth and destroy
specimens before they can be identified. • Make sure your camera is focused on the
• Collect as many of the insect pests as you can, subject and not on the background. Hold the
up to one or two dozen specimens. If you can camera steady and take several pictures. Send

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only catch one, that’s OK. But most identifiers only the best picture(s) for ID. Use the camera’s
prefer to have several individuals in case some macro feature, if available, as this will allow

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C
are damaged or lack the distinguishing you to focus more closely (read your camera’s

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characteristics needed for accurate identification. manual).

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• A letter or diagnostic form should always • The best lighting is bright, indirect light, with

EV
accompany the specimen. This information will minimal shadows. The more light, the faster
be invaluable to the identifier, and it will allow R
the shutter speed and the greater the depth of
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a museum to accurately label any specimens focus. Flashes can help, but sometimes they
produce distracting shadows. Bright, indirect,
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that are chosen for retention in a collection. It

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should clearly state: or diffuse light is the best for close-up photos.
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• Remember to include your name, contact

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– Where (city, county, state) and when the

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specimen was collected. information, location, the time and date when
your photo was taken, the reason you are
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– If outdoors, the kind of plant on which it

was collected. submitting the photo, and the measured
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length of the specimen, since scale is often

– The reason for requesting the identification.
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not identifiable from an image.

Did the insect bite or sting? Was it collected
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indoors? Was it causing any damage? • Try to include diagnostic characteristics in the
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– Your name and your company’s name, the photos, such as the antennae, legs, wings, and
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complete mailing address, current phone mouthparts.

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number, and email address (for faster service).

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• Make sure that your sample consists of discrete

Pest Signs
specimens. For practical reasons, most Since many pests are nocturnal or tend to avoid
entomologists will not accept general household activity when humans are present, signs left behind
sweepings, clothing, wash water, vacuum by the pests are often the most important evidence.
cleaner contents, or samples in more than one Some of the most important types of pest signs that
ounce of alcohol or other preservative. an inspector should be trained to recognize are:
• Medical samples taken from skin or other Frass/Scat. Frass consists of plant or wood fragments,
human tissues are generally not accepted by usually mixed with insect excrement. For insects
entomologists. Such samples are appropriate living in wood, frass may consist largely of sawdust
only for medical laboratories. or wood fibers. The presence of frass indicates the
• Remember that PMPs have come across presence of insects, and it may also provide clues
insects that seemed out of place to them in the about the species of its maker.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

A related term, scat, refers to any type of feces or Mud Tubes or Nests. Subterranean termites are the
excrement. Both scat and frass can sometimes be most common builders of tube-like mud structures.
used to identify insects, rodents, and other pests. These tubes protect termite workers from predators,
such as ants, and they help the termites maintain
The texture of frass from wood-boring insects their ambient moisture requirements in their above-
can be diagnostic. For example, the frass from ground foraging sites. Look for hollow mud tubing
powderpost beetles is fine and silky in texture, (ranging from less than ¼-inch to several inches
with no large fibers or pellets. Frass from drywood wide) attached to the sides of foundations, walls,
termites looks like hard, six-sided pellets and trees. Termite mud tubes may also be sus-
approximately one millimeter long. Frass from pended from above when termite workers attempt
false powderpost beetles is coarse, tightly-packed, to connect the soil to above-ground feeding sites in
and tends to stick together, while frass from joists, beams, or other things made of wood. Termite
carpenter ants resembles tiny wood shavings or mud shelter tubes may also appear as small soil
insulation, usually mixed with fragments of dead encrustations on sheetrock or plaster interior walls,
insects that the ants have eaten. indicating a swarmer emergence point. Inspectors

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should note whether living termites are visible in the

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tubes and obtain samples of the workers if possible.

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Frass from drywood termites. Photo by Bennett Jordan.

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Scat from pests such as silverfish, cockroaches, flies,

E

crickets, beetles, bats, rats, or mice can usually be

AC

identified based on size, shape, and texture. The

S

ability to recognize scat (at least to the general pest A termite peeks out of the end of a mud tube.
IN

group) is an essential skill for any pest management Photo by Bennett Jordan.
LL

technician who works on residential accounts,

O

multifamily units, or in the hospitality industry.

Certain wasps also make mud nests and should be
R

distinguished from termites. For example, some

potter wasps in the subfamily Eumeninae make
squat, jar-shaped, mud nests for their offspring.
Similarly, some mud dauber wasps build mud nests
on walls that look like organ pipes.

Exit Holes. A number of wood-boring beetles make

characteristic holes as they emerge from their larval
feeding sites, and the size and shape of the holes
they make can help identify the species. It is
important when observing such holes to take careful
measurements of their shapes and sizes. For
Scat from American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana).
example, the exit holes of powderpost beetles are
Photo by Mike Merchant. round and small (1/32–1/16 inch; 0.8-1.6 mm),

23
CHAPTER 3: INSPECTION IS THE BACKBONE OF IPM

while the exit holes of old house borers are oval and Nests. Ants and wasps build nests that are distinctive,
relatively large (1/4–3/8 inch; 6-10 mm). Such holes which can be used to identify the builders. The
may easily be overlooked when doing a wood- size, location, distribution of soil, and number of exit
destroying insect inspection, so it is important to points can be used to help identify ant nests. Fire
develop the ability to spot beetle exit holes. ants, for example, are recognized by their relatively
large mounds that lack noticeable entry and exit
holes. Social wasps in the family Vespidae—paper
wasps, hornets, and yellowjacket wasps—build
distinctive paper-carton nests out of chewed-up wood.
Remember that nests made from either paper or wax
are built by social insects that are capable of stinging,
so these nests should be treated with respect.

PY
Exit holes made by powderpost beetles. Photo by Mike Merchant.

O
C
Eggs and Egg Cases. Most insect eggs are tiny

W
and rarely seen. Nevertheless, eggs can provide

IE
EV
evidence of the presence of hard-to-find pests.
Bed bug eggs are about one millimeter long and are R
usually deposited on rough surfaces near bed bug
SE

harborage sites. Cockroach egg sacs, known as

R

Mud nests, like this mud dauber wasp nest, are only made by
oothecae, are easier to spot. Since cockroach
U

non-social wasps that do not defend the nest.

oothecae from different species vary in color and
O

Photo by Bennett Jordan.

C

size, they can be used for species identification.

Inspection Reports
EP

Black and brown widow spider egg sacs are also

identifiable, and can be found in barns, garages,
PR

Written inspection reports are important because

and other locations outdoors. they 1) ensure that customers are aware of pest
E

problems, 2) provide a history of pest signs and

AC

activity, 3) serve as a checklist for inspectors, and

S

4) can indicate whether IPM sanitation procedures

IN

are needed. Written or electronically-transmitted

LL

reports also provide an accountability record of what

O

has been communicated to the customer.

R

Oothecae of an American cockroach (left) and an Australian

Just as good medical records are important for a
cockroach (right). Photo courtesy of the National Pest patient’s lifelong medical care, good recordkeeping
Management Association. is an essential part of pest management. The
service report form (inspection report) is the key
Silk. The presence of silk can sometimes indicate element in any pest management reporting system.
the presence of a pest. Spiders and caterpillars The inspection report allows the customer, and
are the most frequently noticed silk producers the pest management professional, to review the
among the arthropods. However, other insect orders history of service at an account, including past pest
that produce silk include booklice (Psocoptera), problems, tactics and pesticides used, and reported
lacewings (Neuroptera), some beetle larvae maintenance and sanitary needs. The report form
(Coleoptera), and fleas (Siphonaptera). The presence also provides accountability for the PMP and the
or absence of silk can be an important diagnostic customer, should there be any complaints about
observation, and the form of the silken nests— the pest control program. In addition, the report
especially with spiders—can even lead to species can protect the PMP from allegations of pesticide
diagnosis. misuse or misapplication.
24
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Components of a Good Report After an inspection, customers should be informed

about these issues. Areas of concern can be
In addition to listing the pesticides used to service
marked as immediate action items or long-term
an account, an inspection report should provide
action items, along with guidelines on how to
an orderly account of everything seen and any pest
correct the conducive conditions. For example, if a
management actions taken during the service visit.
dumpster is located too close to a building entrance
While not all of these elements are legally required
and refuse has spilled onto the concrete, immediate
on forms in all states, some of the components of a
action items for the customer could be to move the
thorough service report include:
dumpster away from the door, tell employees to
• Name of the inspector. make sure the dumpster remains closed, make sure
that all refuse is contained inside the dumpster,
• Date and times in and out. and schedule trash pick-ups more often to prevent
• The location and activity measurements of pests overflow. Additionally, the customer should check
and pest evidence. the building’s air curtain and door seal, and should
remind employees to fully close the door each time

PY
• A map of the site when appropriate.
a trip to the dumpster is made.

O
• Non-chemical and chemical control actions taken,

C
including the names, formulations, and amounts

W
of any pesticide products that were used. Communicating About Pests

IE
There should be no such thing as just an “ant” in a

EV
• Locations of inaccessible areas when appropriate.
professional inspection report—nor a “roach,” nor a
• Locations and descriptions of conditions that R
“fly.” There are Pharaoh ants, German cockroaches,
SE
are conducive to pests, including maintenance
and drain flies. There are fire ants, American
or sanitation deficiencies.
R

cockroaches, and fruit flies. Any pests identified in

U

• Onsite hazards. a service report form should be reported as

O

accurately as possible.
C

• Temperature, weather, and wind conditions if

EP

pesticides are applied outdoors.

In line with the ACE Code of Ethics, this means
PR

that guesses about pests that are not immediately

Maintenance and Sanitary Needs recognizable should not be made. Instead, a
E

An often underappreciated component of an IPM

AC

good-faith effort to specifically identify and report

inspection is the report on maintenance and sanitary all pests should be undertaken. If the exact type
S

needs. Few maintenance workers look at overall of pest cannot be determined, then it should be
IN

building maintenance needs as thoroughly as the reported as an “undetermined fly,” or an

LL

IPM inspector. A good IPM inspector knows that all “undetermined ant,” etc.
O

aspects of building construction and maintenance

R

contribute to a structure’s ability to resist pests or It is not uncommon in the pest control industry to
to attract them. Building deficiencies—such as see service tickets that do not specifically identify
unsealed openings to the outside, a tree touching the pests observed during a service call. However,
the building, or irrigation that hits the side of the the mark of a true professional is precision and
building—may provide pest-entrance opportunities accuracy when diagnosing a pest problem. Precise
or moisture sources. identification of pests is important because:

Ideally, every pest report form—especially those • Insect species, even ones within the same order
used in commercial pest control accounts—should or family, may vary in their habitat, food, and
have space to make notes about elements of water preferences. Proper species identification
maintenance that affect pest control. By correcting is therefore important in order to determine
a condition that could lead to a pest infestation, a control methods and how inspections should
PMP may be able to prevent future interventions, be performed.
especially the need to apply pesticides. • Insect species respond differently to insecticides
and baits. Not all ants, for example, will accept

25
CHAPTER 3: INSPECTION IS THE BACKBONE OF IPM

BUILDING ELEMENT PEST CONCERN

EXTERIOR
Doorway thresholds, seals Crawling insects, rodents, snakes, ants, spiders
Air curtains Flying insects, flies
Window caulking, screens Flying insects, rodents, ants, spiders
Utility penetrations Rodents, snakes, bees, other insects, spiders
Roof lines, soffits Rats, bats, bees, wasps, other insects
Roof surface Rot, mold, wood-destroying insects, birds
Garbage removal and storage Rodents, bees, wasps, flies
Exterior lights Nocturnal flying insects, spiders
Grounds Tree hazards, landscape pests, fire ants, rodents, mosquitoes

PY
INTERIOR

O
Walls Cockroaches, ants, rodents

C
W
Flooring Flies, cockroaches, ants

IE
Utility areas Flies, cockroaches, rodents, silverfish

EV
Ceiling tiles Mold, flies, wood-destroying insects
Floor drains
R
Cockroaches, various flies
SE

Kitchen furniture, equipment, and food-storage areas Cockroaches, flies, stored-product pests, rodents
R
U

Some key building elements that should be inspected during an IPM service call, along with relevant pest concerns that might be
O

associated with each feature.

C
EP
PR

sugar-based baits, and some insecticides may In addition to the proper identification of adult
E
AC

be more effective against one type of ant than insects, Associate Certified Entomologists should
others. be able to identify the immature life stages of insect
S

pest species. These life stages—including eggs,

IN

• Not all insects pose the same risks or economic

larvae, pupae, and nymphs—often vary considerably
LL

impacts. Bat bugs in a home, for example,

are not likely to be long-term pests compared in appearance, in their diets, and where they live.
O

For more detailed information about how to identify

R

to their relative, the common bed bug. Some

insects normally live outdoors and may only be adult and immature insects, see the chapter called
accidental invaders in the indoor environment. Major Structural Pest Groups.
Thus, insecticide treatments for these insects
may be unnecessary, or should be directed to
outdoor locations only.
• Proper pest identification is the sign of a
professional. One of the quickest ways to lose
a customer’s trust is to misidentify an insect.
If you are unsure of an identification, do not
hesitate to admit it. Collect a sample or take a
good photograph, and then use a field guide
or key to identify it, or seek the assistance of
a trained entomologist.

26
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 4

Monitoring and Action Thresholds

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R
U
O

Quantify Your Inspection with Monitoring average of 0.8 cockroaches per trap, or that the
C

average house fly catch for three light traps in a

EP

If an IPM inspection is the backbone of an effective

food-processing area was, say, 2.3 flies.
IPM program, monitoring is the brains. With IPM,
PR

it’s not enough to say that pests are merely present

E

or absent. Instead, a professional IPM program

AC

requires estimates of how many pests are present

so an appropriate control decision can be made.
S
IN

Finding one cockroach in a kitchen set with 20

LL

sticky traps is not the same as finding 200 cock-

roaches in 20 traps. The problems facing a kitchen
O
R

with 200 cockroaches in traps are obviously far

different from the kitchen with just one, and it
demands a different response from both the IPM
technician and the client.

The quantified results of a single inspection—such

as the approximate number of cockroaches in sticky
traps, or flies in a light trap—may be considered a
Cockroaches on a sticky trap monitoring device.
sample of the pest population in an account (it’s Photo by Mike Merchant.
called a sample because it does not count ALL of
the pests in the account). Results of a sample are
Monitoring a pest population occurs when samples
frequently averaged to provide an overall index of
are recorded over a period of time. Only monitoring
the severity of the pest problem. For example, a
allows a pest management technician to see trends
pest report may summarize the results of sampling
and changes in pest activity over time. Monitoring is
by saying that sticky traps in a kitchen held an
a powerful tool that allows a PMP to assess the

27
CHAPTER 4: MONITORING AND THRESHOLDS

Monthly Numbers of House Flies and Phorid Flies

60 8

Average Number of Phorid Flies per Trap

Average Number of House Flies per Trap

7
50
6
40
5

30 4

3
20
2
10
1

0 0

PY
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul

O
C
House Flies Phorid Flies

W
An example of monitoring data in graphical form, this graph shows the average monthly numbers of house flies and phorid flies between

IE
January and July in a large food-processing plant. Each data point represents the average number of each kind of fly from six light

EV
traps. The graph clearly shows the impact of improved sanitation measures implemented in June. Such graphs can provide compelling
evidence to a busy client of the value of an effective IPM program. R
SE

impact of control efforts, and to make adjustments order requests, client complaints, or customer
R
U

to a program as needed. Only monitoring can pest-sightings in a log can also serve as a form of
O

provide context and meaning to the results of an monitoring, although reports from untrained
C

IPM inspection. Monitoring data can be presented observers are notoriously unreliable.
EP

in table form, or with the help of graphs. Data

PR

presented in graphical form can help clarify and The kind of metrics (quantifiable data) to be
increase its impact (see graph). Quarterly trends are collected is something a pest control company
E

should have as part of its protocols. There is no

AC

the minimal standard for several auditing systems,

but monthly trends provide even more detail. doubt that careful data collection and reporting
S

adds to the cost of IPM services. For this reason,

IN

Monitoring can also provide useful information not all pest control companies collect detailed
LL

about a pest population’s seasonal movements and metrics, and numerical counts of pests are not
O

distribution patterns within an account. The basic usually needed for residential pest control accounts.
R

components of a monitoring program are 1) visual However, sophisticated metrics may be essential in
inspection of the account, as described in the high-value, sensitive accounts, such as a USDA-
previous chapter, 2) the use of traps and other regulated food-processing plant, or a business
devices to obtain samples of pests and pest damage, with low pest tolerances. IPM is a flexible concept
3) interviews or work orders from the people who that takes into account the economic costs of
live or work at the account, and 4) recordkeeping implementation, so there are some IPM services
and reports. that do not require sophisticated pest counting.

Visual counts of estimated numbers of pest feces,

harborage sites or mounds, or of the pests themselves Sampling and Monitoring Tools
are useful measures of pest activity. However, such TRAPS
counts require experience, training, and a sharp
eye. Catches from devices such as light traps or Trapping is a useful way to detect the presence of
glue boards are more objective, and do not some pests. Traps are especially useful for monitoring
necessarily require the same skill level on the part cryptic pests that hide during the day, when
of the inspector. In addition, the number of work inspections are usually conducted.

28
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

When used as monitoring tools over a period of rarely efficient enough to eliminate or satisfactorily
time, it is best to consistently use the same type of suppress an insect population. On the other hand,
trap—the same shape, same attractant, and the for animals that appear in smaller numbers—ones
same brand. Also, traps should ideally be set in the with predictable behaviors based on intelligence
same approximate locations. Otherwise, sample (e.g., rodents or birds)—trapping may be an
results may not reflect actual changes of pest effective control measure.
population numbers over a period of time. Instead,
they may reflect better or poorer traps or trapping
locations. Some of the most important types of traps
include sticky traps, pheromone traps, pitfall traps,
and light traps.

Passive traps are devices that collect insects without

a lure. Their rate of capture depends on how often
pests visit the trapping site, and how likely they are

PY
to blunder into the trap. The sticky trap is one

O
example of a passive trap that works for many

C
crawling pests, such as cockroaches.

W
IE
Active traps are devices that actively attract pests. A sticky trap monitoring device, properly labeled with date and

EV
Carbon dioxide traps, for example, are used to location, and its contents. Photo by G.S. Wegner.
collect pests like bed bugs, which use CO2 to locate R
SE
their hosts. The pheromone trap is another example When placing sticky traps, it is important to choose
of an active trap. Sometimes, for some pests, active
R

locations that are based on the targeted pest and

U

traps can catch significantly more pests than its habits. For example, cockroaches—especially
O

passive traps.
C

early instars—do not tend to travel far from their

EP

Sticky traps are sheets of paper, plastic, or cardboard harborages. Therefore, it is best to place cockroach
sticky traps within a few feet of food and water sources,
PR

with one or more surfaces covered in glue or

adhesive. They come in many shapes and sizes. since that is where harborages will be located. Ants,
E

Flat, sticky sheets can be placed on the ground, on the other hand, may travel hundreds of feet from
AC

on walls, or hung in the air—like flypaper. Others their colonies, and traps may need to be placed in a
variety of locations along their foraging routes.
S

mimic harborage sites and may be constructed as

IN

boxes, triangles, or other shapes. Some sticky traps

LL

contain lures or special colors in order to attract

O

certain types of pests.

R

In certain sensitive situations where pesticides are

not permitted—near schools or elder-care facilities,
inside vending machines, or near other sensitive
equipment—sticky traps can be used to supplement
pest management efforts. However, relying exclusively
on traps for control is generally not a highly effective
pest management strategy, especially for insects.
Traps typically capture only a fixed (often low)
percentage of pests that appear in large numbers Ants follow structural guidelines, so traps and baits should be
and that display a high degree of randomness in placed along foraging routes. Photo by Mike Merchant.
their movement patterns. Additionally, traps that use
sex pheromones as lures may only attract males, Keep in mind that many insects and vertebrate
making them useful for monitoring but not for control pests navigate via touch (thigmotaxis) rather than
efforts. For these reasons, traps by themselves are sight or even smell. Therefore, traps should generally

29
CHAPTER 4: MONITORING AND THRESHOLDS

be placed on or next to structural guidelines where In general, when placing sticky traps for flying insects,
pests are most likely to travel. Ants follow structural a PMP should:
guidelines, such as cracks, corners of walls and
furniture, or edges along sidewalks or fence rails. • Start by placing hanging sticky traps evenly
Rodents tend to follow walls and prefer dark throughout a building in order to determine the
sheltered areas, hence the effectiveness of dark bait most concentrated areas of pest infestation.
stations placed alongside indoor or outdoor walls. • Assign numbers to each trap for monitoring
purposes so the sampling data can be easily
In general, when placing sticky traps for crawling recorded in monitoring reports. Keep records of
insects, a PMP should: the number and types of pests that are trapped,
and other relevant data.
• Place traps in corners and along the edges of
walls or cabinets, since insects often travel • Avoid using sticky traps in dirty or dusty areas
there. In addition to being more effective, since dirt and dust will make the glue less
placing sticky traps along walls and in corners effective.

PY
makes them less likely to be seen and less likely • If possible, try to keep sticky traps out of view

O
to be tampered with by children or pets. and away from places where people might walk

C
• Place traps near potential entry points, such into them.

W
as holes in a wall or near doors, until the entry

IE
• Be aware of local ordinances that may have
points can be caulked or otherwise sealed.

EV
special requirements for sticky traps near
• Assign numbers or color codes to traps so food-preparation areas.
R
sampling data can be more easily recorded in
SE
Pheromone traps – Insects emit chemical substances
monitoring reports. in order to communicate (see chapter on Insect
R
U

• Keep records of the number and types of pests Morphology, Biology, and Behavior). Insect-
O

that are trapped, and other relevant data. produced hormones used to communicate or
C

influence the behavior of other insects of the same

EP

• Replace traps when they become dirty or dusty,

species are known as pheromones.
since these substances make glue less effective.
PR

Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations on There are many different types of pheromones.
E

sticky trap labels about how often they should Among them are sex pheromones, which may be
AC

be replaced. In general, sticky traps should be used to find mates. Aggregation pheromones signal
replaced every three months or whenever they
S

insects to form groups in communal harborages,

IN

become dirty or too heavily infested. and trail pheromones are used to lead others
LL

• In food-storage areas, place sticky traps on or (especially ants and termites) to food sources.
O

underneath shelves at different heights, about New pheromones are still being discovered. Once
R

10 feet (three meters) apart. a pheromone has been chemically identified,

• For cockroaches, place sticky traps under researchers may search for ways to synthesize it
sinks, stoves, refrigerators, ovens, dishwashers, so it can be produced cheaply and used as an
and other appliances; inside drawers and attractant. Many insect pheromones are used as
cabinets; on the floor behind toilets and trash attractants in active traps.
cans; and on kitchen countertops. When possible, Pheromone traps can be used to supplement
place them against walls, especially in places control for some pests, but are more frequently
where cockroaches have been observed. used as monitoring tools. Many pheromone traps
• Remember to remove old traps because they resemble sticky traps, since both use glue to capture
may become harborage sites if they no longer the insects, but pheromone traps tend to be much
trap insects. Old traps may also be unsanitary if more efficient at trapping pests than passive
they get pushed underneath kitchen equipment. blunder-type traps. Pheromone traps are especially
Labeling traps makes it easier to keep track of effective for monitoring stored-product pests like
them. Indian meal moths and clothes moths.

30
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

The most common types of pheromone traps are interceptor cups are passive traps that catch bed
designed to hang from a hook to catch flying insects. bugs that blunder onto the device. Bed bugs climb
In fact, many flypaper products are impregnated up the rough outer side of an interceptor trap and
with pheromones. Pheromones can also be used fall into the pitfall area, where they become trapped
with pitfall traps, which lure crawling insects into by the smooth, unclimbable surfaces inside the trap.
containers from which they cannot escape.
When baited with an attractant, such as carbon
Some traps use other substances besides pheromones dioxide or a lure with human-odor components,
for lures, such as ammonium carbonate to attract interceptor traps become active traps. Humans can
certain species of flies, or oils to attract crawling also serve as “bait” if these traps are placed under
insects like sawtoothed grain beetles. the feet of a bed or chair. When used in this way,
interceptor traps can also act as barriers to bed
Like sticky traps, pheromone traps can be used to bugs attempting to infest a bed. Interceptor traps
pinpoint locations where an infestation is the most can greatly increase the sensitivity and accuracy of
severe. They can also be used to measure the bed bug inspections.

PY
effectiveness of a pest management program over

O
a period of time.

C
W
Proper placement of pheromone traps should depend

IE
on the label instructions written by the product’s

EV
manufacturer. But as a general rule of thumb, one
pheromone trap should be used for every 250-500 R
square feet (23-46 square meters) of space for
SE

small areas. For larger areas, such as warehouses,

R

one trap should be used for every 1,000-2,000

U
O

square feet (93-185 square meters) of space. Some

C

pheromone traps are specific to a particular species

EP

(e.g., cigarette beetles), while others may attract

PR

males of several different species (e.g., stored-product

moths).
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

Installation of a light trap used for monitoring flies.

Photo by Matthew Chism.

A pitfall trap under a bed leg, used to monitor for bed bugs. Light traps – Certain types of insects, especially
Photo by Richard Levine. flies and moths, are attracted to ultraviolet light or
black light, both of which are used in light traps to
Pitfall traps are devices that capture insects with monitor and sometimes control insects. Flies can
the assistance of gravity and a catch basin from detect light from light traps from 25 feet (7.5 m)
which insects cannot escape. Bed bugs and ticks away, and moths can detect the light from 100 feet
can be monitored in this way. Sometimes called (30 m) away. Insects that are attracted to the light
interceptor traps, pitfall traps for bed bugs can be are either caught in glue, or they are electrocuted
used either passively or actively. Without a lure, by a metal grid.

31
CHAPTER 4: MONITORING AND THRESHOLDS

In general, when placing light traps for flying Jar traps can be used to capture flying insects, such
insects, a PMP should: as wasps and flies. They come in many shapes and
sizes, but basically function the same way. Food
• Keep them away from building entrances and or other bait is placed inside the traps to attract
windows so they do not attract insects from outside. specific types of insects, which fly into the traps
• Place traps so that the light is visible from all but are unable to exit them. These traps should be
directions. checked and cleaned regularly since spoiled food
and dead insects may produce odors. They are
• Place traps in areas where pests are likely to be
rarely sufficient to control pest problems alone, and
found—near food sources, for example—but
their use should be combined with other methods,
keep them at least five feet (1.5 m) away from
like breeding-site elimination, nest treatment, and
areas where food is being processed or prepared.
good sanitation.
• When using a light near a food-processing area,
avoid traps that use high-voltage electrical grids Snap traps, live traps, and glue boards can be
to kill insects, as the insect body parts may used to both monitor and control rodents, birds, and

PY
shatter and contaminate the area. Instead, use other vertebrates. In general, when using rodent

O
light traps that capture insects with low-voltage traps a PMP should:

C
shocks or glue boards.

W
• Place traps along known paths where rodents or

IE
• Determine the proper height for light traps, their signs have been detected. For snap traps

EV
depending on which type of insect is being with triggers, the trigger side should be placed
monitored. For example, when targeting house R
next to the wall since that is where rodents
flies, traps are most effective when they are 4-6
SE
travel.
feet (1.2-1.8 m) above the floor.
R

• Tether traps with a cable tie or string, or put traps

U

• Light traps should be inspected regularly, as in tamper-resistant boxes or tubes whenever

O

often as once a week during fly season. Dead there is a chance that children, pets, or other
C

insects should be removed to avoid attracting non-target animals might encounter them.
EP

other insects, such as dermestid beetles that

PR

feed on them. • Check traps frequently (e.g., daily) to replace

bait and/or remove dead rodents. Frequent
• Only use light traps inside. Light traps are not
E

service will prevent odor problems and customer

AC

effective for managing insects outdoors, and complaints. Tethering traps will also prevent large
they may attract and kill non-target insects,
S

rodents from relocating them in wall voids or

some of which may be beneficial.
IN

other hard-to-reach places, where they may die.

LL

• In large buildings, use one black-light trap for • Attempt to match the bait used in traps with
O

every 1,000 square feet (93 square meters) of food that the pest is accustomed to.
R

space.
• To reduce trap shyness, consider the initial use
• Record the number and type of insects that of baited traps that have not been set. After
are caught in monitoring reports, and use the rodents have become accustomed to them,
information to determine which areas are most set the traps. This is especially effective in
heavily infested and to plan or adjust pest eliminating older, more experienced rats in
management strategies. rodent-control efforts.
• Most manufacturers recommend replacing light • Be sensitive to customer and public sensitivities
tubes about once a year since they tend to lose about trapping, especially when using glue
their attractiveness over time. Loss in UV output boards. Animal lovers and animal-rights groups
is not usually apparent to the eye, but can be often object to the use of devices that do not
measured with special UV meters available from quickly and humanely kill pests, and some
some suppliers. object to killing pests under all circumstances.

32
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

INSPECTION TOOLS
The inspection tools that were mentioned in the
previous chapter—flashlights, spatulas, magnifiers,
etc.—can also be useful monitoring tools. While
monitoring, remove frass and other pest evidence
for sanitary purposes and to aid subsequent
inspectors in detecting new pest signs.

A snap trap along a wall. Photo by Richard Levine.

Glue boards are outlawed for this reason in

PY
some countries. Public-relations problems may

O
also arise if a glue board is not completely

C
concealed inside a bait station, or is not

W
properly secured in an out-of-sight location.

IE
EV
DNA TESTS R
SE
In recent years, it has become possible to test for
active or past infestations of pests via swab samples
R
U

designed to pick up traces of pest DNA. Using

O

rapid PCR detection techniques, these methods are

C

powerful tools that can detect DNA from a variety

EP

of pests, such as fleas, lice, bed bugs, and certain

PR

mites. This technology may be especially useful in

investigating “mystery bug” cases where pests
E

cannot be found via traditional inspections.

AC

Inspection tools like flashlights can also be used for monitoring.

S

TRACKING POWDERS Photo by Matthew Chism.

IN
LL

Nontoxic powders, such as talcum or baby powder,

are fine dusts that can provide visual evidence Interpreting Monitoring Results
O
R

(tracks) of pests as they walk or crawl through the Recorded numbers from monitoring devices, such
powder. The presence of tracks or the lack thereof as traps, can provide clues about pest infestations
can be included in monitoring observations. and may suggest certain courses of action. Higher
numbers of insects in traps obviously indicate larger
NOTEBOOKS AND OTHER RECORDING insect populations, but data from traps can provide
DEVICES other clues as well. For example, if large numbers
Notebooks, audio recorders, and cameras are of cockroach nymphs and relatively few adults are
helpful for recording observations that can later found in sticky traps, a large and growing population
be incorporated into a report. Be sure to ask for is likely. If only adults are found, this may indicate
permission before recording audio or video in a declining population, or a small population with
occupied areas. the potential for later expansion. Stable populations
(equal death rates and birth rates) might be indicated
by a mixture of adults and nymphs, especially if
numbers do not vary greatly from month to month.

33
CHAPTER 4: MONITORING AND THRESHOLDS

When many small nymphs are found in a trap, a Thresholds can be based on health hazards posed
nearby harborage is likely, and the population in by pests, by regulatory restrictions (e.g., health
that location may be about to increase dramatically. department rules), by economic considerations
(whether spending money to control a pest is better
Sticky traps and glue boards can also be used to than leaving it as is), and by other factors.
determine where pests are moving and how they are
entering a structure. For example, if many crawling
insects are found on the left side of a glue board but Examples of Thresholds for
not on the right side, that would indicate that they Yellowjacket Wasps in a School Setting
are coming from somewhere to the left of the trap.
Location Threshold Action
Monitoring results can also show whether a pest
One per
management strategy is actually working. If fewer Kill as they appear with fly
room
and fewer pests are captured over time, the IPM Classroom swatter or vacuum, look for
(accidental
nearby nest.
strategy is likely achieving success and should be invaders)

PY
continued. If more pests are found, then the

O
strategy probably needs adjusting. Seal trash cans,

C
dumpsters. Look for and
One or treat nearby nests. Place

W
Monitoring results can also indicate whether and Dumpsters,
more per baited yellowjacket wasp

IE
what kind of action should be taken to manage trash cans
minute jar traps in dumpster, or

EV
a pest population. In this way, monitoring is the apply residual spray to
prerequisite for another important component of an R inside of dumpster.
IPM program, the action threshold.
SE

Children or
R

Inspect nearby nest, treat,

teachers
U

Thresholds for Action Playgrounds,

threatened
and remove. Treating trees
O

other areas or flowers where wasps are

or stung, or
C

Thresholds are sometimes described as boundaries nest sighted

foraging is not necessary.
EP

between “acceptable” and “unacceptable” pest

levels. But thresholds may also serve as boundaries
PR

between one type of pest control intervention and a HEALTH AND SAFETY THRESHOLDS
E

higher level of intervention. For example, low levels Pests that bite, sting, or spread diseases are most
AC

of cockroaches may justify increased sanitation likely to require this sort of threshold. Others pests
and client education, along with some strategically
S

that make living conditions unsafe—for example,

IN

placed bait stations. High levels of cockroaches termites that are destroying a home, or rodents that
LL

might justify more aggressive—and possibly more are chewing through electrical wires—may require
O

expensive—intervention techniques, such as deep this as well. Tolerances for such pests are usually
R

cleaning of equipment, wall-void treatments, and quite low.

extensive baiting and dusting. Knowing where to
draw action threshold levels is usually subjective,
PERSONAL-TOLERANCE THRESHOLDS
based on client expectations and the experience of
the pest management professional. Another type of threshold may involve the attitudes
of individuals towards pests in their homes or other
The same pest may require different thresholds for structures. For example, someone who suffers from
different clients, or in different settings. Warehouse arachnophobia is likely to have a very low tolerance
laborers used to seeing American cockroaches in an for spiders in his home—even harmless ones—so
older building may have a higher threshold for these the action threshold for such an individual would be
pests than, say, retail sales staff in a clothing store. lower than for someone who is not afraid of spiders.
For some customers, spiders will be highly tolerated, Others may have unusually strong fears of fleas, bed
perhaps even valued. Others may have a very low bugs, or other insects.
tolerance for even one spider.

34
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

LEGAL THRESHOLDS Even when an economic value can be placed on

Many laws and public-safety codes contain legal something, such as the value of a home at risk of
thresholds regarding control of certain pests, even termite damage, it may be difficult to estimate the
if the pests themselves do not present immediate precise level of infestation or of damage already
health hazards. For example, many states have accrued. Therefore, economic thresholds are rarely
laws about how hotels and landlords must handle used in structural pest control because of the
bed bugs, with low tolerance levels for bed bug difficulty in placing a precise dollar value on
infestations. Health departments often have their aesthetics, human-health risks, or the structures
own (usually low) thresholds for pests like rodents themselves. Also, most pest control contracts are
and cockroaches in food-service establishments. based on the general premise of “customer
Legal thresholds may vary from state to state, or satisfaction” rather than any kind of numerical
region to region, so contacting local health thresholds.
departments and housing offices is often the Once it has been determined that one or more
best way to keep informed. thresholds have been exceeded, and that action

PY
should be taken to control a pest, the next step is

O
ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS to determine the best control methods. That is the

C
When the damage caused by pests can be measured subject of the next chapter.

W
monetarily, the use of economic thresholds may be

IE
justified. To determine whether a service is justified,

EV
the cost of controlling a pest is weighed against the
economic benefits of controlling it. Economic R
SE

thresholds are used commonly in agriculture,

R

where the precise cost of damage caused by one

U

pest is often quantifiable. In structural pest control,

O

economic thresholds are used less often because

C

pest costs are difficult to quantify. For example,

EP

we could assume that a single cricket in a hallway

PR

would probably not justify the cost of a service visit.

However, dozens or hundreds of crickets gathering
E
AC

around building entrances and repelling customers

probably would justify a service call. Determining
S

a precise number for an economically justifiable

IN

response is difficult, and indeed may vary from

LL

one customer or situation to the next.

O
R

35
 CHAPTER 5: SELECTING CONTROL METHODS

CHAPTER 5

Selecting Control Methods

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R
U

O
O

nce it has been determined that a threshold • Client awareness training.

C

has been crossed and that action is required, • Adjustment of cleaning and maintenance
EP

the next step is to figure out the level of schedules.

PR

response. Depending on the situation, a low-level

response—like increased sanitation and monitoring • Modifications to sanitation and trash-handling
E

—may be adequate. Higher levels of infestation may practices.

AC

require a higher-level response, such as the use of • Increased monitoring with sticky traps.
S

pesticide sprays or dusts. • Placement of bait stations.

IN
LL

The time of year is another factor that may need to • Caulking and sealing of potential harborages.
O

be taken into consideration. Certain management • Gel-bait applications in deep locations.

R

methods or products may be appropriate for the

larval stage of an insect, while others might be • Deep cleaning inside and around kitchen
chosen for the adult stage of the same insect. The appliances and floor drains.
time of year may also help determine which methods • Application of insecticide sprays and dusts to
and products to use, as certain insects may pose available cracks and crevices.
a different threat in the spring than in the fall or • Application of ultra-low-volume (ULV) insecticides
winter. to deep void areas where cockroaches are
suspected to be aggregating.
Having a variety of effective control measures allows
finer tuning of action thresholds. For instance, Generally, higher levels of pests tend to justify
some examples of control options for cockroaches, more costly and environmentally intrusive control
in approximate order of increasing cost and effort, measures. The goal of any IPM program should be
include: to avoid the need for these more costly measures,
especially through education and changes in the
environment.

36
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

IPM Is More than Just Multiple Pesticides

Integrated Pest Management is sometimes defined The IPM Pyramid
as the use of two or more control tactics. Based on
this idea, some may think that using two or more
pesticides qualifies as IPM. However, IPM is of
course much more than that. In addition to proper
pest identification, knowledge of pest biology,
monitoring, and action thresholds, IPM relies on
integrating tactics from the following control
methods:

1. Quarantine and exclusion to prevent pests

from beginning an infestation.
2. Making the environment less suitable for pests

PY
through improved sanitation and/or changes in

O
building design or construction.

C
3. The use of cultural control methods to ensure

W
that habitats (especially outdoors) are less

IE
susceptible or attractive to pests.

EV
4. Physical controls involving electricity, heat, R
SE
cold, humidity, light, or sound.
R

5. Mechanical controls that involve barriers, traps,

U

vacuums, or other devices. • Chemical controls

O
C

6. Biological controls that pit other living organisms • Biological controls

EP

against pests. • Mechanical/physical controls

PR

7. Chemical controls such as insecticides, • Sanitation, quarantine, and exclusion

repellents, and attractants.
E
AC

8. Education of clients to change their behavior in Which part of the pyramid is the smallest? In a
ways that minimize pest risks and impacts.
S

well-balanced IPM program, pesticides should

IN

The use of multiple control tactics has been shown be used the least.
LL

to be the most effective strategy for controlling

O

pests, because if one tactic falters or fails, the other This IPM Pyramid illustrates an ideal, well-
R

tactics will still be there to help get the job done. balanced IPM program, where pesticides are
To use a boxing metaphor, it’s a lot tougher to relied on less than non-chemical tactics and
recover from a one-two punch than from a single pest prevention. This goal is not always
jab. In some cases, multiple non-chemical control possible with every pest, but it is a worthy
methods can reduce or even eliminate the need for pursuit nonetheless.
chemical insecticides. This allows us to reduce the
risk of environmental contamination and, sometimes,
human-health risks associated with pesticides. It
also helps preserve the effectiveness of pesticides
by reducing the chances of pest populations
developing resistance to them.

37
CHAPTER 5: SELECTING CONTROL METHODS

Quarantine and Exclusion CBP agents also inspect cargo in U.S. ports, airports,
and border crossings. On a typical day, they inspect
Quarantine programs are often put in place by
tens of thousands of international air passengers,
government agencies in order to stop the spread
plus air and sea cargoes on planes and ships, and
of pests, including insects, weeds, and diseases.
they seize nearly 5,000 prohibited products, including
They generally involve prohibiting the movement
hundreds of insect pests. In February 2012, they
of infested items that can allow pest populations to
reportedly examined 867.2 million cut flower stems
spread. For example, the United States Department
that were sent to the U.S. for Valentine’s Day, and
of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection
they intercepted 1,715 pests.
Service (USDA-APHIS) developed a quarantine
program for fire ants in the 1950s in order to
prevent them from becoming established in Sanitation and Cultural Control
uninfested parts of the country. This program An earlier chapter identified three things that
restricts the movement of soil, plants with roots pests require in order to survive: food, water, and
and soil attached, grass sod, baled hay and straw harborage. Removing or reducing one or more

PY
that have been stored in contact with the soil, used of these three things is an effective management

O
soil-moving equipment, and any other products tactic.

C
and items that may spread the imported fire ant.

W
Sanitation—removing food crumbs from a

IE
countertop, putting a tight lid on a trash can, or

EV
keeping food in airtight containers, for example—is
R
an obvious way of keeping food away from pests in
SE
a kitchen, but it can be used in other areas as well.
Keeping wood mulch at least six inches away from
R
U

exterior walls, for example, is a sanitary measure

O

that can be used to make areas next to structures

C

less attractive to termites.

EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

An agricultural specialist with U.S. Customs and Border

Protection looks for wood-boring pests in wood pallets. Photo
courtesy of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.

Anyone who has traveled outside of the United

States has seen a quarantine program in action
upon their return. Agricultural specialists with the This home has wood mulch at its base. A sanitary measure to
make it less attractive to termites and other pests would involve
U.S. Department of Homeland Security’s Customs leaving a six-inch (15 cm) gap between the wood mulch and the
and Border Protection (CBP) inspect baggage for foundation to prevent the mulch from serving as a termite bridge.
agricultural items that may harbor insects or Photo by Richard Levine.
diseases, and they are authorized to fine violators
under the Plant Protection Act and the Animal Cultural control, also known as habitat modification,
Health Protection Act. involves manipulating the environment to make a
site less attractive or less suitable for pest population

38
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

growth. This often involves a human behavior that The principles of sanitation and cultural control
needs to be changed. For example, removing are similar inside structures as well. For example,
backyard objects that contain standing water, like removing clutter from a bedroom gives bed bugs
old tires or flower pots, is a means of cultural control fewer places to hide, and removing a bird’s nest
against mosquitoes, since they require standing from a window sill can prevent bird mites from
water in which to lay their eggs. Other outdoor entering a home.
methods of cultural control include cleaning gutters
and aligning them so water does not collect in them, The primary reason for installing gutter covers is
removing old tree stumps and other rotting materials, to prevent downspouts from clogging, but these
cleaning up animal waste, pruning shrubs that may covers can also be seen as cultural control tools that
harbor pests, eliminating hiding spots where rodents keep birds from nesting in gutters. This is known
might build nests, moving piles of firewood away as exclusion, though on a smaller scale than the
from a structure, keeping tight lids on trash cans, exclusionary measures in the quarantine programs
and any other actions that keep pests from food, described above.
water, or harborage.

PY
Exclusion is an extremely important part of cultural

O
control efforts. Mice are able to squeeze through

C
cracks that are only ¼-inch (6 mm) wide, and

W
insects can enter through holes that are even smaller.

IE
The simple act of sealing or repairing holes can

EV
deny entrance to insects, rodents, bats, and other
R
pests. Building materials can also play a role in
SE
excluding pests. For example, replacing a wooden
shed—one that rats can chew holes through—with
R
U

a shed made out of metal could help exclude pests.

O

Using screens on porch perimeters to keep out

C

mosquitoes and flies is another example, as is using

EP

wire mesh on exhaust holes for clothes dryers or

PR

range hoods to keep out rodents.

E

Standing water in a backyard provides mosquitoes a breeding

AC

site. Removing the water is a form of cultural control.

Photo by Richard Levine.
S
IN
LL

Other cultural control tactics can be used to make

a structure or area less attractive to pests in the
O
R

first place. For example, some lights attract flying

insects, so simply moving an outdoor lamp to a
location that is farther away from a structure can
help keep insects away. Changing the light bulbs
can also help because certain insects prefer certain
light spectrums. Sodium vapor lights, for example,
emit light that is less attractive to insects than light
from mercury vapor lights or incandescent lights.
Light manipulation can also be considered a form
of physical control (see next section).

Caulking holes and cracks in exterior walls.

Photo by Matthew Chism.

39
CHAPTER 5: SELECTING CONTROL METHODS

Pest-Proofing Equipment
Exclusion can be used to prevent pest infestations. Some examples of exclusion equipment are:

• Screens or mesh on vents, exhaust holes,

and windows to prevent rodents, bats, and
birds from entering.
• Caulk, fast-drying cement, and polyurethane
foam to seal cracks, holes, and voids. Caulk
should be used for small holes and cracks
that are no wider than ½-inch (13 mm).
Cement, concrete, and other materials should

PY
be used for larger holes.

O
C
• Weather stripping and brushes around doors

W
and windows to deny entry to pests.

IE
• Air-tight plastic containers to seal pet food,

EV
Installing pest-proof stuffing into cracks around pipes is an
grain, rice, and other stored products to R
example of exclusion. Photo by Matthew Chism.
eliminate food sources for insects and
SE

rodents.
R
U

• Tree-trimming equipment to keep branches away from buildings, denying possible routes
O
C

of entry for insects and rodents.

EP

• Steel wool or copper mesh to plug holes and voids.

PR

• Bird netting to deny entrance to warehouses, loading docks, and other structures.
E

• Bird spikes on roofs, ledges, and other surfaces.

AC

• Metal guards around pipes to discourage rodents from climbing on them.

S
IN
LL
O
R

Physical Control of bed bugs, termites, cockroaches, and other

pests. However, care must be given so that high
Physical control generally involves manipulating
enough temperatures are reached for a sufficient
physical factors such as heat, sound, cold, humidity,
amount of time. Raising temperatures to at least
or light in order to attract, repel, or kill pests. For
140 °F (60 °C) for at least one hour will kill most
example, a dehumidifier in a damp basement can
arthropods. Steam, at low pressure, can also be
be used to discourage millipedes, crickets, and
used to kill insects at very close range, and
other pests that require moisture. If this is combined
steamers for this purpose are marketed for bed
with other control tactics, like caulking entrance
bugs and other pests.
holes in the basement (exclusion) or removing a
food source (sanitation), it may solve the problem Cold can also be used for pest management, but it
altogether, eliminating the need for chemical often requires very low temperatures for extended
applications. periods of time, since most arthropod pests have
evolved to survive cold winters. For example, a
Heat is another physical control component. Heating
study published in the Journal of Economic
a room or a structure can be used to treat infestations

40
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Entomology reported that a minimum exposure time In general, the following tips can be used to
of 80 hours at 3 °F (-16 °C) is required to achieve manipulate light in order to reduce outdoor pest
100% mortality for all life stages of bed bugs, which problems:
may make it impractical for large structures.
However, the study found that cold can be used • Use low-watt light bulbs that are less bright, as
effectively against bed bugs for small items, such they will be less attractive to insects.
as handbags or stuffed animals, if these objects are • Use yellow bulbs, which are also less attractive
placed in a freezer for 2-4 days, depending on the to insects. In general, yellow, pink, or orange
freezer’s temperature. Likewise, heat can be used to lights are less likely to attract insects.
kill bed bugs, fleas, and other pests on small items
• Use sodium vapor lights or other lights with
that are placed in a clothes dryer.
low UV output instead of mercury vapor and
fluorescent lights, which have a high UV output.
• Avoid using bulbs that create a high level of
heat, like halogen lamps and incandescent

PY
floodlights.

O
• Direct light only to areas where it is needed and

C
away from structures.

W
IE
• If possible, place light sources at least 15 feet

EV
(4.5 m) away from doorways, and avoid placing
R
them directly above or next to a door.
SE

• Minimize the time that lights are on. Some

R

insects fly only at dusk or dawn, so setting

U

timers so that lights go on one hour after sunset

O

Heat is a physical control component. The equipment shown

may reduce the chances of attracting insects.
C

here can be used to kill bed bugs and other pests.

EP

Photo courtesy of American Pest. • Close curtains or blinds at night, and turn off
unnecessary indoor lights to avoid attracting
PR

Since some pests need high levels of humidity in insects.

E

order to survive, dehumidifiers and air conditioners

AC

can be used to manage them. This is an effective Mechanical Control

way to control dust mites, for example, since it is
S

Mechanical control involves the use of machines

IN

difficult for them to survive when relative humidity

or devices to trap, restrain, or kill pests. The most
LL

is below 50%. Lowering relative humidity is also

obvious and well-known example is the use of a
O

effective against booklice (psocids), springtails, and

snap trap to kill rats or mice, but other devices such
R

other pests.
as vacuum cleaners, fans, or even fly swatters can
Light can be used to attract, repel, or trap insects, also be used for mechanical control.
depending on the species of insect and the
wavelength of light that is used. It was previously Vacuum cleaners can be very effective for removing
mentioned that light can be part of a cultural control flea eggs from carpets, or for removing occasional
strategy, since moving an outdoor lamp away from a household invaders such as stink bugs or lady
structure can help keep insects away. However, beetles. Since mosquitoes do not fly well in strong
manipulation of light can also be considered a wind, the use of an electric fan in a backyard—as
physical control method. opposed to spraying insecticides—is another
example of mechanical control.
Several factors determine whether insects will fly
to a light, including 1) the size of the light source,
2) the wavelength of the light, 3) the brightness of
the light, and 4) the amount of competition from
nearby lights.

41
CHAPTER 5: SELECTING CONTROL METHODS

Chemical Control
Chemical control uses a substance or mixture of
substances to control, prevent, attract, repel, or
mitigate a pest problem. These substances are
commonly known as pesticides, and they come
in many different formulations, such as sprays,
liquids, dusts, gases, powders, granules, and baits.
There are also many chemical classes of pesticides,
and each class has a different mode of action—in
other words, each one affects the physiology of
pests differently. This will be discussed further in
the next chapter.

PY
O
C
W
Vacuuming is an example of mechanical control.

IE
Photo by Matthew Chism.

EV
Biological Control R
SE

Biological control uses living organisms to manage

R

other organisms that are pests. It is more often used

U
O

for agricultural pest management—for example,

C

using insect predators like lacewings to attack and

EP

kill garden pests—but it can occasionally be used

for structural pest management as well. In fact, the
PR

oldest known example may be the use of cats and

E

dogs to manage rats and mice.

AC

Other examples of biological control for the

S

Chemical control using a liquid spray formulation.

IN

management of structural pests include using Photo by Matthew Chism.

LL

nematodes (microscopic worms, some of which are

parasites of insects and other arthropods), bacteria,
O
R

fungi, viruses, and even other insects. For example,

some wasps kill cockroaches by parasitizing their
eggs, and some phorid flies have been used to
control fire ants.

42
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 6

Insecticides

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R
U
O

What Is a Pesticide? A Brief History of Pesticides

C
EP

Pesticides are substances that are used to kill or Mankind has lived with arthropod pests like lice,
control pests. Pests are defined as living organisms fleas, and ticks for hundreds of thousands of years.
PR

—such as insects, rodents, weeds, fungi, or The bed bug and its close relative, the bat bug, have
E

bacteria—that occur where they are not wanted been associated with humans and bats since the
AC

or that cause damage to crops, humans, or other days when both commonly shared caves together.
animals. Types of pesticides include insecticides,
S

Pest management companies like Messrs. Tiffin and

IN

rodenticides, herbicides, fungicides, biocides, and

Son—“Bug-destroyers to Her Majesty and the Royal
LL

many others.
Family”—existed as early as the 1700s in England.
O

In addition to pesticides that kill pests, any substances A book called A Treatise of Buggs, published in
R

that are used to attract, repel, or in any way 1730 by John Southall, discussed chemical control
contribute to the job of reducing a pest problem of bed bugs by using a secret formula that the
are also considered pesticides. This means that author called “Nonpareil Liquor.” We have been
chemical pheromones found in insect traps using pesticides ever since.
(attractants) and personal repellents for mosquitoes
and ticks are considered to be pesticides, according By the early 1900s, a modest variety of compounds
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). were available for use against many agricultural
and structural insect pests. They included Paris
Pesticides include both man-made and naturally green (a mixture of copper acetate and arsenic
occurring chemicals. In fact, chemicals with trioxide), sodium arsenite, sodium fluoride, nicotine
pesticidal properties are commonly produced by compounds, pyrethrum, sulfur, lime sulfur, oil and
plants to protect themselves against insects, kerosene emulsions, and mercury compounds.
disease-causing pathogens, and other plant-eating Fumigants included sulfur dioxide, carbon bisulfide,
organisms. ethylene oxide, cyanide, naphthalene, and others. It
should be noted that many of these early pesticides

43
CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R

A Treatise of Buggs by John Southall discussed chemical control of bed bugs back in 1730.
U
O
C

were extremely toxic and would not be permitted Spring was an emotional and persuasive case for
EP

under today’s regulatory standards. Additionally, restricting many of the insecticides in use by the early
PR

most of them were only moderately effective against 1960s. Though panned by chemical manufacturers,
pests, so the most successful pest control efforts many pest control professionals, and some scientists,
E
AC

were those that combined the use of pesticides with the influence of Carson’s book is undeniable. It led,
cultural and sanitation actions based on knowledge in part, to a massive overhaul of the country’s
S

of the pest’s biology. pesticide laws (FIFRA) and to the establishment of

IN

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

LL

The modern era of pesticide use is generally said

O

to have begun in the 1940s, when the insecticidal In 1972, less than 30 years after its discovery,
R

properties of DDT and derivative chemicals DDT was banned in the United States by the newly
(chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, and others) formed EPA. Many other countries followed suit as
were discovered. Paul Hermann Müller, the Swiss concerns about DDT’s effects on human health and
chemist who discovered DDT’s insecticidal properties, the environment spread. By this time, resistance to
received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine DDT and some of the other new organophosphate
in 1948 “for his discovery of the high efficiency of insecticides was common. In many crops, new
DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods.” pests arose as beneficial insects were killed by
Winston Churchill called DDT “the excellent powder” pesticides. It was obvious that an alternative to
as it allowed allied troops to control mosquitoes and pesticide-based management was needed. From
lice during World War II, which prevented diseases these developments, the concept of Integrated
like malaria and typhus. Pest Management (IPM) was born.

The public’s love affair with DDT and modern In terms of pest control strategy, the IPM concept
insecticides was tempered in 1962 with the publication stands above and against the practice of complete
of the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. Silent reliance on insecticides (like DDT). DDT’s ability to

44
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

control so many pests so well may be what created insecticide-eating enzymes, or because their nerve
a public demand for a one-size-fits-all spray solution. junctions are slightly different than typical nerve
But IPM philosophy contradicts this mindset, junctions. Or resistance might occur simply because
insisting that there is no one-size-fits-all solution for the insect has a thicker, more-protective cuticle that
any pest. Instead, IPM stresses a science-based lowers the absorption rate of insecticides.
approach that uses all of our knowledge about pests
and their biological weaknesses against them. Its
focus on the use of multiple control tactics, and its
emphasis on less ecologically disruptive methods,
attempt to solve many of the problems we saw with
DDT. Ironically, in some ways IPM represents a
partial return to the old days when effective
insecticides were unavailable, when the only
effective option was to use sanitation—along with
physical, mechanical, and biological controls—to

PY
design a strategy based on pest biology.

O
C
W
Insecticide Resistance

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Growth of insecticide resistance in an American cockroach
Nature is highly adaptable. Over time, given the

EV
population takes place over multiple generations. In the first
right conditions, most pests have the capacity to generation (left), only one in six cockroaches are resistant (R) to
develop resistance to most pesticides. The first R
a certain insecticide. As these cockroaches survive and continue
SE
to breed with the increasingly rare susceptible survivors, the next
report of house fly resistance to DDT was published generation (right) is likely to have a higher percentage of resistant
R

in 1947, just a couple of years after DDT use individuals. Photos by the National Pest Management Association.
U

became common. By the early 1960s, German

O

cockroaches had developed resistance to both Whatever the unique characteristics of these
C

chlordane and malathion. “superbugs” are, their genetic quirks are often
EP

useless (sometimes even harmful) to the insects

PR

Resistance occurs to populations, not individual until a pesticide arrives on the scene. However,
insects. So what is a population? Biologists define a once the population is exposed to a pesticide, the
E
AC

population as a group of interbreeding individuals advantages of these genetic quirks are revealed.
more or less separated in time and space from other The insects that have natural resistance genes will
S

groups of the same species. This means that bed be more likely to survive than ones that do not have
IN

bugs living in two apartment buildings of the same the genes. Through the process of natural selection,
LL

complex may be two separate populations, if there insects that are susceptible to pesticides die and
O

is no easy way for them to interbreed. House flies

R

resistant individuals live and reproduce, becoming

feeding in dumpsters outside of the two apartment more and more common.
buildings, however, would probably be part of the
same population as long as they were able to For resistance to develop in a population, these
regularly interbreed. things are required:

So how does insecticide resistance occur? The • Genetic diversity must be high enough for one
short answer is that resistance occurs because of or more individuals in the population to have
the incredibly diverse genetic makeup of insect genes that confer resistance to the insecticide.
populations. Insect populations are often large, Without at least some resistant individuals in a
and within these large, genetically diverse pools of population, resistance cannot occur.
insects, chances are good that there are some • The insect population must have a high
individuals that are naturally resistant to a given reproductive potential and short generation
insecticide. Natural resistance might occur time. This allows resistance (R) genes to spread
because some individuals have higher levels of quickly through the population.

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CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

• A large proportion of the population must be insecticide works to control a pest is known as its
exposed to the insecticide. If new susceptible mode of action (MOA).
(S) individuals that have not been exposed to
the insecticide are allowed to continually breed The mode of action may involve the disruption of
with the insecticide survivors, the proportion very specific biochemical reactions. Neuron impulse
of resistant individuals will be diluted and the transmission, for example, involves a sequence of
increase in resistance will be slowed. several chemical reactions that are repeated along
the length of a nerve cell. Several important
There are some insects that have never developed
insecticide classes have modes of action that
resistance to insecticides, even after many years of
disrupt these types of reactions.
exposure. The boll weevil in agriculture is an example.
Millions of acres of cotton have been sprayed The authoritative guide to pesticide modes of action
repeatedly with malathion for decades. These is a group called the Insecticide Resistance Action
sprays have been so effective that an eradication Committee (IRAC). IRAC consists of key technical
program begun in the 1990s has successfully elimi- experts from agrochemical and public health

PY
nated this insect from the U.S. As yet, no resistance companies. The committee has put together charts
cases have ever been reported.

O
that summarize known MOAs for insecticides and

C
other pesticides. The insecticide chart is available
Interestingly, social insects such as ants, termites,

W
online at http://www.irac-online.org/modes-of-action/

IE
and bees are the least likely to develop resistance.
and via a phone app. Also, many (not all) insecticide

EV
This is because the reproductive unit of social
labels tell the user what IRAC functional group they
insect populations is not the individual, but the R
belong to (see figure).
colony, and colonies do not reproduce quickly. For
SE

example, termite queens (and their colonies) may

R

live 10-20 years. Also, genetic diversity within social

U
O

insect colonies is low. Even though termite colonies

C

may consist of a million or more members, they are

EP

generally all daughters of the same parents. Finally,

with social insects, rarely do we treat more than a
PR

small portion of the interbreeding population with

E

pesticides. All of these factors combine to reduce

AC

the risk of resistance in most social insects.

S
IN

Important structural pests that are most likely to

LL

develop resistance, therefore, are those that produce

lots of offspring, have multiple generations per
O
R

year, and are isolated enough so that most of the

individuals in a population are exposed to insecticide
pressure. Examples of insects like this include
cockroaches, house flies, bed bugs, and fleas.

Modes of Action The ingredient panel of a typical insecticide includes the common
name (chlorantraniliprole) and the chemical name. This label
Pesticides do not all work the same way. Some act
also provides the IRAC Functional Group (28), and a search at
as physical poisons that harm insects via suffocation the IRAC website will show that the active ingredient belongs to
(oils) or desiccation (diatomaceous earth, silica the “ryanodine receptor modulators” group.
aerogels). Others, like insect growth regulators
(IGRs), disrupt the delicate hormonal balances that
are critical for growth and reproduction. Still others Preventing Insecticide Resistance
affect insect nerve junctions (organophosphates, Not much can be done in the way of altering the
neonicotinoids), nerve axons (pyrethroids), or other genetic diversity or reproductive rates of insects.
basic metabolic processes. The means by which an However, we can alter the insecticide selection

46
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

pressure we put on them by following the IPM avoid impacts on many beneficial insects. Both
principle of using multiple control tactics (not relying market demand for less toxic insecticides, and
solely on pesticides), and by rotating the insecticides higher governmental standards for safety, have
that we use. contributed to these changes.

Insecticide rotation is most effective when rotation Knowing the different insecticide classes is important.
is made among insecticides with different modes of Generally, insecticides in the same class share a
action. When resistance occurs, it usually reduces similar mode of action, so insecticide rotations that
the effectiveness not only of the selection agent (the aim to minimize the risk of resistance should be
original insecticide), but also that of all insecticides made with products in different chemical classes.
that have the same MOA because they affect the Also, knowing the class that an insecticide belongs
same target site. For example, cockroaches that to can help one to remember characteristics about
develop resistance to one pyrethroid insecticide are that insecticide and its possible uses.
usually cross-resistant to all pyrethroids.
The following paragraphs describe the major classes

PY
To reduce the chances of a high-risk pest developing of insecticide. Keep in mind that new pesticide

O
resistance, it is best to periodically rotate among classes are under development, and the list of

C
MOA groups. For example, if a golf course has products available to the pest control industry is

W
been treated for white grubs for several years with a always changing.

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neonicotinoid (an IRAC Group 4 insecticide), a good

EV
alternative would be to rotate with chlorantraniliprole, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons – The chlorinated
another insecticide from IRAC Group 28. hydrocarbon class, collectively known as
R
organochlorines, was the first class of modern
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Finally, many experts believe that using low rates of synthetic insecticides. Beginning in 1939 with the
R

insecticides allows slightly-resistant individuals to introduction of DDT, this class was widely used for
U
O

survive and develop resistance. To avoid this risk, mosquito control, agriculture, and structural pest
C

pesticides should always be applied at the label management, but most organochlorines have been
EP

rate, especially for high-risk pests like mosquitoes. banned for decades in many countries due to
PR

environmental concerns.
Insecticide Classes
E

These chemicals are nerve agents that affect the

AC

DDT belongs to a chemical class of environmentally sodium channels (DDT) or the chloride channels
stable insecticides that are sometimes called (cyclodienes) in nerve cells. An electrical impulse
S
IN

chlorinated hydrocarbons. An even more toxic in a nerve cell is triggered when sodium, potassium,
LL

(but less persistent) class of insecticides called or chloride ions suddenly enter the cell through
O

organophosphates (OPs) was introduced at about small openings called ion channels. Chlorinated
R

the same time. The OP insecticides were another hydrocarbons disrupt the normal functioning of
by-product of World War II, coming out of research these channels. For example, DDT keeps sodium
into some compounds initially developed as nerve channels open, causing hyperexcitation. In essence,
gases. Examples of OPs include malathion, it affects the nerve’s on-off switch, causing it to fire
diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and acephate. continuously and resulting in death.

The history of the development of these early Chlorinated hydrocarbons are broad-spectrum
insecticides is well worth learning. However, modern insecticides, meaning they are toxic to a wide
pest control has progressed beyond the days of variety of arthropods, and they are very persistent
these early, broad-spectrum, often-persistent in the environment. Besides DDT, other examples
insecticides. Today there is a dizzying array of are chlordane, lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor,
different insecticide classes. Most of these new dicofol, and endosulfan.
classes tend to be inherently less toxic to birds,
humans, and other mammals. Many of them are Borates – Boric acid and borate salts have been
selective for certain types of insects, allowing us to used as pesticides in the U.S. since the 1940s.

47
CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

While the precise mode of action of borates is still the second nerve cell has receptors that receive it.
uncertain (they may have more than one), they That nerve will then send a neurotransmitter to its
must be ingested in order to be effective. They are neighbors and the process is repeated again and
thought by some to be cellular toxins that inhibit again until the message is delivered.
energy production within the cells. IRAC classifies
them as “miscellaneous non-specific (multi-site) Acetylcholine (ACh) is the key synaptic insect
inhibitors.” Examples include borax, boric acid, and neurotransmitter for both insects and humans.
disodium octaborate tetrahydrate. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the enzyme that
clears out the ACh after it floods the synapse.
Organophosphates – Organophosphates were Without AChE the nerve would continually signal,
developed in the 1950s in the U.S., and they resulting in continuous muscle contraction, among
replaced the chlorinated hydrocarbons for some other things. Organophosphates work by inhibiting
uses. Unlike chlorinated hydrocarbons, they are not AChE, resulting in this continual stimulation and
very persistent and break down relatively quickly in producing symptoms in humans like nausea,
the environment. vomiting, muscle cramps, and pinpoint eye pupils.

PY
O
Like chlorinated hydrocarbons, the organophos- Because some organophosphate insecticides are

C
phates are nerve agents and are effective against a highly toxic to birds, humans, and other mammals,

W
broad range of insects. However, the mechanism by many of these products have been dropped from

IE
which they incapacitate insects is different. Instead the market. However, some of the less toxic active

EV
of affecting the sodium channels, organophosphates ingredients are still in use for urban and public
work by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an R
health pest control. Examples include dichlorvos,
SE
important enzyme in the nerve cell. malathion, acephate, and naled. Discontinued
organophosphate insecticides include chlorpyrifos,
R

Nerve cells (or neurons), in insects and humans, do

U

diazinon, and propetamphos.

O

not touch each other. Instead, there are tiny gaps

C

between them that are called synapses. A nerve cell Carbamates – Carbamate insecticides were first
EP

can “communicate” with its neighbor by sending developed in the late 1950s as safer alternatives
PR

chemicals called neurotransmitters across this gap. to organophosphates. Their MOA is identical to
After the first nerve sends the neurotransmitter, organophosphates. However, carbamates are
E
AC
S
IN

Pyrethrins, pyrethroids, Organophosphates, Diamides,

LL

oxadiazines, chlorinated hydrocarbons, carbamates neonicotinoids,

avermectins, phenylpyrazoles spinosyns
O
R

Neurotransmitters
This diagram shows
the meeting of two
RECEPTORS

nerve cells. The one

to the left is sending
neurotransmitters
Ion channels (sodium, potassium, chloride) (the red dots) across
the synapse to the
nerve cell on the right.
The nerve cell to the
right has receptors
that receive the
neurotransmitters.
Insecticides in different
chemical classes affect
different parts of the
Presynapse Synapse Postsynapse nerve cells. Illustration
by Magdalen Cattle.

48
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

considered reversible AChE inhibitors with weaker

bonds to AChE that break down over time. The Botanical Insecticides
reversible nature of carbamate binding made these and EPA’s 25(b) Minimal
products somewhat safer for humans than OPs.
However, toxicity in this group ranges from low to Risk Pesticides
high. Carbaryl and propoxur are the only remaining
carbamates registered for urban pest control. Some botanicals—and others that are not
Indoxacarb is an unusual insecticide in that it is botanicals, such as dried blood, putrescent
chemically a carbamate, but it has an additional whole egg solids, and zinc metal strips—are
mode of action involving the blockage of sodium considered to be 25(b), or “minimum risk
channels in nerve cells. It is therefore classified in a pesticides,” by the U.S. EPA. This is a group
different MOA class than the carbamates. of products that are exempted from most
Physical Toxicants – Physical toxicants are federal registration and labeling requirements
substances that harm insects physically rather than because they are “generally regarded as safe”

PY
biochemically. They have different MOAs and may (GRAS). The name 25(b) comes from the

O
work by scratching, cutting, drying, suffocating, or exemption provision of Section 25(b) of the

C
even drowning an insect pest. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide

W
Act. You can find a list of all 25(b) exempt

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Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a well-known example.

EV
DE dust is highly abrasive and is made of tiny, sharp active ingredients at http://www2.epa.gov/
pieces of fossilized shells. When an insect crawls minimum-risk-pesticides/active-ingredients-al-
R
SE
through a DE deposit, the DE abrades the waxy lowed-minimum-risk-pesticide-products.
waterproofing on the insect’s exoskeleton. If the
R
U

insect is in a dry environment, this often results in

O

water loss and desiccation. chrysanthemum flowers. Pyrethrins are a Class 3

C

MOA, affecting the sodium channels in nerve axons.

EP

Horticultural oils derived from rosemary, mint, Both of these botanical products act on the nerves,
PR

geraniums, lemongrass, linseed, and other plants but in very different ways. Azadirachtin is another
are also physical toxicants that seep into the pores botanical insecticide derived from the neem tree.
E

of eggs, or else the spiracles (breathing holes) of Azadirachtin is classified in the Class UN, for
AC

arthropod bodies, causing suffocation. Few “unknown MOA.” It appears to work in several
S

examples of resistance have been recorded for ways, including as an antifeedant and growth
IN

physical toxicants. regulator. Despite having different modes of action,

LL

these three chemicals are botanicals because they

O

Botanicals – The botanical class of insecticides is are produced by plants.

R

different from most of the other insecticide classes

listed here. For one thing, most insecticides in the Other plant products that are considered to be
botanical class are chemically-unrelated to each botanical insecticides work by physically harming
other. Also, there are many MOAs represented in insects. These are also known as physical toxicants.
this class. This is because botanicals are defined
as any pesticide that is derived from a plant, and Pyrethrins are perhaps the most widely used
plants make many different kinds of natural botanical insecticides in the world. Pyrethrins are
pesticides that are not all in the same chemical extracted from pyrethrum, the ground-up flower
class. parts from two plant species: Chrysanthemum
cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum.
For example, the tobacco extract nicotine belongs The active chemical compounds that are extracted
to Class 4 in the IRAC MOA classification system. and purified from pyrethrum dust are called
It works by blocking the nicotinic acetylcholine pyrethrins. There are six active compounds in
receptors in nerves. However, nicotine is very pyrethrins (the reason the word “pyrethrins” is
different, chemically, from another group of botanical plural), including pyrethrin I, pyrethrin II, cinerin I,
insecticides called pyrethrins, which are derived from cinerin II, jasmolin I, and jasmolin II.

49
CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

Pyrethroids have a Class 3 MOA, coincidentally the

same classification as DDT. This appears to be the
reason why controlling bed bugs with pyrethroids is
difficult. Bed bug populations that developed DDT
resistance many years ago retained this resistance
when exposed to pyrethroids because both insecti-
cides work by affecting sodium channels. This type
of resistance to a new insecticide, stemming from
previous exposure to a different insecticide with a
similar MOA, is called cross-resistance.

Examples of pyrethroids include bifenthrin,

permethrin, cyfluthrin, deltamethrin, cypermethrin,
This flower, Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, is the source for the sumethrin, prallethrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin.
insecticide pyrethrum. Photo by Whitney Cranshaw, Bugwood.org. Notice that most pyrethroid insecticides end with

PY
the suffix “-thrin.” Exceptions to this rule include

O
Pyrethrins have the ability to knock down (paralyze) esfenvalerate, fluvalinate, and etofenprox.

C
insects very quickly, but many insects have the

W
ability to quickly break down (metabolize) pyrethrins Like pyrethrins, pyrethroids are sometimes mixed

IE
and thus recover from exposure. To prevent this, with a synergist to enhance toxicity to a pest.

EV
pyrethrins are almost always mixed with a synergist, Common synergists include piperonyl butoxide
another chemical that prevents the insects from R
(PBO) and MGK-264.
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metabolizing pyrethrins. This makes pyrethrins
much more toxic to insects. Common synergists Neonicotinoids – Produced by tobacco and
R

related plants, nicotine is a natural chemical that

U

include piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and MGK-264.

O

The addition of a synergist is what makes pyrethrins has insecticidal properties. Neonicotinoids are
C

an effective insecticide for many insects. chemical compounds with a mode of action that is
EP

similar to nicotine that were first developed in the

Pyrethroids – Starting in the late 1940s, insecticide
PR

1980s. Today, more neonicotinoids are used

engineers began to look for ways to make synthetic worldwide as insecticides than any other class of
E

forms of pyrethrins in order to reduce costs, increase insecticide.

AC

persistence, and improve their effectiveness. The

Neonicotinoids are nerve agents, but their mode
S

first practical pyrethroids (which means “pyrethrins-

IN

like compounds”) were developed in the 1960s. The of action is different from that of the previously
LL

so-called third and fourth generation pyrethroids from mentioned classes of insecticide. Neonicotinoids
O

the 1970s were especially successful, including work by binding to the nicotinic acetylcholine
R

compounds that are much more stable in sunlight receptors (nAChRs) in insect nerve cells, which
and have much higher toxicity to insects than earlier prevents the transmission of information from one
versions. Some pyrethroids remain effective in cell to another.
sunlight for up to 60 days, while others degrade
fairly quickly. Because of these differences, it is Neonicotinoids are persistent, broad-spectrum
especially important to read the labels and insecticides with relatively low toxicity to people
understand the characteristics of a particular and other mammals. These insecticides are also
pyrethroid before selecting it for a pest management water-soluble and systemic in plants, meaning they
job. Pyrethroids are generally low in mammalian can be taken up by plant vascular systems either
and bird toxicity, but can potentially be highly toxic through the roots or foliage. Neonicotinoids have
to fish. Pyrethroids came into wide use in the pest been shown to be toxic to bees at very low levels
control industry in the 1990s as replacements for and should be used with special caution on or
the older carbamate and organophosphate around flowering plants. Examples include
insecticides. imidacloprid, thiamexotham, acetamiprid, dinotefuran,
and clothianidin.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Spinosyns – Spinosyns are chemicals that are derived Microbials – Microbials are living organisms—
from a soil bacterium called Saccharopolyspora bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, and others—
spinosa through a fermentation and purification that are used to control pests. Organisms such as
process. Their mode of action is similar to that of these are known as “entomopathogens.” Examples
neonicotinoids. They bind to nicotinic acetylcholine include products that contain the bacterium known
receptors (nAChRs) in insect nerve cell receptors, as Bacillus thuringiensis, which is effective against
plus they block GABA-gated chloride channels, flies, moths, and mosquitoes; drain gels that contain
causing hyperexcitation of the nervous system. The enzymes and bacteria to control drain flies and
best known example is spinosad. other pests; and a fungus called Beauveria bassiana,
which can be used to control a wide range of insects.
Phenylpyrazoles – First developed in the late 1980s,
phenylpyrazoles are often used in baits for ants,
termites, and cockroaches because they are
slow-acting and do not repel these insects. They
work by inhibiting energy production within the

PY
cell, and by disrupting the insect nervous system

O
by blocking the GABA-activated chloride channel,

C
which causes hyperexcitation and convulsions

W
(GABA is an insect neurotransmitter). Fipronil,

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which is the active ingredient in some termiticides

EV
and flea-and-tick products that are applied to cats
and dogs, is the best known example. R
SE

Pyrroles – First developed in the late 1980s, pyrroles

R

A mosquito dunk containing spores and microbial insecticidal

U

work by inhibiting energy production within the toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria, floating in a
O

cells. They have very low mammalian toxicity levels, puddle of water. Photo by Richard Levine.
C

and do not have repellent qualities, so they are often

EP

used in baits for ants, termites, and cockroaches.

Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) – Insect growth
PR

Chlorfenapyr is the best-known example.

regulators (IGRs) work by hindering the ability of
E

Macrocyclic Lactones – Also known as avermec- immature insects to develop into healthy adults.
AC

tins, macrocyclic lactones are derived from a soil There are two types of IGRs. The juvenoids, also
known as juvenile hormone analogs, mimic natural
S

bacterium called Streptomyces avermitilis. Their

IN

MOA is similar to that of the spinosyns—they are insect hormones that regulate growth, maturation,
LL

nerve agents that disrupt the GABA-activated and reproduction. When exposed to juvenoids,
O

chloride channels, which blocks transmission of these insect processes can be disrupted. For
R

nerve impulses to the muscles. They have very low example, eggs may not develop or hatch, wings and
mammalian toxicity levels and are often used in other body parts may be deformed, molting might
heartworm pills for pets. Examples include abamectin, cease, and adults may become sterile or stop
emamectin benzoate, and ivermectin. producing eggs. Examples of juvenoids include
methoprene, hydroprene, and pyriproxyfen.
Anthranilic Diamides (Diamides) – This is a
relatively new insecticide class represented by the The second type of IGRs are known as chitin
active ingredient chlorantraniliprole. The diamides synthesis inhibitors. Because chitin is the main
disrupt insect ryanodine receptors, intracellular component of arthropod exoskeletons, the
calcium channels that play a central role in muscle disruption of chitin production hinders the insect’s
and nerve function. Human toxicity to chlorantra- ability to molt successfully. Examples of chitin
niliprole is extremely low. Diamide insecticides are synthesis inhibitors include diflubenzuron,
systemic, so they can be taken up by plant vascular hexaflumuron, noviflumuron, and lufenuron.
systems either through the roots or foliage.

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CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

It is important to note that IGRs are only effective manufacturers are continually searching for better
against immature insect life stages, and effects on ways to formulate pesticides to improve their storage,
pest populations are often slow. Adult insects are handling, application, effectiveness, and safety. In
generally not affected. Because their mode of action fact, the properties imparted by the formulation of
is very specific to insects and related arthropods, a pesticide product are often considered equally as
IGRs have low toxicity levels for mammals and other important as the active ingredient. The same active
vertebrates. They are often used in combination with ingredient may be formulated in different ways, and
other classes of insecticides, such as pyrethroids. knowing how to choose the right formulation for a
particular job is an important skill.
Oxadiazines – In the early 2000s, this relatively new
insecticide class was introduced. The best known A pesticide formulation consists of one or more
example is indoxacarb. Oxadiazines work by blocking active ingredients along with inert (or inactive)
the sodium channels, which inhibits the flow of ingredients. Most active ingredients belong to one
sodium ions into nerve cells, leading to paralysis of the chemical classes discussed in the previous
and then death. It is used in certain bait products section. The inactive ingredients in a pesticide

PY
and in some residual insecticides, and is also used formulation include liquids or solid ingredients that

O
to protect pets from fleas and ticks. deliver the active ingredients more efficiently. Some

C
bind the active ingredients, some dissolve them,

W
Fumigants – Fumigants are chemicals that take the and some are used to dilute them. Inactive

IE
form of gas or vapors at relatively warm temperatures ingredients include diluents, emulsifiers, solvents,

EV
(above 40 ºF, or 4.5 ºC). They are most often used wetting agents, carriers, suspension agents,
to treat, or fumigate, large areas such as buildings, R
attractants, and foods (as used in baits).
SE
vehicles, or containers. Like botanical and physical
toxicants, fumigants do not all belong to the same The formulation of a product can have important
R
U

chemical family. safety implications for applicators and the

O

environment. Formulations can affect the likelihood

C

Although fumigants act biologically in diverse ways, of a pesticide being ingested, absorbed through the
EP

they are chemically similar by being gases or vapors skin, or inhaled. Formulations sometimes change
PR

at room temperature. Some examples include how effective an active ingredient is against target
methyl bromide (used mainly for agriculture), pests. Formulations also differ in their potential
E

sulfuryl fluoride, and phosphine. Unlike the others,

AC

for off-target drift, penetration of the pest habitat,

sulfuryl fluoride becomes a gas at a temperature persistence on different types of materials, and
S

that is much lower (-67 ºF; -55 ºC) than room persistence in different environments.
IN

temperature.
LL

Manufacturers make different formulations for

O

Another chemical, dichlorvos, is sometimes called different situations—indoors vs. outdoors, for
R

a “weak fumigant.” It is not exactly a fumigant example—and for different pest problems. Some
because of limited penetration capability and formulations work better on certain surfaces than
because it is most often applied as an aerosol. others. Careful attention should always be paid to
However, its tendency to vaporize gives it the labels on pesticide containers, and labels should
fumigant-like characteristics. always be read before pesticides are applied.

Three important factors to think about when

Pesticide Formulations choosing a pesticide product are 1) the active
Pesticide active ingredients are rarely used in pure ingredient and the chemical class to which it
form. The pure (technical grade) form of an belongs, 2) the formulation, and 3) the particular
insecticide would be more hazardous to use and situation and environment where the application
would be difficult to apply. For example, many pure will take place.
insecticides are not soluble in water and cannot be
easily sprayed in water mixtures. Insecticide

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Particles produced by the typical aerosol can or

Pesticide Formulations machine range in size from 5-50 microns (the
approximate width of a human hair). Because
and Abbreviations smaller particles tend to stay in the air longer
than larger particles, they are more prone to drift,
Sometimes the formulation is indicated as
especially outdoors when conditions are windy.
part of the trade name of the insecticide. For indoor space treatments, the smaller particles
For example, Meridian® 25WG is a 25% can be advantageous because remaining in the air
formulated wettable granule containing the longer may make them more effective. Handheld
active ingredient thiamethoxam. Other aerosol cans generally produce large particles, and
products may not list the formulation as part mechanical aerosol generators usually produce
of the trade name, but it is usually listed considerably smaller particles.
somewhere else on the label. Here are a few Caution and protective gear should be used when
of the formulations with commonly used using aerosols since clouds of these microscopic

PY
abbreviations: droplets can remain airborne and may be inhaled by

O
A ..................Aerosol the person applying them and by others in the area.

C
B...................Bait

W
IE
D...................Dust formulation

EV
DF ................Dry flowable
E, EC ............Emulsifiable concentrate R
SE
FL .................Flowable formulation
R

G...................Granule formulation
U

L ...................Liquid formulation
O
C

M, ME, CS......Microencapsulated
EP

P...................Pellet
PR

RTU...............Ready-to-use
S ...................Spray formulation
E
AC

SP ................Soluble powder
ULV ...............Ultra-low-volume concentrate
S
IN

WG ...............Wettable granule
LL

WP................Wettable powder
O

WDG .............Water-dispersible granule

R

WDL .............Wettable-dispersible liquid Applying insecticide from a ready-to-use (RTU) spray can.
Photo by Matthew Chism.
WS ................Wettable solid

Baits – Baits are formulations consisting of a food

Some common insecticide formulations are: mixed with a pesticide. Bait formulations can
consist of liquids, gels, powders, granules, or pellets.
Aerosols – Aerosols are liquid pesticides that are
Baits are commonly used against cockroaches,
broken up into microscopic droplets upon application.
ants, crickets, termites, rodents, and birds. Since
Some are applied from ready-to-use (RTU) cans
baits do not require spraying, they can be used
that use compressed gas to propel the liquid
relatively safely in sensitive places like schools or
ingredients as foams, jet streams (wasp and hornet
kitchens, as long as they are placed carefully.
products), fine streams for cracks and crevices,
However, because baits contain food, shelf life is
insecticidal baits, and other forms. Aerosols can
often shorter than other formulations.
also be generated mechanically, which is often the
case for commercial treatments of large rooms and
other spaces.
53
 CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

Insecticide Class Table

Class Examples Mode of Action Broad-spectrum

Neem, pyrethrum, nicotine,

Botanicals Diverse Moderately
limonene, citronella, geraniol

Diatomaceous earth, silica aerogel, Diverse, including desiccants (disrupters of outer

Physical toxicants oils, insecticidal soaps, and waxy layer of cuticle), suffocants (oils), and tissue Moderately
surfactants disrupters (soaps)

DDT, chlordane, lindane, aldrin,

Chlorinated hydrocarbons (also Disrupts nervous system by interfering with sodium
dieldrin, heptachlor, dicofol, Yes
known as organochlorines) channels
endosulfan

Boric acid, boric salts, disodium Inhibits energy production within the cells; possibly Varies, depending on product and
Borates
octaborate tetrahydrate other MOAs formulation
Dichlorvos, malathion, parathion,
Inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an important
Organophosphates diazinon, chlorpyrifos, acephate, Yes
enzyme in the nervous system

PY
propetamphos, naled

O
C
Inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an important
Carbamates Cabaryl, propoxur, bendiocarb Yes
enzyme in the nervous system

W
IE
EV
Pyrethroids
Bifenthrin, permethrin, cyfluthrin,
beta-cyfluthrin, deltamethrin,
R
Disrupts nervous system by interfering with sodium Varies, depending on product and
SE
channels formulation
cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin
R
U
O
C

Imidacloprid, thiamexotham, Most effective against beetles,

Disrupts insect nervous system by binding to the
Neonicotinoids acetamiprid, dinotefuran, Hemiptera, ants, fleas, cockroaches,
EP

acetylcholine receptor
clothianidin bed bugs, some Lepidoptera
PR

Disrupts nervous system by binding to the ACh Most effective against Lepidoptera,
Spinosyns Spinosad
receptor; may also block neurotransmitters thrips, fleas, ants, others
E
AC

Most effective against Hemiptera,

Pyrroles Chlorfenapyr Inhibits energy production within the cell Lepidoptera, termites, cockroaches,
S

ants, others
IN

Disrupts insect nervous system by blocking the

Most effective against termites, ants,
LL

Phenylprazoles Fipronil GABA-activated chloride channel; may also inhibit

fleas, ticks, others
energy production within the cell
O
R

Disrupts nervous system by blocking the sodium Most effective against Lepidoptera,
Oxadiazines Indoxacarb
channels cockroaches, ants, and fleas
Disrupts insect ryanodine receptors, intracellular Most effective against cockroaches,
Anthranilic diamides
Chlorantraniliprole calcium channels that play a central role in muscle ants, crickets, white grubs,
(Diamides)
and nerve function Lepidoptera
Disrupts nervous system by binding to the GABA-
Macrocyclic lactones Abamectin, emamectin benzoate, Most effective against mites, ants,
activated chloride channel, which blocks transmission
(Avermectins) ivermectin cockroaches, Lepidoptera, borers
of nerve impulses to the muscles
Usually narrow spectrum; most
Microbes such as Bacillus
Microbials Various commonly used on mosquitoes,
thuringiensis (Bt)
Lepidoptera
Diflubenzuron, hexaflumuron,
Usually narrow spectrum; IGRs
noviflumuron, lufenuron,
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) Disrupts molting or other developmental processes generally have no effect on adult
methoprene, hydroprene,
insects
pyriproxyfen

Sulfuryl fluoride, methyl

Fumigants Diverse Yes
bromide, phosphine

54
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Toxicity to Non-target
Persistence Formulations Other Facts
Organisms
Variable, relatively low
Usually broken down quickly by exposure Because they are derived from plants, many botanicals are
toxicity to mammals and Powders, dusts, oils
to sunlight used by those who favor “green” pest management.
birds
Desiccants have long persistence in dry, Naturally occurring substances in this group are often favored
Powders, dusts, oils,
Low undisturbed environments; no residual for use in “green” pest management. Soaps and oils must
contact sprays
persistence for soaps, oils, or surfactants directly contact the insect to be effective.
Slight to moderate acute
toxicity to mammals; some First developed in the late 1930s, chlorinated hydrocarbons
Few labeled
are considered endocrine Extremely persistent were the first synthetically produced insecticides. Most have
formulations today
disruptors in birds, been banned in many countries.
reptiles, others
Highly soluble in water; persistent only in dry Dusts, baits, granules, Used since the 1940s. Must be ingested to be effective.
Low
environments sprays Also used against mold and fungus on wood.
Low to high; generally Developed in the U.S. in the 1950s, they replaced chlorinated
Variable, but most break down relatively
highly toxic to birds and Sprays, volatile resins hydrocarbons. Few remaining registrations for structural pest
quickly in the environment

PY
fish management today.
First developed in the late 1950s. Few remaining registrations

O
Low to high; generally for structural pest management. Indoxacarb is considered by

C
considered safer than Moderate Sprays, dusts, baits some a carbamate based on its chemistry. Others put it in a

W
organophosphates unique class called oxadiazines because of its unique mode
of action.

IE
EV
Relatively low, though
some can cause skin
Pyrethrins break down quickly at high Pyrethrins are naturally occurring chemicals found in the
irritation and rash;
potentially toxic to fish
temperatures and when exposed to ultraviolet Sprays, dusts, R chrysanthemum flower. Pyrethroids are synthetic versions of
SE
light; pyrethroids are synthetic versions granules pyrethrins. The first generation of pyrethroids was developed in
and aquatic invertebrates;
developed to be more persistent the 1950s, and many others have followed.
generally low toxicity to
R

birds
U
O

Relatively low toxicity to

C

humans; moderate toxicity First produced in the 1980s, neonicotinoids are synthetic
to most non-targets except Relatively persistent Sprays, baits versions of nicotine, which is found in tobacco and related
EP

bees, which are highly plants.

sensitive
PR

Low toxicity to mammals, Spinosyns are chemicals that are derived from the soil
Low to moderate Sprays, baits
birds bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa.
E
AC

Moderate toxicity to
Often used in baits for ants, termites, and cockroaches
mammals; highly toxic to Moderate Sprays, ULV
because they are slow-acting and do not repel these insects.
S

aquatic organisms, birds

IN

Moderate toxicity to First developed in the late 1980s, phenylprazoles are often used
LL

mammals; highly toxic to Moderate to long Sprays, baits, granules in baits for ants, termites, and cockroaches because they are
aquatic invertebrates slow-acting and do not repel these insects.
O
R

Moderate toxicity to Baits, sprays, pet Introduced in the early 2000s. Used in bait products, residual
Short to moderate
beneficial insects, wildlife spot-on treatments insecticides, and in flea-and-tick products to protect pets.
A unique mode of action makes this class of insecticide useful
Low toxicity to mammals Moderate Granules, sprays in resistance management. Estimated 500× less toxic to
humans than insects.
Often used in heartworm pills for pets. Abamectin and
Sprays, baits,
Moderate (as formulated) Moderate ivermectin are derived from soil bacteria from the genus
injectables (for trees)
Streptomyces. Emamectin benzoate is a partially synthetic form.
Microbials are microorganisms or toxins that are derived from
Sprays, dunks (for
Usually low Usually short persistence microbes. Spinosyns and macrocyclic lactones are considered
mosquito control)
to be microbial derivatives.

Very low to non-arthropods; IGRs disrupt the insect growth process by mimicking juvenile
can be toxic to aquatic Moderate Baits, sprays hormones or by inhibiting the production of chitin, an important
invertebrates substance found in the exoskeleton.

Usually very high toxicity

Fumigants are small, volatile molecules that become gases at
to mammals; extreme
Short Gases normal ambient temperatures. Most fumigants are considered
care needed in handling
narcotics and are highly fat soluble.
and use

55
CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

Baits are considered to be one of the safest pesticide because they are able to penetrate tiny cracks, crevices,
formulations because pests ingest them, which and solid wood. For structural use, fumigants are
means the amount of active ingredient can be lower typically formulated inside a pressurized cylinder.
than the amount used in other formulations. Bait
formulations can be made even safer by enclosing Although they have vapor action, mothballs and
them inside tamper-resistant containers. This insecticidal resin strips do not meet the classic
reduces the risk of people, pets, or wildlife gaining definition of fumigants. Instead, they are applied in
access to the bait material. a solid form that emits insecticidal vapors over time.

Fumigants include some of the most dangerous

pesticides because of the rapidity with which gases
can be absorbed into the lungs and body. Examples
include methyl bromide, phosphine, and sulfuryl
fluoride.

PY
Granules – Granules consist of small, inert pellets
onto which an active ingredient has been applied.

O
C
Granules are most often used outdoors to control

W
crawling insects around homes, or insect pests

IE
around trees, lawns, and gardens. After granules

EV
are applied to an area, they usually require irrigation
to release the active ingredients into the soil.
R
A cockroach bait station. Photo by Mike Merchant.
SE

Not all formulations with a granular appearance

Dusts – Insecticidal dusts are powders that can be
R

are granules that are designed to be watered in.

U

used in small cracks, crevices, wall voids, and Many baits come in granular form, for example, the
O

inaccessible crawl spaces where sprays are not

C

key difference being that baits are designed to be

easily applied and where human exposure is unlikely.
EP

ingested by pests. Baits are not usually designed to

To make a dust, an active ingredient is usually be watered in after application, and may be used
PR

sprayed on an inert base material like talc, clay, or indoors or outdoors, depending on the label.
ash. Dusts can be effective against cockroaches
E
AC

and other crawling insects in areas where liquid

pesticides cannot be used—for example, behind
S

electrical wall outlets or fuse boxes. Dusts can easily

IN

become airborne during or after application, so

LL

dust masks or other protective equipment are often

O

required.
R

Fumigants – Fumigants are penetrating insecticidal

gases at normal ambient temperatures—unlike
aerosols or vaporizing products, which are
pressurized liquids—that are used to treat spaces
such as containers, closets, rooms, warehouses,
grain-storage facilities, or other structures. In order
to work, fumigants must be “breathed” by insects,
rodents, or other pests. Therefore, they are more
effective against adult insects than against eggs,
larvae, or pupae. They are often used at ports of Spraying equipment. Photo by Richard Levine.
entry where cargo is transported from abroad. They
are especially useful against wood-destroying
insects and insects that infest stored products

56
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Liquids and Sprays – The most common way to Suspension concentrates (SC) are basically
apply an insecticide is as a liquid spray. There are finely-ground, solid particles that have been
many types of spray formulations and many types pre-mixed with liquid bases—usually water, but
of sprayers, and each of them has advantages and sometimes oil or other liquids. They are sold as
disadvantages, depending on the situation. liquids that must be diluted before application. The
particles in SC formulations are generally smaller
Formulations used to facilitate mixing and stability than those found in WP products, so their residues
in water include: are less noticeable after application. They tend to
have longer residual effects than ECs, and they work
• Emulsifiable concentrates (E, EC)
well on porous surfaces. They are also less toxic to
• Wettable powders (WP) plants and tend to have less odor than ECs. Like
• Suspension concentrates (SC) WPs, suspended concentrates require frequent
agitation.
• Microencapsulated formulations (M, ME, or CS)
• Dry flowables (DF) and water-dispersible Microencapsulated formulations (M, ME, or CS)

PY
granules (WDG) are very small spheres of polyvinyl, plastic, or

O
polymer that encapsulate active insecticidal

C
Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) are oil-based
ingredients. Because the active ingredients are

W
liquids that are readily recognizable when added
contained inside the capsule walls, they can be

IE
to water because the resulting liquid has a milky-
slowly released over extended periods of time.

EV
white color. Oil and water do not mix, but when an
Manufacturers can control the rate of release by
emulsifier is added to them, microscopic oil droplets R
adjusting the thickness of the capsules’ walls,
disperse throughout the water, creating a milky-
SE

so—as always—careful attention should be paid

white mixture that is known as an emulsion. After
R

to the product’s label. They generally have a lower

extended periods of time, the EC and water can
U

exposure risk than other similar formulations, and

O

separate, so the mixture should be agitated

they are readily picked up by insects. However, they
C

periodically to ensure that the concentration of the

provide lower rates of absorption into porous surfaces.
EP

mixture remains consistent and that application

Like WPs and SCs, microencapsulated formulations
PR

equipment does not become clogged. ECs are

require agitation after they are mixed with water or
quickly absorbed by pests, so they provide a fast
they may clog application equipment, and they have
E

“knockdown” effect. They usually do not leave

AC

relatively high potential for washing off.

much visible residue, but they can stain or damage
S

some surfaces and may be toxic to some plants. Dry flowables (DF) and wettable-dispersible
IN

granules (WDG) – These formulations are similar to

LL

Wettable powders (WP) are tiny particles that

WPs, except they come in the form of granules. Like
O

contain one or more active insecticidal ingredients

WPs, most of them must be mixed with water before
R

that are combined with inactive ingredients such

application, and the mixture requires agitation. A
as talc or clay. These products are sold in powder
few products on the market that are labeled as DFs
form and are then mixed with water. The inactive
are actually applied in dry form, like baits, and are
ingredients allow the tiny particles to disperse evenly
not mixed with water.
throughout the water mixture. The particles do not
dissolve in the water; instead, they remain suspended. Soluble powders (SP) – Unlike the formulations
Therefore, the water-powder mixture should be mentioned above, soluble powders readily dissolve
frequently agitated to ensure that the ingredients in water. Therefore, they do not require agitation,
are properly mixed. Because the particles in these and there is little risk that they will leave visible
powders do not dissolve in water, they usually leave residues.
a visible residue after application, and they may
wear down nozzles and other parts of spraying Ready-to-use sprays – These products are sold in
equipment. WPs are generally less toxic to plants ready-to-use (RTU) aerosol or foam cans. Some
than ECs, and they work well on porous surfaces. other products that are sold as “ready to use,” such
as granules or pre-mixed liquids for application
through spray bottles, may also carry the RTU tag.
57
CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

Common Names, Chemical Names, and

Trade Names
Many chemicals have common names that are
used in everyday language, plus trade names that
are given to products that contain them by their
manufacturers. For example, baking soda is the
common name for the chemical known as sodium
hydrogen carbonate (or sodium bicarbonate), which
is sold as Arm & Hammer™ Baking Soda and other
trade names. To use a pharmaceutical example,
acetaminophen is the chemical name for the active
ingredient in many pain-relief products, including
one with the trade name Tylenol® Regular Strength
Tablets.

PY
O
Pesticides also have common names and trade

C
names, and many labels provide the chemical

W
names as well. Chemical names are used by

IE
chemists to accurately describe the chemical

EV
structures of active ingredients. For example, the
pyrethroid insecticide with the common name R
Each of these pesticide products has a different trade name,
SE
permethrin has a chemical name of 3-phenoxybenzyl although some may share the same active ingredients.
(1RS,3RS; 1RS,3SR)-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2- Photo by Matthew Chism.
R
U

dimethyl-cyclopropanecarboxylate. Having a chemical

effect,” and are known as residual pesticides.
O

name allows a knowledgeable person (e.g., an

C

organic chemist) to recreate the molecular structure Because insecticide residues tend to degrade
EP

of a substance based on the chemical name alone. exponentially over time, the length of residual effect
is usually described in terms of the half-life of the
PR

Permethrin is sold under many trade names.

product. A product with a half-life of two hours, for
E

example, will be 50% gone in two hours, 75% gone

AC

Pesticide Routes of Entry in four hours, 88% gone in six hours, and so on.
Half-life can vary, depending on the different surfaces
S

Insecticides can enter insect bodies in three

IN

different ways: contact, ingestion, or respiration. and environments in which a product is used.
LL

Contact takes place through the integument

Pesticides that work via ingestion—commonly
O

(exoskeleton), spiracles, antennae, and especially

R

the feet. Exposure to insecticides via ingestion known as stomach poisons—kill or harm insects
happens during grooming, feeding on baits, or and other pests after they are ingested. Stomach
during ingestion of other insects’ feces (coprophagy) poisons are most likely to be used in bait formulations.
or dead bodies (necrophagy). Insecticides such as Insecticides that are toxic only when ingested tend
fumigants enter insect bodies via respiration. to be safer for humans because accidental ingestion
is less likely to occur than through skin exposure.
In a general sense, contact insecticides* are those Many insecticides, like most pyrethroids, can act as
that affect insects that come into direct contact both contact and stomach poisons.
with them, as opposed to insecticides that must
be ingested to work. Contact insecticides that are One of the fastest and surest routes of entry is via
designed to be applied and remain on surfaces for respiration. Fumigants are the principal formulation
extended periods of time are said to have a “residual type used to kill insects via the respiratory route;
aerosol droplets and dusts are generally too large to
pass through insect spiracles (breathing holes).

*Note that sometimes the term “contact insecticide” is used to refer to short-lived products that kill only when directly sprayed on insects, such as alcohol-based sprays, soaps,
and oils.

58
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Choosing a Pesticide • Cost of the product, equipment, and labor

needed for application.
One of the goals of IPM is to minimize risk by using
pesticides only when necessary and always in a safe • Special customer preferences.
manner. To meet this second requirement, label
instructions must be known and followed. Once a After careful consideration of the situation, a
decision has been made to use a pesticide, the pesticide product can then be selected. As
applicator must choose which one to use. Since discussed earlier, certain formulations will be more
every situation is different, a number of factors appropriate than others, depending on how and
should be considered, including: where they will be used and the pest in question.
For example, using baits under a kitchen sink
• Pest identification, habits, and needs. where cockroaches are present would be safer
• Pesticide susceptibility and potential for and probably more effective than spraying the
resistance. perimeter of the entire room.
• Level of infestation and its risk to people and

PY
Another factor to consider is the insecticide class.
property.

O
An insect growth regulator (IGR), for example, might

C
• Proximity to areas where food is processed, work well against cockroaches or fleas, but might

W
prepared, or stored. not be effective against other insects.

IE
• Proximity to people (especially children) and

EV
Some insecticide products are further classified
pets, and the amount of time they might spend
by their effectiveness against insects that are in
R
in the treated area.
certain life stages. The three terms most often used
SE

• Proximity to non-target insects—especially bees to describe these pesticides are ovicides (used to
R

and other beneficial pollinators—and other kill insect eggs), larvicides (used to kill larvae), and
U

wildlife.
O

adulticides (used to kill adults).

C

• Regulatory restrictions (federal, state, and

EP

local). In all cases, the Directions For Use statement on

the label of any pesticide product must be read to
PR

• Likelihood of hazardous pesticide drift or runoff determine whether it is safe and appropriate for the
affecting surrounding areas, especially rivers,
E

circumstances. Besides being helpful during the

AC

lakes, and streams. decision-making process, reading the label before

• Type of surface to be treated. Some surfaces— use is required by law.
S
IN

like wood, brick, or concrete—are porous and

LL

absorb pesticides to some extent, which affects Types of Pesticide Applications

O

residual performance. On other surfaces,

R

chemicals may be more likely to run off, stain, There are five main types of pesticide application:
or mar. 1) broadcast, 2) space, 3) barrier, 4) spot, and
5) crack and crevice. The first three are also known
• Size of the area to be treated. as “general applications.” General applications
• Proximity to sensitive tools, equipment, or cover larger areas than the other two types, and
machines. they may be used with residual insecticides or
• Environmental factors (indoors or outdoors, non-residual insecticides. Spot and crack-and-
well-ventilated or enclosed, damp or dry, hot crevice applications are the most common types
or cold, etc.). of pesticide applications indoors.
• Weather conditions for outdoor applications, Broadcast treatment – Pesticide application to
since rain and wind can cause pesticide runoff broad expanses of surfaces, like walls, floors, ceilings,
and drift. attics, lawns, or other outside areas. Broadcast
dosages are usually computed according to the
area that is to be treated.

59
CHAPTER 6: INSECTICIDES

Space treatment – A variation of broadcast

treatments where applications are made into the
air of rooms or structures. Fumigants and
space-treatment aerosols (fogs) are two examples.
Dosages are computed according to the volume of
the space.

Barrier treatment – Pesticide applications to

borders, a building perimeter, or door thresholds
to keep pests out of certain areas, like backyards,
sheds, or structures.

Spot treatment – A limited pesticide application to

small areas of pest infestation, away from human
contact. The areas should be two square feet or less

PY
(about 0.2 square meter).

O
C
Crack and crevice treatment – A limited application

W
of small amounts of pesticide into inaccessible

IE
cracks, crevices, or void areas.

EV
R
SE
R
U
O
C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

60
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 7

Pesticide Safety

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R
U

T
O

he topic of pesticide safety is large enough

C

and important enough to fill a whole book,

EP

and in fact it has. Perhaps the best one is

PR

the National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core

Manual, which is available online for free at the
E

website of the National Association of State

AC

Departments of Agriculture (http://www.nasda.org).

S

Another valuable online resource is the website

IN

of the National Pesticide Information Center

LL

(http://npic.orst.edu), a collaborative effort between

O

Oregon State University and the U.S. Environmental

R

Protection Agency (EPA).

This chapter will discuss the most important safety Pesticides are one of the most regulated consumer products in
aspects of using pesticides, including mixing them, the United States. In addition to testing the effectiveness of
their products, manufacturers are required to investigate the
storing them, and transporting them. Additionally, fate of the product in the environment, as well as acute and
it will briefly discuss personal protective equipment chronic toxicity. Photo courtesy of American Pest.
(PPE), application equipment, and what to do in
case of pesticide exposure, spills, or other hazards.
pesticide regulatory systems and requirements for
You should also, however, be familiar with the
product registration, and smaller and less-advanced
content of the resources listed above, or with your
countries often seem to follow their lead. Within
state pesticide applicator safety training manuals.
countries that require pesticide registrations, there
Due to their toxicity and environmental-hazard may be states or provinces with even more stringent
potential, pesticides are very highly regulated registration requirements.
around the world. Advanced countries have complex

61
CHAPTER 7: PESTICIDE SAFETY

The United States has a rigorous pesticide regulation than the expected human dose (the “margin of
system based primarily on the Federal Insecticide, exposure”), then the new chemical would likely be
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), which considered safe when used properly. The aim is to
was first enacted into law in the early 1900s and make sure that the expected amount that a human
amended many times over the years. The information might come into contact with is 100 to 10,000 times
that follows about U.S. pesticide regulatory processes less than the dose that is harmful for animals.
and pesticide product labels will be immediately
relevant to U.S. readers. The general concepts and However, it doesn’t stop there. After an active
features of label language should have similarities ingredient has been deemed to pose minimal risk
to most other pesticide regulatory systems around for humans when used properly, it must also
the world. undergo tests for its effects on the environment
(for example, its toxicity to fish, birds, bees, and
other organisms), its persistence (the amount of
EPA Approval Process time it remains active after application; its “residual
The United States EPA approves, registers, and effect” as explained in the previous chapter), and

PY
regulates all substances that are manufactured and whether or not it is a carcinogen.

O
sold as pesticides in the U.S. As Dr. Gary Braness

C
writes in the Mallis Handbook of Pest Control, Acute Versus Chronic Toxicity

W
“Each new pesticide active ingredient submitted for

IE
registration must undergo more than 120 separate Toxicity is a measure of how poisonous a substance

EV
tests before approval by the U.S. Environmental is, and two general types of toxicity are recognized:
Protection Agency (EPA). The majority of these R
short-term (acute toxicity) and long-term (chronic
SE

tests are related to health, environmental fate, and toxicity). Acute toxicity is a term used to describe
the short-term toxic effects of a substance. The
R

ecological effects of the pesticide. On average, a

U

total of eight to 10 years are spent from the time a term chronic toxicity, on the other hand, refers to
O

new pesticide is first synthesized to when it reaches the long-term effects of a substance, or the effects
C

the marketplace.” when an organism is exposed to a substance at low

EP

doses over a long period of time.

PR

In order for a substance to be approved by the

EPA for use as a pesticide, it must first be tested
E

Chronic Toxicity Terminology

AC

for human safety. Since testing cannot be done on

humans for ethical and safety reasons, tests are
Long-term or chronic exposures to certain
S

normally conducted on other mammals like rats,

IN

mice, or rabbits. While the biology of humans and chemicals may cause tumors, cancer, or
LL

other mammals are not exactly the same, they are other health problems. The following terms
O

similar enough for animal testing to provide useful are often used to describe some of these
R

insights about toxicity to humans. negative effects, and they may appear on
safety data sheets:
Researchers first determine the amount of a
chemical that a person might accidentally be • Oncogenicity (potential to cause tumors)
exposed to under a realistic situation, including • Carcinogenicity (potential to cause cancer)
exposure to the chemical at home, in drinking • Mutagenicity (potential to cause genetic
water, at work, and on food—for example, if a changes)
chemical is sprayed on a wall, the amount a child
might be exposed to if the wall is touched. Then • Teratogenicity/Embryotoxicity (potential
they take 100 to 10,000 times that amount— to cause birth defects)
depending on whether it is intended for agricultural, • Reproductive Toxicity (potential to affect
structural, or other pest-management uses—and fertility, sexual function, or menstruation)
they test it on lab animals. If the lab animals are not
harmed at doses that are 100 to 10,000 times more

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

For example, the acute toxicity of smoking a single inhaled. Therefore, LC50 is useful for expressing the
cigarette is relatively low (though it might make a level of toxicity of chemical gases, such as fumigants.
first-time user ill). However, today we know that
there is a significant risk of chronic toxicity to a While LD50 and LC50 reflect the level of acute
person who smokes cigarettes for many years. toxicity of a substance, they do not tell us anything
These chronic-toxicity effects include lung cancer, about possible chronic toxicity. In order to test for
heart disease, emphysema, high blood pressure, chronic toxicity, animals must be fed low to high doses
and other illnesses. of a substance for long periods of time—years,
perhaps—to see if they develop cancer, tumors,
When considering the potential risks associated organ damage, or other harmful effects. High doses
with pesticides, it is important to consider acute and are generally used to accelerate any potential chronic
chronic toxicity risks. Tests have been developed effects.
over the years to help us estimate both kinds of risk.
Signal Words
How Are Levels of Toxicity Measured?

PY
The U.S. EPA requires signal words to be prominently

O
Acute toxicity can be scientifically measured by displayed on the labels of most pesticides sold in

C
exposing a population of animals to a toxin and the U.S. (see the following section on reading labels).

W
observing the results. Scientists use two terms to The three signal words are DANGER, WARNING,

IE
measure levels of toxicity. The first is Lethal Dose and CAUTION, and they are used to indicate a

EV
50 (or the abbreviation LD50), which is the amount product’s relative level of acute toxicity.
of a substance needed to kill 50% of a population R
SE
from a single exposure to that substance. The oral
LD50 of a substance indicates the amount needed
R
U

to kill 50% of a population that eats the substance.

O

Dermal LD50 is the amount that is needed to kill

C

50% of a population that is exposed to the substance

EP

through skin contact only (“derma” is Latin for skin). To be assigned a CAUTION signal word, the average estimated
PR

lethal oral dose must be greater than 1.2 ounces (34 mg) of
LD50 is expressed as the substance’s dosage product for a 150-pound (68 kg) human, which is greater than
E

500 mg per kg. Other considerations, such as skin and eye

(in milligrams) per the animal’s weight (in kilograms),
AC

corrosivity, are also considered when assigning signal words.

or “mg per kg.” For example, if 100 rats that each Photo by Richard Levine.
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weigh one kilogram are fed 15 milligrams of a

IN

substance, causing 50 of them to die, then the Pesticide products with the signal word CAUTION
LL

LD50 for that substance in rats is 15 mg/kg. If that are the least toxic, followed by the ones that are
O

same substance is fed to 100 chickens that each marked with the word WARNING. Products marked
R

weigh one kilogram, but it takes 75 milligrams to with the signal word DANGER are the most toxic.
kill 50 of them, then the LD50 for that substance The EPA assigns these signal words to a product
in chickens is 75 mg/kg. The higher the LD50, the according to its level of toxicity, which is determined
lower the toxicity. A substance with a low LD50 is by its LD50 and LC50, and each product is
highly toxic, and a substance with a high LD50 assigned to one of the following four categories:
(e.g., over 5,000 mg/kg) is barely toxic or non-toxic.
Toxicity Category I: DANGER
The second term used to describe the level of acute Toxicity Category II: WARNING
toxicity is LC50, which stands for Lethal Concentration
50. It is similar to LD50, but instead of measuring Toxicity Category III: CAUTION
the lethal amount (by weight) of a substance when Toxicity Category IV: None Required
eaten or applied to the skin of an animal, it instead
refers to the amount (by volume) of a substance
that is needed to kill 50% of a population when

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CHAPTER 7: PESTICIDE SAFETY

According to the National Pesticide Information Center:

Signal Words in Other Countries
CAUTION means the pesticide product is
slightly toxic if eaten, absorbed through the Pesticides sold in other countries may use
skin, inhaled, or it causes slight eye or skin signal words, but they are not always
irritation. identical to what is found in the U.S.
WARNING indicates the pesticide product is
Pesticide products that lack labels should
moderately toxic if eaten, absorbed through the
not be used.
skin, inhaled, or it causes moderate eye or skin
irritation.
DANGER means that the pesticide product is
highly toxic by at least one route of exposure.
It may be corrosive, causing irreversible
damage to the skin or eyes. Alternatively, it may

PY
be highly toxic if eaten, absorbed through the

O
skin, or inhaled. If this is the case, then the

C
word “POISON” must also be included in red

W
letters on the front panel of the product label.

IE
EV
A product called Fendona® 6 SC is a broad-spectrum
Signal words do not reflect levels of chronic toxicity. pyrethroid insecticide. Notice the precautionary language on
The EPA does require product testing for chronic R
this label from Ireland, which is different from the
SE

toxicity (for example, tests for carcinogenicity, language required by the U.S. EPA. Photo courtesy of BASF
R

mutagenicity, organ damage, neurological effects, Professional & Specialty Solutions.

U

etc.), but the warnings are less prominent and are

O

found on the product’s safety data sheet (SDS)—

C

which was formerly known as a material safety data Product labels and safety data sheets may contain
EP

sheet (MSDS). some similar information, but they serve different

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purposes and are meant for different readers.

Chronic toxicity information can be found in a Product labels are intended for people who intend
E
AC

pesticide product’s safety data sheet under a to use a pesticide. All pesticide users are required
section called “Toxicological Information,” where by law to read the labels and use the product
S

one may see statements such as “Likely to be according to the directions. Product labels tell
IN

carcinogenic to humans” or “Not teratogenic in pesticide users what pests the products are intended
LL

animal studies” or “Repeated or prolonged for, how much to apply, where to apply it, what
O

exposure may cause central nervous system effects.”

R

equipment to use, and other information. Product

labels may vary from one location to another, as some
Pesticide Labels and Safety Data Sheets states or ordinances may have stricter regulations
than those at the federal level.
All pesticides sold in the U.S. are required by the
EPA to have labels on their containers. These are Safety data sheets do not contain information
known as product labels, and they are legally about how to use pesticide products. Instead, they
binding documents that tell how a pesticide may contain more detailed information regarding safety,
be used. In addition, the Occupational Safety and environmental hazards, levels of toxicity, fire-fighting
Health Administration (OSHA) also requires pesticide measures, and more. According to OSHA regulations,
manufacturers to produce documents called safety “chemical manufacturers and importers shall obtain
data sheets (SDSs), according to its Hazard or develop a safety data sheet for each hazardous
Communication Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200. chemical they produce or import. Employers shall
have a safety data sheet in the workplace for each
hazardous chemical which they use.” Unlike product
labels, safety data sheets are not found on the

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product themselves. Instead, they are available found in this section, followed by directions on
from many online resources, including pesticide how and where to use the product and how
manufacturers’ websites. much should be applied.
• Storage and Disposal Instructions – Provides
instructions for storing the pesticide product
and for disposing of any unused pesticide, as
well as the pesticide container.
• Manufacturer’s Contact Information – Includes
A restricted-use warning on a pesticide label. For more
information on restricted-use pesticides, see the section on name, address, and emergency phone number,
Federal Pesticide Laws later in this chapter. plus the product’s EPA Registration Number
and its EPA Establishment Number, which
All pesticide product labels must contain the identifies where the product was made. These
following, according to the EPA: numbers are used for tracking pesticide products.

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• Product Name, Brand or Trademark.

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• Classification – All pesticides that are classified Products Without Labels

C
as “restricted use” must be labeled as such.
or Signal Words

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Only licensed applicators or people under their

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direct supervision may purchase and use A pesticide sold without signal words in the

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restricted-use pesticides. For more information
U.S. is either very low risk or it’s illegal. Section
R
on restricted-use pesticides, see the section on
25(b) of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
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the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and

and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) allows some
R

Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) later in this chapter.

products that have very few active ingredients
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• Ingredient Statement – This identifies the name

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and are “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS)

C

and percentage of each active ingredient. to be sold without signal words. In addition,
EP

• Signal Word – The words DANGER, WARNING, recently the EPA has allowed some Category
PR

or CAUTION must be used. Some products that IV products to be labeled without a signal
are in Toxicity Category I (the ones that use the word. However, some imported (and domestic)
E

signal word DANGER) must also carry the word

AC

pesticides occasionally appear without

POISON on the label and feature a graphic EPA-registered labels and appropriate signal
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image of a skull and crossbones. words. These should be reported to your

IN

• Precautionary Statements – Lists potential state pesticide regulatory agency (see

LL

hazards to humans and domestic animals, such http://npic.orst.edu/reg/state_agencies.html).

O

as “Harmful if inhaled or swallowed” or “Do not

R

get in eyes or clothing.”

• First Aid Information – What to do if the product According to OSHA, safety data sheets must
is inhaled, swallowed, or comes into contact include the following section numbers, headings,
with eyes or skin. and associated information:
• Environmental Hazards – Identifies potential 1. Product and Company Identification – Includes
hazards and necessary precautions to avoid the product’s active ingredient(s) and their
them. chemical classes, plus emergency contact
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – Includes information.
statements like “Use protective eyewear and 2. Hazards Identification – A description of the
gloves” or “Applicators must wear long sleeves product’s potential health effects and potential
and long pants.” environmental hazards.
• Directions for Use – The statement “It is a 3. Composition/Information on Ingredients – The
violation of federal law to use this product in a percentage of active and inactive ingredients
manner inconsistent with its labeling” is always in the product.
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CHAPTER 7: PESTICIDE SAFETY

4. First Aid Measures – What to do if the product Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
is inhaled, swallowed, or comes into contact
Personal protective equipment requirements can
with eyes or skin.
be found on pesticide product labels, which should
5. Fire-Fighting Measures – Lists suitable fire- always be read and followed. Label directions
extinguishing techniques and equipment as well should be considered the minimum standard to
as chemical hazards from fire. be followed. However, stronger precautions can be
6. Accidental Release Measures – Lists emergency taken if a PMP chooses to do so, depending on the
procedures, protective equipment, proper environment (windy, humid, hot) or the activity.
methods of containment, and cleanup
procedures. Some activities involving pesticide concentrates—
mixing or loading, for example—are inherently
7. Handling and Storage – Lists precautions higher risk and may require different protective
for safe handling and storage, including equipment. Some company policies, for example,
incompatibilities with other chemicals. may require technicians to wear long-sleeve shirts

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8. Exposure Controls and Personal Protection – or chemical-resistant shoes during such activities,
even if it is not required by the label. In such cases,

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Lists OSHA’s Permissible Exposure Limits

C
(PELs), Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), company policy or the pesticide label, whichever is

W
appropriate engineering controls, and required stricter, should be followed.

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personal protective equipment (PPE).

EV
Do not assume that two products with the same
9. Physical and Chemical Properties – A active ingredient will have the same PPE requirements
description of the product, including its color, R
because, according to OSHA, “Different formulations
SE

odor, and physical state (liquid, powder, gas, of the same pesticide may require PPE from different
R

etc.), as well as chemical properties such as chemical-resistance categories.”

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melting point, boiling point, viscosity, etc.

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Special care should be taken to protect the head

C

10. Stability and Reactivity – Lists chemical stability

and genital areas because those body parts absorb
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and possibility of hazardous reactions.

pesticides faster than all others. Therefore, it is
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11. Toxicological Information – Includes LD50 and

essential to wash hands before using a restroom or
LC50 data from animal testing, plus information
before touching the ears, nose, or other parts of the
E

on chronic toxicity (for example, whether the

AC

head.
substance is likely to be a carcinogen).
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12. Ecological Information – Toxicity levels for EPA Chemical Resistance Categories
IN

wildlife such as fish and birds, and biological

LL

The U.S. EPA rates materials used in PPE according

persistence (how long it takes to degrade and
O

to how well they resist chemicals in certain categories.

R

become inactive). The categories range from the letters A-H, and
13. Disposal Considerations – Includes information special instructions are often found on pesticide
on disposing excess chemicals and their labels that refer to these categories. For example, a
containers. label might say, “For more glove options, follow the
14. Transport Information – Information on transport instructions for category E on an EPA chemical-
safety issues. resistance category chart,” or “Refer to category C
on an EPA chemical resistance category chart.”
15. Regulatory information – May include local
regulations or restrictions. Gloves
16. Other information – Includes date of preparation Hands are the body parts that are most likely to be
or last revision of safety data sheet. exposed while mixing, transporting, or applying
pesticides. The majority of pesticide-poisoning
incidents have been linked to hand exposures, so
gloves are important safety items. However, not
all gloves are created equally. When working with

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Type of personal protective material

Selection category Polyvinyl
listed on Neoprene Natural
Barrier Butyl rubber Nitrile rubber chloride Viton
rubber rubber Polyethylene
pesticide label laminate ≥14 mils ≥14 mils (PVC) ≥14 mils
≥14 mils ≥14 mils
≥14 mils
A (dry and water-based) High High High High High High High High
B High High Slight Slight None Slight Slight Slight
C High High High High Moderate Moderate High High
D High High Moderate Moderate None None None Slight
E High Slight High High Slight None Moderate High
F High High High Moderate Slight None Slight High
G High Slight Slight Slight None None None High
H High Slight Slight Slight None None None High

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EPA Chemical resistance categories for selected personal-protective materials. HIGH = highly chemical resistant; clean or replace PPE
at end of each day’s work period; rinse off pesticides at rest breaks. MODERATE = moderately chemical resistant; clean or replace PPE

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within an hour of contact. SLIGHT = slightly chemical resistant; clean or replace PPE within 10 minutes of contact. NONE = not chemical

C
resistant; do not wear this type of material as PPE when contact with chemical is possible. Image courtesy of Oregon OSHA.

W
IE
water-based formulations, neoprene, latex, or natural waist level or below, sleeves should be worn over the

EV
rubber gloves may offer adequate protection. When gloves. Consider the concept of shingles on a roof to
applying pesticide formulations that contain solvents, R
determine the positioning of sleeves or pants legs in
SE
such as emulsifiable concentrates, gloves made of relation to gloves or boots, respectively.
nitrile or butyl rubber offer better protection.
R
U

Remember that gloves that are waterproof may not

O

Cotton, leather, and canvas gloves should never necessarily be chemical-resistant. Always read the
C

be worn because they can absorb and accumulate PPE section of the pesticide label to see which type
EP

pesticides. Also, lined or insulated gloves should be of gloves are required.

PR

avoided because linings can absorb pesticides and

are not easily decontaminated.
E

Respirators
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Respiratory devices offer varying degrees of

S

protection. The PPE section of the pesticide product

IN

label will explain the minimal requirements. It is

LL

important that chosen respirators fit properly and

O

that manufacturers’ instructions regarding proper

R

use, cleaning, and storage are followed.

Some respirators cover the whole face, and some

only cover the nose and mouth. If using the latter, it
is a good idea to wear eye protection as well—even
if the pesticide label does not require it—because it
should be assumed that if the nose and mouth can
be exposed to chemicals, the eyes can as well.
The majority of pesticide-poisoning incidents have been linked
It is especially important to wear a respirator in
to hand exposures, so gloves are important safety items.
Photo by Matthew Chism. confined working areas, like attics, crawl spaces,
closets, or other places that have poor ventilation.
When applying pesticides to ceilings, trees, or other
areas above the head, shirt sleeves should be tucked Respirators are often versatile facemask pieces
into the gloves. Conversely, with low applications at that can accommodate a variety of different filter

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CHAPTER 7: PESTICIDE SAFETY

cartridges or canisters. It is important to be sure that pressed tightly to a highly absorptive skin area on
an appropriate canister or cartridge can be used the face or head—could be an even greater hazard
with an available mask. Canisters and cartridges are than using no equipment at all.
coded for their particular air-purifying capabilities,
and these may cover single or multiple categories.
The most common requirements for pesticide
applicators are organic vapor (OV) cartridges,
which are suitable for most insecticide mists or
space-treatment aerosols or fogs. Phosphine
fumigants call for “PH” filter designations, not to
be confused with “P-100,” which is a common
particulate filter.

Some pesticide labels will mention specific types of

respirators that must be used. In these cases, they

PY
will commonly specify one of the following testing

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and certification (TC) numbers from the National

C
Institute of Occupational Safety and Health:

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IE
TC-84A – These respirators have a particulate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) includes items such as

EV
filter or a combination chemical cartridge and safety glasses and respirators. Label directions should be
particulate filter. considered the minimum standard to be followed when choosing
R
PPE. Photo by Matthew Chism.
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TC-23C – These are air-purifying respirators

R

(APR) with a single type of chemical cartridge,

U

or powered air-purifying respirators (PAPR) with Eye Protection

O

chemical cartridges and particulate filters.

C

Safety glasses, goggles, and face shields are used

EP

TC-21C – These are powered air-purifying for eye protection. If the PPE section of a pesticide
labels says to use “protective eyewear,” then safety
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respirators (PAPR) with particulate filters.

glasses, a face shield, fully-enclosed goggles, or a
E

Pesticide labels may also list which category of full-face respirator can be worn. If the label refers
AC

particulate filters must be used in the respirators. to “goggles,” then fully-enclosed, splash-resistant
The categories are: goggles or a full-face respirator should be worn. If
S
IN

the label refers to a “full-face respirator,” then a

LL

N – These filters are not resistant to oil and tight-fitting, full-face respirator should be worn.
should only be used when no oil is present.
O
R

Sometimes labels will be very specific as to which

R – These filters can resist some oil, but only for
type should be worn. For example, a label may say,
a limited time.
“Full face shield or safety glasses with brow and
P – These filters are oil-proof and can be used temple shields required. Do NOT wear goggles.”
when oil is present. As always, the directions on the labels should be
followed.
The service life of respiratory filters will depend on
the user’s breathing rate and level of exertion. Forty Footwear
hours of use is a good rule of thumb for service life.
Proper footwear is also important, especially during
Proper care, cleaning, and storage of protective broadcast sprayings over large areas. Boots and
equipment is important. Respiratory protection shoes made of leather or cloth should not be worn
equipment should be stored in an appropriate bag in some circumstances because they can absorb
or case. The surfaces of protective equipment that pesticides and are difficult to clean. Pants legs
contact skin should be cleaned regularly. Wearing should be worn outside of the boots to prevent
contaminated equipment—which could possibly be pesticides from entering the footwear.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Clothing
At the very least, long pants, shoes, and socks should Cloth or leather hats or liners that will absorb
be worn when handling pesticides. Long sleeves chemicals should be avoided.
should be worn when required by the product label
or by company policy. Clothing used while spraying Clothing and all other PPE should never be stored
should be changed and washed daily. This clothing inside a pesticide storage room or in the same
should be washed separately from other clothing. At compartment of a vehicle containing pesticides or
the end of each day, a shower should be taken with other chemicals.
soap and water, with special attention given to the
head and the hands. Storing Pesticides
Overalls and coveralls come in many different
materials—butyl rubber, neoprene, PVC, laminated
polyethylene fabrics, etc.—and they provide varying

PY
levels of protection (see table on characteristics of
commonly-used pesticide coveralls). Read the PPE

O
C
section of the pesticide label to know which type is

W
needed, at minimum. Do not use coveralls made

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from fabrics such as cotton or polyester unless the

EV
label only requires “long-sleeved shirt and long
pants” or “coveralls worn over long-sleeved shirt and R
long pants.”
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R

Aprons may be required for mixing and loading

U

pesticide spray tanks or for cleaning equipment.

O
C

Aprons should be coated with resistant materials,

EP

and they should fully protect the front of the body Danger signs should be displayed on the doors of pesticide
from the neck to the knees. Aprons should be storage areas. Photo by Matthew Chism.
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cleaned after each use.

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AC
S

Characteristics of Commonly-Used Pesticide Coveralls

IN
LL

Particulate Splash Liquid

Liquid
Material Protection Protection Chemical Breathable? Relative Cost
O

Proof?
Class Class Protection?
R

Tempro® IV (none) No No Yes Low

ProShield® I III No Yes Yes Low
Tyvek ®
I III No No Yes Low
Tyvek QC / sewn seams
®
I II No Yes No Low
Tyvek® QC / sealed seams I II Yes Yes No Moderate
Kleenguard® LP I III No No Yes Low
Tychem SL / surged seams
®
I I No Yes No Moderate
Tychem® SL / sealed seams I I Yes Yes No High
PVC coverall I I Yes Yes No High
PVC suite I I Yes Yes No Moderate
Characteristics of some commonly used pesticide coveralls. The Roman numerals in the columns showing Particulate Protection Class
and Splash Protection Class are determined by the signal words on pesticide labels. Class I = signal words DANGER or DANGER/
POISON (highly toxic); Class II = signal word WARNING (toxic); Class III = signal word CAUTION (less toxic); Class IV = signal word
CAUTION (least toxic, so signal word not required). Image courtesy of Oregon OSHA.

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CHAPTER 7: PESTICIDE SAFETY

Pesticides should be stored in a designated room • If labels are destroyed or damaged and the
or facility that can be locked so children cannot contents of a container are unknown, then it
enter it. The area should be well-lit, well-ventilated, should be disposed of properly.
waterproof, and away from areas that are prone to • Storing pesticides in milk jugs, gasoline cans,
flooding. It should also be away from food items and or any other containers is illegal and highly
from flames such as pilot lights since some pesticides dangerous.
are flammable.
• Shelving should be sturdy and made of steel,
Signs saying that smoking is prohibited should be which is easier to clean than wood. Place liquid
displayed in storage areas, along with signs that pesticides and heavy containers on the lowest
state “Danger – Pesticide Storage Area” or something shelves to avoid dripping or spilling. Dry
similar. Additionally, these storage areas should be products like powders and dusts should be
kept away from waterways such as streams, lakes, stored on the higher shelves.
ponds, or wells. • Do not store any other items that are not
pesticides—including PPE—in the designated

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Other Tips for Pesticide Storage:
area to prevent contamination.

O
C
• State regulations may dictate specific • Generally, pesticides should be stored at

W
requirements for storage. temperatures ranging between 40-100 oF

IE
• Store pesticides only in their original containers (4-37 oC), although some pesticide labels will

EV
with original labels. Original labels are the only provide more specific storage temperature
way to guarantee what is in the container. R
guidelines. Extremely high or low temperatures
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may damage pesticide containers or cause
chemical changes to the products themselves.
R
U
O
C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

Diagram of a well-built pesticide storage facility. Image courtesy of Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

• A spill-cleanup kit should be stored in the may require placards (signs) to be placed on
designated area. vehicles. Commercial driver’s licenses (CDLs)
• Fumigants should not be stored in any building with hazardous-materials endorsements are
or structure that is inhabited by people or usually required for placarded vehicles, as are
animals. Instead, they should be kept in a special vehicle safety inspections.
separate building that is properly ventilated. • Avoid leaving a job site with mixed pesticides
When storage in occupied buildings is unavoidable, in sprayers or other equipment by mixing only
gas-detection protocols should be employed. enough for a particular job. If there is excess
• Because chemicals deteriorate over time, efforts and it must be transported, always remove the
should be made to keep track of the expiration pressure from the sprayer before driving.
dates of products in storage. To avoid expiration • Familiarize yourself with state and other local
problems, keep inventories as low as possible. regulations that may require additional safety
As the National Pesticide Information Center precautions.
says on their website, “Buy only what you need • Be prepared for emergencies by knowing

PY
this season; mix only what you need today.” first-aid procedures and by carrying emergency

O
• Safety data sheets (SDSs) should be available in phone numbers.

C
or near the storage area in case of accidents or

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• Be prepared for spills and accidents by carrying
spills.

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water, a first-aid kit, a fire extinguisher, clean-up

EV
• Read the product labels to see if there are any tools, and a spill-cleanup kit containing absorbent
special storage instructions. R
materials such as pet litter, clay, charcoal, or
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sawdust. Also, keep extra clothes in case a
Transporting Pesticides change is needed.
R
U

The following rules should be followed when

O

pesticides are being transported:

C
EP

• Never transport pesticides in passenger

PR

compartments where people may be exposed

to vapors or spills.
E
AC

• Never allow people or pets to ride in

compartments where pesticides are stored.
S
IN

• Never leave pesticides unattended in an

LL

unlocked or open-bed vehicle.

O

• Never stack pesticide containers higher than

R

the side of an open-bed vehicle.

• Only transport containers that have intact,
readable labels.
An uncluttered service van with steel shelves for pesticide
• Inspect pesticide containers to be sure that storage. Notice the holes in the shelving for bungee cords and
caps, plugs, and other openings are tightly tie-down straps. Photo by Matthew Chism.
closed.
• Anchor containers and equipment with ropes or Mixing and Filling Pesticides
sandbags to prevent rolling or sliding. The jobs of mixing pesticides and filling application
• Check the products’ safety data sheets to equipment carry the highest risks of exposure—
determine whether there are special transportation even higher than the job of applying pesticides. This
regulations according to the Department of is because mixing and filling involve working with
Transportation (DOT). Some pesticides may insecticide concentrates that are much more toxic
be considered hazardous materials, which than diluted spray mixtures. Therefore, it is extremely

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CHAPTER 7: PESTICIDE SAFETY

important to follow label instructions and to wear the Tips for explaining risk:
proper personal protective equipment when mixing
pesticides and when filling equipment. • Let your customers know that you are concerned
about their safety, and make every effort to keep
Pesticide mixing tips: indoor pesticide use to a minimum through the
use of IPM. That way you can assure your
• Check the label for instructions on required PPE customer that you are using only what is
for mixing, and wear it. necessary to do the job that you are being
• Check label mixing instructions to make sure asked to do.
you know the proper amount of insecticide and • Avoid use of the word “safe”—no pesticide
water to mix. comes with a guarantee of complete safety. It’s
• If possible, mix on a grassy area or an area better to talk about risk. We can guarantee a
away from storm drains in case of a spill. level of risk, but we can never guarantee
absolute safety—even a one-in-a-million chance
• It is generally best to first fill the sprayer with

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is not absolutely “safe.” The EPA will not
two-thirds of the water needed. Then add the
register a pesticide unless it is persuaded that

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proper amount of pesticide. Then add the
there is no unreasonable risk of adverse effects

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remaining one-third of water.
associated with it when used as labeled.

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• Before mixing two different kinds of pesticides,

IE
• Avoid comparing the toxicity of pesticides to
check the label. Generally it is OK to mix

EV
food items like table salt. While it is true that
pesticides unless it is prohibited on the label.
R
table salt has toxicity, and some insecticide
• If more than one pesticide formulation is to be
SE
LD50 values show less toxicity than table salt,
mixed in one tank, they should be added in salt is manufactured to be ingested while
R

the following order:

U

insecticides are manufactured to kill or control

O

– Wettable powders pests. This is an unfair comparison. A better

C

– Flowables and dry flowables comparison would be to another pesticide that

EP

the customer already uses. For example, many

– Water-soluble concentrates
PR

pets are treated for fleas with the same active

– Emulsifiable concentrates ingredients used in household pest control. If
E

customers have already accepted the risk of

AC

• Never place the filling hose into the pesticide

tank, and try to keep the hose from touching applying such products to their pets, then it is
S

the contents of the tank. Always avoid splashing. not unreasonable to propose using the same
IN

product outdoors or in protected crevices of

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• Always maintain, and know how to use, a

the home.
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spill-cleanup kit in case of emergency.

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• Let your customers know that you are concerned

Communicating with Customers about the risk of working with pesticides,
because your risk of exposure is much higher
Your customers need thoughtful, professional than theirs. This sort of explanation is especially
answers to their questions about pesticide risks. helpful because we base many of our personal
This means that you should understand the label decisions on the experiences of friends and
and SDS content thoroughly, and you should acquaintances. Your confidence in your ability
know how to communicate about risk. Risk to minimize risk while working with pesticides
communication is especially important for sensitive can leave a powerful impression on those
accounts such as schools, hospitals, homes, you meet.
apartments, and restaurants.
• Remember that the ACE Code of Ethics requires
you to preface any one-sided statements by
clearly indicating on whose behalf they are
made. Further, the Code requires you to keep
your clients informed about the process of your
IPM implementation.
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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Other Important Communication Tips: • When using large spray tanks, make sure your
tank has an installed air gap to avoid possible
Let your customers know when you will arrive, what contact of the water supply hose with pesticide
you will do, and what you’ve done. in the sprayer tank. Air gaps are required in
some cities and states to guard against possible
In some jurisdictions, you may be required to provide
back-siphoning of pesticides into the water
clientele with “prior notification” about a pesticide
supply.
application, so you should be familiar with local as
well as federal regulations regarding posting notices. • Make sure agitation is properly adjusted,
especially for wettable powders and other
Service tickets should clearly show what services formulations prone to settling. Avoid leaving
you have performed, the names and quantities of surplus mixtures in application equipment at
pesticides used, time in and out, etc. This kind of the end of a work day lest the ingredients settle
information will also protect you in case there is any and clog tanks or hoses. Instead, empty the
question about the appropriateness or legality of surplus into a properly labeled storage container

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anything you have done. (preferably the original container) for reuse at a
later time. Better yet, avoid having any surplus by

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mixing only what is needed for a particular job.

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Proper Disposal of Pesticides

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Proper disposal of surplus pesticides, rinse water,
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and pesticide containers can be challenging, but is
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an important part of the logistics of a pest control

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business. Improper disposal of any of these materials

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is both illegal and dangerous to the environment.

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C

The best way to avoid having to dispose of a surplus

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pesticide mixture is to not produce any surplus—try

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to mix only as much as you will need for a particular

The ability to explain issues concerning pesticide safety and the job. The best place to dispose of surplus is on the
E

importance of preventative pest control measures is

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site of application. Mixing the right amount for any

important. Photo by Richard Levine.
particular job saves time, money, and the problem
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of disposal. However, pesticides do expire, containers

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Application Equipment may become damaged, spills may occur, or a

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miscalculation can lead to surplus. If too much

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How you use and maintain your application

pesticide is mixed, it may be applied at other locations
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equipment says a lot about you and your company.

with a similar pest problem, or it may be saved for
Consider the following recommendations:
a future application. Old pesticides can often be
• All sprayer equipment, including nozzles, disposed of legally through a hazardous waste
hoses, pumps, and tanks, should be inspected disposal event, or sometimes through municipal
regularly. Don’t forget to wear PPE during hazardous waste disposal sites. Private hazardous
inspections and repairs. waste disposal services are needed for some
quantities of waste, but the cost can be high.
• Calibrate your equipment at least at the
beginning and middle of each spraying season. Rinsate from cleaning a spray tank or from washing
Check the calibration of liquid or granular equipment should be recycled during subsequent
application devices by filling equipment with a jobs if possible. If—and only if—this is not possible
measured amount of product and applying to and not prohibited by the label, rinsate can be
a lawn or field of known area, say 100 square applied to a level grassy area where you have
feet. Check the amount applied against the permission to dispose of it. Unless you have
desired application rate and adjust equipment permission from a customer to dispose of excess
as needed.
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Container disposal is another responsibility for

Triple Rinsing Pesticide anyone who uses pesticides. Pesticide containers
Containers should never be used for other purposes when
empty, but after cleaning they may be offered for
Proper rinsing is required before pesticide plastic recycling purposes.
containers can be recycled or disposed of. Pesticide containers for liquids should be triple-
The easiest method to ensure 99% removal rinsed or pressure rinsed (see box) before recycling
of pesticide residue is through triple rinsing. or disposal. Dry formulation containers should also
Liquid pesticide containers should be rinsed be completely emptied, and either offered for
three times by doing the following: recycling or deposited in an appropriate disposal
site. Before disposal, both liquid and dry containers
1. Fill the container one-quarter full with should be destroyed by punching holes in the sides
water or some other rinsing fluid to prevent reuse. Aerosol containers should be
emptied and disposed of at a disposal site, but

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according to the pesticide label.
holes should not be punched in them.

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2. Put the top or plug back on the

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container and rotate it so that all inside Some containers may have special disposal rules,

W
surfaces are rinsed. depending on their contents. Again, when in doubt,

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follow the instructions on the label or the safety

EV
3. Remove the plug and empty the rinse data sheet.
water into a collection tank. R
SE

4. Repeat this procedure two more times. Managing Pesticide Spills

R

In case of a spill, action should be taken immediately.

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5. Punch holes in the top and bottom of the

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container to prevent it from being reused. Anyone exposed to a pesticide should be removed
C

and washed, clothing should be changed, and

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6. Deposit the container in a sanitary medical attention provided as needed. Personal

landfill or disposal site.
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protective equipment should be worn by anyone

Another accepted rinsing method is called responding to a spill. Bear in mind that your first
E

priority in case of a spill is to ensure the health and

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pressure rinsing. Pressure rinsing is faster

safety of yourself and others who may be exposed
than triple rinsing, but requires a special
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or endangered.
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pressure-rinser hose attachment, and an

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attached hose to protect against backflow. In case of a spill, the National Association of State
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Follow instructions by the manufacturer Departments of Agriculture (NASDA) recommends

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for use. using the Three Cs: control, contain, and clean up.

Control means stopping leaks in containers, tanks,

or vehicles. Leaks in containers should be plugged,
pesticide away from the legitimate application site and small containers should be placed in larger
on the customer’s property, leftover products should containers if possible. People should be warned that
be disposed of away from the job site. the spill area is contaminated and the area should
be blocked to keep unauthorized people out.
Never pour leftover pesticides down the sink, into a
toilet, or down a sewer or street drain. Wastewater Spills should then be contained immediately to
treatment plants are not designed to remove keep them from spreading. If a spill is liquid, throw
pesticides, and this can result in damage to plants an absorbent material on it, such as pet litter, clay,
and pollution in streams. In most cities, stormwater vermiculite, charcoal, or sawdust. The quantity of
drains lead directly to natural waterways, so material should be enough to absorb all or most of
anything poured into the stormwater system goes the liquid. Some spill kits contain absorptive dikes
directly into your rivers or lakes, where they can that can be placed in the path of a spill to prevent it
harm fish, plants, and other living things. from entering a waterway or storm drain.
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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

at the business office. The plan should be made

available for employee use and inspection. Operators
of storage facilities should provide a copy of the
plan and a current chemical inventory to the local
fire department.

Emergency plans should include:

1. The identity and telephone numbers of the

persons or agencies who are to be contacted
in the event of a discharge, including persons
responsible for the stored chemical(s).
Absorbent materials like these should be part of a spill-cleanup 2. The procedures and equipment to be used in
kit. Every pest control company should have a written
emergency-response plan for spills and leaks at storage
controlling, recovering, and responding to an
emergency or discharge.

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facilities. Photo by Matthew Chism.
3. For each bulk chemical stored at the facility, a

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Cleaning up includes sweeping or shoveling the complete copy of the storage container labeling.

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absorbent spill materials and dikes into appropriate 4. The identification and location of every fixed

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chemical-proof containers. Spilled dusts, powders, storage container located at the facility.

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or granules should also be shoveled or swept into
containers for disposal or reuse. After the spilled R
All employees should be trained in discharge
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material has been removed, the area should be response procedures outlined in the emergency and
decontaminated with a cleaning product that has
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discharge response plan. New employees should

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been recommended according to the product label receive training and should not participate in
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or the safety data sheet. If more information is needed,

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emergency responses until such training is completed.

the pesticide manufacturer should be contacted.
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Pesticide Poisoning
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All pesticide labels have first-aid and emergency

numbers in case of an accident or spill. Keep The safety precautions described above on proper
E

emergency phone numbers handy as well as safety

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pesticide storage, transportation, and disposal will

data sheets so firefighters and HazMat crews know help prevent accidents. However, if one does occur,
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what kind of chemicals they are dealing with. If a PMP needs to be prepared. Before using a
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in doubt about how best to clean a spill, call the pesticide—as always—read the label, which will
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pesticide manufacturer’s number on the pesticide include first-aid procedures, symptoms of poisoning,
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container. The National Pesticide Information Center

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emergency phone numbers, notes for physicians,

maintains a list of manufacturers’ phone numbers and other information. Remember that every
at http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/manuf.htm, and these pesticide product is different, so poisoning symptoms
numbers can also be found on pesticide labels and and treatment methods will also differ.
safety data sheets. Each community and state will
have different reporting requirements, so it is Routes of Entry
important to become familiar with these requirements
A previous chapter discussed the different routes
and write them into your emergency-response plan
of entry (contact, ingestion, or respiration) by which
and employee training.
a pesticide can affect insects, rodents, and other
Have a Plan pests. The term “route of entry” is also applied to
people if they are exposed to pesticides, and there
Every pest control company should have a written are four recognized routes: dermal (through the
emergency-response plan for spills and leaks at skin), oral (through the mouth), inhalation (breathed
storage facilities. A copy of the plan should be kept into the lungs), and ocular (in the eyes).
in a prominent location at the storage facility and

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Dermal exposure is the most common, especially to Recognizing Poisoning Signs and Symptoms
the hands, which is why it is so important to wear Pesticide labels may have very specific descriptions
gloves and other PPE, and to wash hands after of poisoning signs and symptoms. For example, they
applying pesticides. Unwashed hands may spread may say something like “In severe cases of over-
chemicals to other body areas, many of which are exposure, lethargy, muscle tremors, or convulsions
more sensitive and which absorb chemicals faster, may occur,” or “Poisoning symptoms may include
which increases the risk. The following figure shows dizziness, nausea, or loss of appetite.” However,
the relative absorption rates of different parts of many labels will not be so specific, so it is important
the body. to be able to recognize general poisoning signs and
symptoms.
scalp
forehead 3.7 Poisoning signs are things that can be seen by
4.2 ear canal
others. They include vomiting, sweating, dilated
5.4
pupils, trembling, convulsions, coughing, and other

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indicators.

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Poisoning symptoms can only be felt and described

C
by the victim. They include headache, fatigue,

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weakness, dizziness, restlessness, nervousness,

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perspiration, nausea, diarrhea, loss of appetite,

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thirst, moodiness, soreness in joints, skin irritation,
abdomen
2.1
forearm R
eye irritation, irritation of the nose and throat,
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1.0
blurred vision, difficulty in breathing, and others.
R
U

Chemicals in the same class (as discussed in a

O

palm
previous chapter) will usually produce similar signs
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1.3
and symptoms. For example, people who have been
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poisoned by organophosphates or carbamates will

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genital area
often have dilated pupils.
11.8
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For more detailed information about pesticide

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poisoning signs and symptoms according to their

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chemical classes, see the Recognition and

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Management of Pesticide Poisonings page at the

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National Pesticide Information Center’s website at

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http://npic.orst.edu/rmpp.htm.
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ball of foot
1.6
First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning
Relative absorption rates, compared to the forearm with an In cases of pesticide poisoning, it is important to act
absorption rate of 1.0. The higher the number, the higher the rate quickly and to act correctly by following the first-aid
of absorption. instructions on the pesticide label, if possible.
Otherwise, the following actions should be taken:
Pesticide labels will often provide specific first-aid
treatments according to the route of entry. For example, 1. Make sure the victim is no longer being
a label may say “If on skin, rinse immediately with exposed to the pesticide.
plenty of water for 15-20 minutes,” or “If swallowed,
do not allow the person to drink liquid,” or “If 2. Call a doctor or an ambulance.
inhaled, move person to an area with fresh air and 3. Apply first aid and/or call a local poison center
call a physician.” or the National Pesticide Information Center at
800-222-1222 or at 800-858-7378.

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4. Save the label for the medical personnel when If a pesticide has been inhaled, immediately move
they arrive. If transporting the victim by car or the victim to an area containing fresh air. Loosen
truck, bring the label and present it to medical the victim’s clothing to allow proper breathing. If
staff. breathing has stopped, apply artificial respiration.

Federal Pesticide Laws

In the United States, pesticides are strongly
regulated. It takes about 8-10 years to develop a new
pesticide and bring it to market, since it is required
to undergo about 120 tests before approval by the
EPA, at an average cost of $240 million.

The U.S. Congress established the EPA in 1970 and

required that it regulate pesticides. The EPA sets

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standards for pesticide registration, handling, and

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use. These standards affect recordkeeping,

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transportation, storage, disposal, mixing methods,

W
and application practices.

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EV
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
R
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The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide

R

Act (FIFRA) is administered by the U.S. EPA’s Office

U
O

of Pesticide Programs (OPP). The FIFRA was

C

An eye-wash station. Photo by Matthew Chism. enacted in 1947, when it replaced the Federal
EP

Insecticide Act of 1910.

General first-aid procedures include the following:
PR

In 1972, an important amendment was made to

In case of exposure to the skin, rinse with plenty
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FIFRA called the Federal Environmental Pest

AC

of water (bathe or shower if possible), remove Control Act (FEPCA). This amendment shifted the
contaminated PPE and clothing, and dry the victim. emphasis from pest control regulations to the role
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If skin has been burned by chemicals, rinse with

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of protecting public health and the environment.

plenty of water, then dry the skin and apply loose,
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clean bandages or cloth. Do not apply oil, ointments, FIFRA governs the registration of pesticide products.
O

grease, or other chemicals or drugs. No product can be sold until the EPA reviews an
R

application by the manufacturer, approves each use

In case of exposure to the eyes, rinse with plenty of of the product, registers it, and assigns it a registration
water for 15 minutes or more. Be sure to drip the number. Manufacturers must demonstrate that the
water across the eye, not directly into it, while holding use of their pesticide products will not result in
the eyelid open. If only one eye has been exposed, unreasonable adverse effects to human health or
avoid splashing water into the other eye. Use water the environment.
only. Do not use other chemicals or drugs.
FIFRA requires that 1) EPA registers each pesticide
If a pesticide has been swallowed, do not induce and each of its uses, which appears on its label, 2)
vomiting unless instructed to do so by a physician, products must be categorized as either general-use
or unless it explicitly says to do so on the label. pesticides or restricted-use pesticides, and 3) users of
Never induce vomiting if a victim is unconscious. restricted-use pesticides must be certified or under the
If conscious, the victim may drink a small amount direct supervision of a certified applicator.
of water or milk to dilute the pesticide, unless label
instructions or medical personnel say otherwise.

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A pesticide that is designated restricted-use Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).
status is more likely than a general-use pesticide to Passed in 1938, this law is administered by the EPA
be dangerous. “Restricted-use” indicates that the and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
environment, the user, or other people can possibly giving them the authority to regulate the safety of
be harmed through the use of the pesticide, even if food, drugs, and cosmetics. Under the FFDCA, the
it is used as directed. Restricted-use pesticides may two government agencies determine the maximum
only be applied by certified applicators or by others levels of pesticide residues that are allowed in or
under their direct supervision. on human food and animal feed. These levels are
known as tolerances. PMPs working in areas where
There are two classes of certified pesticide applicators: grain, food, or animal feed are stored, processed, or
private and commercial. A private certified applicator prepared may be affected by this law.
uses or supervises the use of restricted-use pesticides
for agriculture on private land. Examples of private Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA). Established
applicators include farmers, ranchers, vegetable in 1996, this law amended the Federal Insecticide,
growers, and home gardeners. A commercial Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the

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certified applicator may use or supervise the use Federal Food Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA)

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of restricted-use pesticides for any purpose on by fundamentally changing the way EPA regulates

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any property other than those listed for private pesticides. Some of the major requirements include

W
applicators. Examples of commercial applicators stricter safety standards (especially for infants and

IE
include pest control technicians, landscapers, aerial children), a complete reassessment of all existing

EV
applicators, lawn-service companies, and others. pesticide tolerances, and changes to pesticide
R
labeling requirements.
SE
FIFRA also provides penalties for using pesticides
incorrectly (use that is inconsistent with the labeling), Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act
R
U

and makes it illegal to store or dispose of pesticides (FACT). Established in 1990, this law requires
O

or pesticide containers in ways that violate the certified applicators to maintain records of restricted-
C

regulations. use pesticides they have used. The records must

EP

contain the pesticide product name, the amount

PR

In addition, each state has laws that govern the use used, the approximate date of application, and
of pesticides. These laws must comply with federal the location of application. These records must be
E

laws, and some state laws are even more stringent

AC

maintained for two years after the product is applied.

than federal laws. However, state laws cannot relax,
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overrule, or be in conflict with federal laws. Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (HMTA).
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Established in 1975, this law is administered by the

LL

Likewise, some local jurisdictions also have their Department of Transportation. According to the law,
O

own regulations and laws. However, these local laws drivers who transport certain hazardous pesticides
R

may not relax, overrule, or be in conflict with state and other materials are required to undergo special
or federal laws. training and licensing, and placards must be placed
on their vehicles. Shipping papers may also be
Each pest control technician who applies, mixes,
required to be carried on the vehicle if reportable
or transports pesticides is responsible for being
quantities are being transported.
familiar with all rules governing pest control activities
in his or her area of operation. FIFRA provides civil Occupational Safety and Health ACT (OSH).
penalties for the violation of a regulation, even if it is Established in 1970, this law created the
unintentional. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), which requires employers to provide a
Other Federal Laws Regarding Pesticides safe workplace and to inform employees of potential
In addition to the EPA, other government agencies hazards. Many of the regulations discussed earlier
administer laws and regulations that affect pest in this chapter concerning personal protection
management, such as: equipment (PPE) and safety data sheets (SDSs)
are administered through OSHA.

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General Rules to Remember When Using Pesticides

• Only use pesticides in accordance with labeling • Inspect equipment to make sure that it is
instructions. working properly and that there are no leaks
• Before using a pesticide, measure the area that before using pesticides.
you will be treating and then read the label to • Containers must be triple-rinsed before being
determine how much active ingredient is needed disposed of.
and how much should be mixed. Avoid mixing
• Avoid spraying near pilot lights, flames,
more than is needed.
electrical outlets, exposed wires, or anything
• Avoid exposing yourself and people in the area else that may be a possible source of ignition.
you are treating to pesticides.
• Keep in mind that different surfaces such as
• Avoid chemicals and application methods that concrete, wood, metal, linoleum, and others

PY
might endanger the environment, groundwater, have different characteristics and that some

O
people, pets, wildlife, and food sources. pesticide formulations will be more readily

C
• Wear gloves, safety glasses, and other protective absorbed than others.

W
clothing when handling pesticides. Inspect them • When transporting pesticides, keep them in a

IE
regularly and replace as needed. cargo area away from people, pets, and food.

EV
• Never leave pesticides unattended and never If a vehicle containing pesticides must be left
R
unattended, make sure that it is locked.
store them in unlocked areas.
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• Keep pesticides away from food, water, and

R
U

sources of heat or fire.

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C
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Endangered Species Act (ESA). Passed in 1973,

PR

this law is administered by the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service and the Commerce Department’s
E
AC

National Marine Fisheries Service, and its purpose

is “to protect and recover imperiled species and
S

the ecosystems upon which they depend.” Because

IN

of this law, the use of some pesticides may be

LL

prohibited in certain areas if they are deemed to

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be harmful to endangered plants or animals.

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Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA).

Established in 2011, this law is administered by
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and its
purpose is to ensure the U.S. food supply is safe by
shifting the focus from responding to contamination
to preventing it. The law applies strongly to food-
processing facilities since pest infestations can
lead to foodborne illnesses.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 8

Insect Classification

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O
C
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EV
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O

Taxonomy and Scientific Names After kingdom, the other major taxa in descending
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order are phylum, class, order, family, genus, and

EP

Taxonomists are biologists who identify, name, and

species. All living things, including humans, are
classify organisms. The system used today by
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classified according to this system. The chart below

taxonomists to classify living things was developed
shows examples of the major Linnaean taxa as they
E

in the 1700s by a Swedish botanist named

would apply to the German cockroach and to humans.
AC

Carl Linnaeus. Linnaeus put all living things into

different groups, or taxa (“taxon” is singular). Notice that the last two taxon names, genus and
S
IN

According to Linnaeus’ system, the first, most-basic species, are italicized. This convention is used
LL

taxon is kingdom. Linnaeus and his contemporaries because genus and species names are based on
recognized only two kingdoms, the Animales (animals)
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Latin, and since Latin is a foreign language, most

R

and Vegetabiles (plants). Today, however, with our style guides require such words to be italicized.
microscopes and knowledge of microscopic life The genus and species names of any given
forms, several more kingdoms are recognized, organism make up the official scientific name for
including the bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and others. that organism. Thus, the scientific name for the

Taxon German Cockroach Human

Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Arthopoda Chordata
Class Insecta Mammalia
Order Blattodea Primates
Family Blattellidae Hominidae
Genus Blatella Homo
Species germanica sapiens

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German cockroach is Blatella germanica, and the Insects that are well-known usually also have
scientific name for human beings is Homo sapiens. common names. In the example given above, the
Also notice that the genus name is always capitalized common name for Blatella germanica is the
and the species name is always lower case. “German cockroach”—at least that’s the case in
the U.S. However, in other parts of the world Blatella
Sometimes an insect can only be identified to the germanica is most likely called something else.
genus level, and the species cannot be determined.
In such cases, the abbreviation “sp.” is used to Common names may even vary from one region to
show that the exact species is unknown—for example, another. For example, the insect that one person
“Blatella sp.” If there are two or more unknown calls a “waterbug” may be completely different
species, the plural “spp.” is used, such as from what a colleague in another city or state calls
“Blatella spp.” a waterbug. Or consider the creature commonly
known as a pillbug, potatobug, or roly-poly. These
are all common names for the same creature with
Scientific Names Versus Common the scientific name Armadillidium vulgare.
Names

PY
O
Scientific names are important in pest control work Unlike common names, scientific names are

C
because accurate pest identification is necessary. internationally recognized, which allows accurate

W
We may not use scientific names on a daily basis, communication with entomologists and PMPs

IE
but when we need to communicate the precise throughout the world. Also, most insect species do

EV
identity of a given organism, the scientific name not have widely used common names, so in many
should be used. R
cases the only available name is a scientific name.
SE
R

Phylum: Arthropoda
U
O

All insects—along with spiders, scorpions, ticks,

C

mites, isopods, crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes,

EP

and other related animals—belong to the phylum

PR

Arthropoda. The word arthropod, which comes

from ancient Greek, means “jointed leg” and refers
E

to the segmentation found on all arthropod legs.

AC

Characteristics of arthropods include their bilateral

S

symmetry (in other words, the left side and right

IN

side of their bodies are the same), chitinous

LL

exoskeletons, segmented bodies, and segmented

O

legs.
R

Unlike other animals, such as mammals or fish,

arthropods have an external skeleton (an exoskeleton)
which provides both support and protection to their
internal organs. In addition to these functions, the
exoskeleton is coated with waxes that help waterproof
them. Because of their small size, and the propor-
Both of these cockroaches are sometimes called palmetto tionately higher amount of surface area that comes
bugs (and other common names), which can be confusing. with being small, insects are prone to lose water—
However, the scientific name for the one on the top is Periplaneta
which is known as desiccation—much more quickly
americana, and the one on the bottom is Eurycotis floridana.
Each species has only one scientific name, which leaves no than larger animals. For this reason, waterproofing
room for confusion or miscommunication. Photos courtesy of is especially important for insects and other
the National Pest Management Association. arthropods that live in dry environments.

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Exoskeletons and Pest Management

Due to their small size, insects, spiders, and other terrestrial (land) arthropods may be at
high risk of desiccation, or drying out. Compounds that can be used to accelerate water loss
in insects are called desiccants. Diatomaceous earth and silica aerogel are two examples of
desiccants that can be used alone or in combination with other insecticides to kill insects.
Diatomaceous earth is believed to work primarily by scratching the waxy outer layer of the
insect exoskeleton, hindering its ability to retain water. Silica aerogel is thought to work
primarily by absorbing waxes on the surface of the exoskeleton, thus preventing water retention.
Both of these materials perform best in low-humidity situations, where insects are already
under some degree of water stress. Desiccants are generally applied dry, as dusts, and do
not work well against insects that have adequate access to water or against those found in

PY
moist environments.

O
C
W
Class: Arachnida

IE
EV
The class Arachnida contains some of the most Mites and ticks are small to minute in size. Their
important arthropods for the pest control industry
R
bodies are oval with little or no obvious distinction
SE

(besides insects): the scorpions, spiders, mites, and between body regions. Adult ticks and mites have
R

ticks. Scorpions belong to the order Scorpiones, spiders eight legs, but the immature stages (known as larvae)
U
O

to the order Araneae, and mites and ticks to the of all ticks and most mites have only six. After the
C

subclass Acari. first molt, the larvae grow a fourth pair of legs and are
EP

referred to as nymphs.
All scorpions and spiders have eight legs, as do all
PR

adult ticks and mites. These arthropods also differ While anatomical differences between mites and ticks
E

from insects in lacking antennae and wings. are difficult to see without high magnification, ticks are
AC

generally larger than mites. Ticks are also completely

Scorpion bodies consist of three different regions.
S

parasitic, feeding on mammals, birds, and reptiles.

IN

The prosoma is the head region, which bears the Mites are more diverse in their habits and include
LL

pedipalps (pincers or claws); the mesosoma is the plant feeders, decomposers, parasites, and predators.
O

abdominal region, which bears the legs; and the

R

metasoma is the tail and the stinger. The term

opisthosoma can also be used to describe the
combined mesosoma and metasoma regions, and
some textbooks use the term cephalothorax instead
of prosoma.

Spiders have two body parts, the cephalothorax and

the abdomen, which are connected by a slender waist
called a pedicel. The cephalothorax consists of the
fusion of the head and the thorax, and it bears the
eight legs. The abdomen is the hind body part, and
it bears the sexual organs and the silk-producing This ground spider, like all spiders, has two main body parts,
spinnerets. the cephalothorax (orange) and the abdomen (white).
Photo by Mike Merchant.

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Superclass: Hexapoda
Centipedes and Millipedes Arthropods that have six legs are known as
hexapods. The superclass Hexapoda includes all
Centipedes and millipedes are arthropods
insects in the class Insecta, plus three very closely
that may look similar, but they are not even in related classes: Collembola (springtails), Protura
the same class. The centipede, in the class (coneheads), and Diplura (two-pronged bristletails).
Chilopoda, has only two body regions, a head Collembola, Protura, and Diplura share many
followed by many similar body segments similarities with insects. However, they do not have
bearing legs. Centipedes have one pair of legs wings and their mouthparts are enveloped in a
per segment. They can be very fast runners pouch—distinctions that are very slight, but are
and are predatory, feeding on anything small enough to separate them from the “true” insects.
enough to catch. All centipedes have venomous All insects are hexapods, but not all hexapods
claws (also known as “prehensors” or “forcip- are insects.

PY
ules”) below their heads, which they use to

O
paralyze their prey. Some species, especially Class: Insecta

C
the larger ones found in the southern U.S.

W
Insects are by far the most important arthropod
and tropical areas, are capable of delivering

IE
group in the pest control field. Insects are
painful bites.

EV
distinguished from other arthropods by their six
legs, three body parts (head, thorax, and abdomen),
R
Millipedes, in the class Diplopoda, also have antennae, and a development process called
SE

only two body regions, the head and the rest metamorphosis. Insects are also the only arthropod
R

of the body. Most body segments in millipedes class to have evolved wings, although not all insects
U
O

bear two pairs of legs. Millipedes are relatively have them.

C

slow movers, and do not bite. Some secrete

EP

noxious body fluids as a defense against Insect Orders

PR

predators. They prefer damp places and feed There is disagreement among taxonomists over
mostly on decaying plant material.
E

the number of insect orders. Some entomologists

AC

believe that cockroaches and termites belong to the

same order, for example, while others believe they
S
IN

should be in separate orders. In any case, the class

LL

Insecta is usually divided into approximately 30

O

different orders, making it a very diverse group.

R

Each insect order has a Greek- or Latin-derived

name that sometimes describes it quite accurately.
For example, mosquitoes and flies are in the order
Diptera, which means “two wings” (other adult
winged insects have four). Termites are in the order
Isoptera, which means “equal wings,” in reference
The centipede (above) has one pair of legs per body to the fact that all four of their wings are nearly the
segment. The millipede (below) has two pairs of legs on same length. And moths and butterflies are in the
most body segments. Photos by the National Pest order Lepidoptera, which means “scaly wings” (the
Management Association and G.S. Wegner.
powdery fragments on moth and butterfly wings are
actually tiny scales).

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The principal orders of insects and related hexapods • Thysanoptera (fringed wings): thrips
(and their name origins), in alphabetical order, are: • Trichoptera (haired wings): caddisflies
• Blattodea (“blatta” means cockroach in Latin): • Zoraptera (pure, wingless): zorapterans
cockroaches • Zygentoma (formerly known as Thysanura;
• Coleoptera (sheathed wings): beetles bristle tail): silverfish and firebrats
• Collembola (“glue bolt,” referring to a tiny For pest management professionals, the most
peg-like structure on the venter thought at one important orders of insects and related hexapods
time to have a suction cup function): springtails are Blattodea, Coleoptera, Collembola, Dermaptera,
Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera,
• Dermaptera (skin wings): earwigs
Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Siphonaptera, and
• Diplura (two tails): two-pronged bristletails Zygentoma.
• Diptera (two wings): flies and mosquitoes
• Embioptera (lively wings): webspinners

PY
• Ephemeroptera (“ephemero” means “just one
Honey Bee or Honeybee?

O
Bed Bug or Bedbug?

C
day,” referring to their short lives as adults):

W
mayflies
Although dictionaries and newspapers often

IE
• Hemiptera (half wings): true bugs, aphids,
spell these insect common names as one

EV
psyllids, scale insects, and others
word, entomologists always use two words
R
• Hymenoptera (membranous wings): ants, bees,
if a common name accurately describes the
SE

and wasps
order to which a particular insect belongs.
R

• Isoptera (equal wings): termites

U

For example, all true flies belong to the

O

• Lepidoptera (scaly wings): butterflies and moths order Diptera, so true fly names are spelled
C

• Mantodea (“manto” means prophet in Greek): using two words by entomologists—house

EP

mantids fly, horse fly, pigeon fly, or stable fly, for

PR

• Mecoptera (long wings): scorpionflies example. Dragonflies and butterflies are

E

NOT true flies—their orders are Odonata

AC

• Neuroptera (nerve wings): lacewings, antflies,

dobsonflies and Lepidoptera, respectively—so they are
S

spelled as one word.

IN

• Odonata (“odon” means tooth in Greek):

LL

dragonflies and damselflies

A bed bug is a true bug in the order Hemiptera,
O

• Orthoptera (straight wings): grasshoppers, so it is spelled using two words (though

R

crickets, and katydids

style editors for newspapers do not nec-
• Phasmatodea (“phasma” means phantom in essarily follow this rule for bed bugs). A
Greek): stick insects ladybug is NOT a true bug—it’s a beetle in
• Phthiraptera (“phtheiros” means lice in Greek; the order Coleoptera—so it is spelled as one
“aptera” means wingless): lice word. An easy way to remember this is by
• Plecoptera (folded wings): stoneflies using the short rhyme, “If true, then two.”
• Protura (first tail): coneheads
If you’re ever in doubt, the Entomological
• Psocoptera: booklice and barklice
Society of America maintains an online
• Siphonaptera (“siphon” means tube in Greek, a Database of Common Names of Insects and
reference to their mouthparts; “aptera” means Related Organisms, which can be accessed for
wingless): fleas
free at http://www.entsoc.org/common-names.

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CHAPTER 8: INSECT CLASSIFICATION

Blattodea: Cockroaches
(gradual metamorphosis)
Cockroaches are flat insects
with heads that are mostly
hidden under a plate-like
shield known as a pronotum.

Eggs of cockroaches
are held within egg
cases known as
oothecae.

PY
O
C
W
IE
Related to termites, some primitive cockroaches Despite their secretive habits, cockroaches are built for

EV
care for their young and are able to digest running. Compared to a cheetah, which can run 16 body
cellulose with the aid of stomach protozoans. R
lengths per second, the American cockroach has been
SE
clocked at about 50 body lengths per second.
R

A German cockroach (Blattella germanica).

U

Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.

O
C
EP

Coleoptera: Beetles
(complete metamorphosis)
PR
E

Coleoptera is the largest insect order, encompassing 40% of all known species of insects.
AC
S
IN

The name “Coleoptera” means

LL

“sheathed wings” for the hardened

front pair of wings (elytra) that
O
R

“sheath” or protect the hindwings.

The elytra provide beetles the ability
to dig and burrow through abrasive
or wet environments that would
damage other adult insects.

A clown beetle (Eleodes suturalis).

Photo by Ted C. MacRae.

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Collembola: Springtails
(no metamorphosis)
Springtails are small hexapods (usually 1-2 mm long) and are frequently found in sinks and bathtubs.
A small, peg-like structure (collophore) found on the underside of the springtail is found in no other hexapod group.
This organ regulates water, and also secretes sticky fluids, allowing springtails to stick to surfaces. The order
name literally means “glue bolt.”

The spring-like tail

PY
allows it to jump many

O
times its body length.

C
W
IE
EV
R
SE

Photo by the USDA-ARS Electron & Confocal Microscopy Unit,

R

Beltsville, MD by Jaden Freeze.

U
O
C
EP

Dermaptera: Earwigs
(gradual metamorphosis)
PR
E

The name “earwig” comes from an old (and false) superstition that these insects like to hide in people’s ears.
AC

Earwigs are mainly outdoor insects that feed on dead and decaying plant matter. A few species feed on living
S

plants, and some are predators.

IN
LL

Some species can fly and have been found invading the
O

upper floors of city buildings. The flying wings of earwigs

R

are normally kept folded under the shorter front wings.

The most distinctive

characteristic of an
earwig is a pair of
cerci, or “anal
forceps.” The cerci
are mostly harmless,
but larger species
may be able to inflict
a painful pinch.

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Diptera: Flies
(complete metamorphosis)
The order Diptera is very diverse, and it includes mosquitoes, gnats, midges, fruit flies, and filth flies. Fly larvae,
called maggots, are legless. Most fly larvae live in very moist or aquatic environments.

Most adult dipterans have sponging

mouthparts (e.g., house flies) or
piercing-sucking mouthparts
(e.g., mosquitoes).
Dipterans are the
only insects that
have just one pair
of wings. The second

PY
pair has evolved into
knob-like structures

O
called halteres,

C
which function like

W
gyroscopes, helping

IE
flies maintain stability

EV
during flight.
R
SE
R

A crane fly. Photo by Mike Merchant.

U
O
C

Hemiptera: True bugs, Aphids, Leafhoppers, Whiteflies, Scale insects, Others

EP

(gradual metamorphosis)
PR

Hemiptera is a very diverse order. Formerly two separate orders (Heteroptera and Homoptera), they can be
E

difficult to identify by sight. The term “bugge” is an old word from Middle English for “ghost” or “sprite.”
AC

People used to think the itchy, red welts they got at night came from bugges, or mischievous ghosts. The term “bug”
eventually became synonymous with the true cause of the itches—the bed bug—and later with all of its
S
IN

kin in the suborder Heteroptera, known today as “true bugs.”

LL
O
R

Piercing-sucking mouthparts are the key

feature of this group. Some feed on plants,
some are predators, and others (like bed
bugs) are blood-feeding parasites.

A brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys).

Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.

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Hymenoptera: Bees, Wasps, and Ants

(complete metamorphosis)
Next to termites, Hymenoptera is perhaps the most social order. Ants and many species of wasps
and bees exhibit social nesting behavior.
Hymenopterans have front and hind wings
that are held together (“married”) by
hooks. This may be the origin of the name
“Hymenoptera”—from Hymen, the Greek
god of marriage. “Hymen” also means
“membranous” in Ancient Greek, so the
name may derive from their two pairs of
membranous wings.

PY
O
Many females,

C
though not all, have

W
IE
a distinctive ovipositor Most hymenopterans

EV
(an egg-laying organ) have a constricted “waist”
or a stinger. between the abdomen
R and thorax.
SE
R

A cicada killer wasp. Photo by Mike Merchant.

U
O
C

Isoptera: Termites
EP

(gradual metamorphosis)
PR

All termites are social insects with highly organized colonies and castes—like ants—but
E

termites are most closely related to the cockroaches.

AC
S

The name “Isoptera” means “equal wings”

IN

and refers to the approximately equal length

LL

of the front and hind wings.

O
R

Termites pass
microbes necessary
for digesting cellulose
on to their offspring
by food sharing via
regurgitation. This
behavior is called
trophallaxis and is
also common in ants.

Swarmer and worker forms of termites are strikingly different.

The delicate, translucent exoskeleton of the worker is adapted for
underground life, whereas the dark, thick exoskeleton of the swarmer
allows it to survive above ground during mating and migration.

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Lepidoptera: Moths and Butterflies

(complete metamorphosis)
The name “Lepidoptera” literally means “scaly wings.” The powder-like substances on their wings are
actually tiny scales. The distinctions between moths and butterflies are somewhat artificial, but moths
are generally most active at night and butterflies during the day.

Adult moths and butterflies are nectar

feeders, and possess siphoning
mouthparts that are normally kept
curled under the head.
Lepidopteran larvae are also called
caterpillars. Most have three pairs of
true (jointed) legs, in addition to fleshy
claspers (called prolegs) on some of

PY
their abdominal segments.

O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
A mourningcloak butterfly (Nymphalis antiopa).
Photo by Mike Merchant.
R
U
O
C

Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids

EP

(gradual metamorphosis)
PR
E

Orthopterans, especially grasshoppers, are often used as models of the ideal insect because of their simple
AC

structure. Male orthopterans frequently employ stridulation (the rubbing of one body part against another) to
produce sound to attract females. Some of the best-known “musical” insects are orthopterans. Orthoptera have
S
IN

long antennae, and females often bear prominent ovipositors.

LL
O

The name “Orthoptera”—meaning “straight wings”— Orthopterans

R

likely refers to the thickened, stiff front wings that are generally
protect the folded second pair of flying wings. long-bodied
and have
well-developed
cerci (pincers).

Cricket ears
are usually
located on the
front tibiae.

An immature house cricket (Acheta domesticus).

Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.

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Siphonaptera: Fleas
(complete metamorphosis)
Siphonaptera literally means “wingless tube feeders,” a good description for these parasites of birds and mammals.
About 95% of flea species feed on mammals (75% on rodents alone) and 5% feed on birds. The closest relatives
of fleas are flies. The resemblance is most noticeable in the legless larval stage.

Adult fleas are easily

recognized by their oval,
laterally flattened bodies,
their prominent jumping
legs, and numerous
backwards-pointing hairs
that make them difficult

PY
to dislodge from fur

O
or feathers.

C
W
IE
Most adult fleas are jumping insects

EV
with greatly enlarged coxae. The jumping
power of the legs comes from energy R
stored in a protein called resilin.
SE

A cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis).

R

Photo by Mike Merchant.

U
O
C
EP

Zygentoma (formerly known as Thysanura): Silverfish and Firebrats

(no metamorphosis)
PR
E

The domestic silverfish and firebrat are among the most common household insects, but among the most
AC

poorly known by PMPs. Silverfish continue to molt as adults, even after reaching sexual maturity.
S
IN
LL
O

Silverfish have long, tapering antennae

R

and most are covered with scales.

Silverfish have long, tapering

bodies with three tail-like
appendages at the terminal end.
The name “Thysanura” literally
means “bristle tail.”

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Insect Families Insect Species

All members of each insect order are further Linnaeus’ system of classification is referred to as
classified into families. For example, all ants (in the a system of binomial nomenclature because the
order Hymenoptera) belong to the family Formicidae. scientific name of each organism consists of two
All mosquitoes (in the order Diptera) belong to the names, the genus and the species. This species-
family known as Culicidae. And bed bugs (in the naming system is a vast improvement over earlier
order Hemiptera)—along with their close relatives naming systems that often resulted in very long
like bat bugs and poultry bugs—belong to the family scientific names.
known as Cimicidae.
Some examples of scientific names for common
Family identification can be difficult for even urban insect pests are:
knowledgeable professionals, but it is a useful skill.
Just learning the family of an insect found in a Common Name Scientific Name
structure is often enough to tell whether that insect (genus + species)

PY
is likely to be a pest or merely an accidental visitor. German cockroach Blattella germanica
Bed bug Cimex lectularius

O
Sometimes the large number, or wide diversity, of

C
Cat flea Ctenocephalides felis
species within a family justifies its further breakdown

W
House fly Musca domestica
into subfamilies. Ants, for example, are extremely

IE
Red imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta

EV
diverse, and most pest ant species in the U.S. Carpenter bee Xylocopa virginica
belong to three different subfamilies: Dolichoderinae, R
House cricket Acheta domesticus
Formicinae, and Myrmicinae. Knowing the
SE

characteristics of these subfamilies is an important More than one million insect species have been
R

step for learning all of the different kinds of pest ants. discovered and described, and there may be tens
U

of millions more that have not yet been described.

O

An easy way to know if a taxon name refers to a

C

According to the Smithsonian Institution’s National

family or subfamily is to look at the last four letters
EP

Museum of Natural History, “In the United States,

of the word. All insect family names end with the the number of described [insect] species is
PR

letters IDAE, like the ones mentioned above approximately 91,000. The undescribed species of
(Formicidae, Culicidae, and Cimicidae). Subfamily
E

insects in the United States, however, is estimated

AC

names always end with the letters INAE at some 73,000. The largest numbers of described
(Dolichoderinae, Formicinae, and Myrmicinae). species in the U.S. fall into four insect orders:
S
IN

Coleoptera (beetles) at 23,700, Diptera (flies)

LL

Insect Genera at 19,600, Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps) at

O

17,500, and Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies)

The major taxon below the family level is the genus.
R

at 11,500.”
Genus-level names are often better known than
family or order names because they make up one Luckily, only a small percentage of the world’s insect
part of scientific names—for example, “Blatella” in species are considered to be pests, but that still
the previously mentioned Blatella germanica (German leaves hundreds of species that pest management
cockroach). Species of insects that are closely professionals might encounter. Knowing how insects
related are placed in the same genus. For example, are related to one another and how they are
all of the mosquito species that are capable of classified will improve your identification skills.
transmitting malaria belong to the genus Anopheles,
and all honey bee species belong to the genus Apis.

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Latin-Greek Plurals and Scientific Terminology

A Roman walks into a bar and asks for a martinus.
The bartender says, “Don’t you mean a martini?”
The Roman says, “If I wanted a double, I’d have asked for one!”
This sorry excuse for a joke provides an example of how some words are pluralized in Latin—the language
of the Romans, who borrowed many words from the ancient Greeks. Many scientific names are derived
from Latin or Greek, and so are many other words having to do with insect body parts and other entomological
terminology. Therefore, many of the plurals of these words take on the Latin-Greek form.

Plurals in English are usually pretty simple—you just add the letter S to most words. In Latin, however,
many plurals tend to end in A, AE, or I. This Latin-Greek influence can still be seen in the English language

PY
today with words like “stadium” or “symposium,” both of which have acceptable plural forms ending with

O
the letter A—”stadia” and “symposia,” respectively.

C
W
Or take the words “bacterium” (singular) and “bacteria” (plural), or “fungus” (singular) and “fungi”

IE
(plural). Some other words that may be encountered while reading this study guide, along with their

EV
plural forms, are:

antenna, antennae exuvium, exuvia

R
ocellus, ocelli pupa, pupae
SE

bacterium, bacteria fungus, fungi ommatidium, ommatidia stria, striae

R

cercus, cerci genus, genera ootheca, oothecae tarsus, tarsi

U

coxa, coxae labrum, labra phylum, phyla taxon, taxa

O
C

elytron, elytra larva, larvae pronotum, pronota trachea, tracheae

EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

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O
LL
IN
S
AC
E
PR
EP
C

94
O
U
R
SE
R
EV
IE
W
C
O
PY
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 9

Insect Morphology, Biology, and Behavior

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R
U

I
O

nsects are incredibly diverse in their life cycles, The Insect Exoskeleton
C

food preferences, nesting habits, and other

EP

When observing an insect, what you principally

characteristics. However, all insects share the
see is the exoskeleton—the external skeleton of
PR

following characteristics:
the animal. The exoskeleton protects and supports
E

• They have chitinous exoskeletons, like all the insect’s internal organs, provides a framework
AC

arthropods. for the attachment of muscles, and it also helps to

retain moisture in the insect’s body.
S

• They have three main body parts: head, thorax,

IN

and abdomen. The exoskeleton—sometimes referred to as the

LL

• They have six legs. insect cuticle—gets its strength from a strong,
O

resilient material called chitin. Chitin consists of

R

• They have two antennae.

linked polysaccharides (simple chains of sugars)
• Most develop through a process known as arranged in microscopic fibers. These fibers run
metamorphosis. parallel to the surface of the exoskeleton and are
Morphology is the study of the external form and stacked in layers. This structure is somewhat like
structure of living organisms. Insect morphology is layers in plywood, and it is very strong. Other
useful because it can help PMPs recognize differences important components of the exoskeleton include
and similarities among insects. Morphology also proteins surrounding the chitin. Different proteins
provides clues about insect biology and behavior. make the exoskeleton either stiff or flexible,
depending on which proteins are present. Together,
The study of morphology involves learning the this mixture of proteins and chitin provides a strong
names of the various insect body parts and the but light “suit of armor” for insects.
terms that are used to describe them. Familiarity
with these terms makes it easier to understand pest The insect exoskeleton is made mostly waterproof
descriptions in reference guides, and it also allows by waxes that ooze to its surface through pores from
us to accurately describe insects to others. special glands below the cuticle. The whole exoskeleton

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is covered by thin layers of wax, which helps insects synthesis inhibitors (CSIs) and are effective
retain moisture. principally against immature insects that are still
molting. When a molting insect is exposed to a CSI,
This cuticular waterproofing is extremely important the new chitin does not form properly, often
to insects. Large animals, such as humans, can deforming and killing the insect during the molting
afford to lose some water during periods of activity. process. It’s important to understand that CSI
But for very small animals like insects, surface area insecticides are generally ineffective at killing adult
is much greater per unit of body volume. A grass- insects because once an insect reaches adulthood,
hopper, for example, has 6,000 times more surface it no longer molts (except Zygentoma).
area per unit of body weight than a human. This
means that in a dry environment, water loss for Stages between molts are called instars. Different
small insects can become critical in a matter of insect species have varying numbers of instars,
minutes or seconds. Some insecticides, called although most insects pass through three to five
desiccants, are designed to damage or remove instars as they mature. Understanding the
cuticular wax, resulting in death due to water loss. appearance and development times of insect

PY
instars can be important in developing good

O
sampling and control strategies.

C
W
Insect Body Organization

IE
EV
Insect bodies have three main parts: the head,
R
thorax, and abdomen. The head consists of several
SE
segments that have fused together during the
course of insect evolution. It bears the eyes, antennae,
R
U

and mouthparts. The thorax consists of three

O

segments, each of which bears a pair of legs. In

C

winged insects, the wings are attached to the first

EP

two segments of the thorax. The abdomen consists

PR

of around 11 segments (fewer in some insects) and

has no true legs (although some caterpillars may
E
AC

bear “false legs” on their abdomens).

A newly emerged adult German cockroach (right) rests next to
S

its final molt (exuvia). Over the next hour or so, this cockroach
The Head Region
IN

will expand its wings, darken, and harden into the typical adult
LL

form. Photo by Mike Merchant.

The insect head is the home of the brain and is the
O

Having an exoskeleton does pose some challenges center of sensory perception. The antennae serve
R

for insects. For one thing, like most armor, as the principal organs of smell, the mouth plays
exoskeletons cannot stretch or expand. Therefore, an important role in sensing the taste and feel of
as insects grow in size, they periodically must discard potential food, and the eyes provide visual cues
their old exoskeletons for newer, more spacious about the insect’s environment.
versions. They do this by shedding and replacing
their old exoskeletons with new ones—a process One of the prominent features of the insect head is
called molting. the mouth. Along with the number and arrangement
of eyes, the form of the antennae, and the shape
During molting and pupation, insects must produce and texture of the head, the ability to recognize
chitin for their new exoskeletons. The molting process different types of insect mouthparts can help to
and the formation of the new cuticle is controlled by identify them.
a complex set of special hormones. Early research
into the hormones that govern molting led to the Insects have four basic kinds of mouthparts:
discovery of insecticides that inhibit the formation of 1) chewing, 2) piercing-sucking, 3) sponging, and
new chitin. These insecticides are known as chitin 4) siphoning. These are not the only types—there

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The four basic types of insect mouthparts are (from left to right), chewing (wasp), piercing-sucking (bed bug), sponging (fly), and
siphoning (moth). Illustrations by Magdalen Cattle.

PY
are actually several more classes of mouthparts. In Crickets, termites, cockroaches, beetles, mantids,
fact, some insects have no functional mouthparts and many others have chewing mouthparts, as do

O
C
at all as adults (as you might guess, they don’t live caterpillars. Unlike human jaws which chew up and

W
very long). However, these are the four major types down, the jaws of insects usually chew from side

IE
that are found in most structural insect pests. to side. If you’ve ever seen a plant with holes in its

EV
leaves, or wood with tunnels chewed through it,
you’ve seen what chewing mouthparts are capable of.
R
Why Study Entomology?
SE

Mosquitoes, bed bugs, stink bugs, fleas, lice, and

R

Why is it important to know so much about other insects have piercing-sucking mouthparts.
U

This type of mouthpart allows insects to pierce the

O

the biology and habits of insects? Besides

C

skin of plants, animals, fruits, seeds, and other food

being interesting, such knowledge can help
EP

sources. Blood-sucking insects, sap feeders, and

PMPs understand why certain control efforts even predatory insects may have piercing-
PR

are effective while others are not, and knowing sucking mouthparts.
E

the basics of insect biology and physiology

AC

helps us understand how some insecticides The third major type is called a sponging mouthpart,
which is found on some flies, including house flies
S

work.
and their close relatives. As its name implies, the
IN

sponging mouthpart works like a mop or a sponge

LL

For example, you might read about an insect

by soaking up liquids. The sponging part at the
O

growth regulator (IGR) insecticide that is

R

end of the mouth is called a labellum. Flies with

said to work by disrupting the synthesis of these mouthparts commonly spit or egest salivary
chitin. However, this information is not likely enzymes onto solid food, which is liquefied by the
to be meaningful unless you know what chitin enzymes and then mopped up. Fly saliva commonly
is, and why its proper formation is essential contains disease-causing pathogens; thus, many fly
to the life and development of an insect. species that land on food, or on food-preparation
surfaces, are considered to be highly unsanitary.
Similarly, desiccant dusts are often useful in After all, who wants to eat food contaminated with
pest control. But in order for a desiccant to fly spit?
be applied effectively, it’s important to know Adult moths and butterflies have siphoning mouthparts.
about the waxy, waterproof layers found on Like the piercing-sucking mouthparts of bed bugs,
insect exoskeletons, how desiccants destroy these mouthparts consist of a hollow channel for
these layers, and the types of environments liquid food. However, unlike the piercing-sucking
where desiccants are most effective. mouthparts of bed bugs, siphoning mouthparts are
not designed to pierce. Instead, they are more like

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Comparative Anatomy of Insect Mouthparts

Even though various kinds of insect mouthparts look very different, they are all made up of the same
basic parts. These parts have evolved over time to serve different functions.

The insect head is composed of several fused segments. Five of these segments have highly modified
appendages that form the various component parts found in all insect mouthparts. The five component
parts are:

• The labrum, or upper “lip,” which is used by some insects to help hold food while chewing. Other
insects use it as a feeding tube.
• The mandibles, or jaws, which serve as cutting and grinding tools for some insects, or as piercing

PY
stylets for others.

O
• The maxillae, which are located behind the mandibles, help many insects manipulate and chew

C
their food. They also bear the maxillary palps, which help manipulate food and have sensory nerves

W
to aid in tasting.

IE
EV
• The hypopharynx, often referred to as the insect “tongue,” which serves as the base of the oral
cavity and usually bears the salivary channels. R
SE
• The labium, or the lower “lip,” which is attached to the hypopharynx and which may also bear
palps. In piercing-sucking mouthparts, the labium is often the sheath that protects and houses the
R
U

other parts that serve as channels for food and saliva.

O
C

Knowing the various components of the insect mouth can help when using some keys to identify insects.
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O

Chewing mouthparts of a grasshopper (left) and piercing-

R

sucking mouthparts of a cicada (right). Although they have

evolved over time and look very different, both consist of
the same basic parts: the labrum (red), the mandibles
(orange), the maxillae (green), and the labium (blue).
Illustrations by Magdalen Cattle.

flexible straws, designed solely for sucking nectar Insect antennae are sensory organs used to detect
from flowers or to reach other liquids. Siphoning odors, chemicals, vibrations, and other stimuli.
mouthparts, also referred to as proboscises, are Insects do not have noses, but they are able to
normally curled up under the heads. Siphoning detect many chemicals in the air (scents) with their
mouthparts cannot pierce either skin or plant tissues. antennae, just as we do with our nostrils. Insect
antennae come in many shapes and forms, which
makes them useful during the process of identification.

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All insect antennae are made of parts called • Lamellate – plate-like, with outermost segments
segments. These segments take many shapes and flat, forming a lopsided club.
forms, and make up the major types of antennae: • Plumose – feather-like, with segments bearing
• Setaceous – with tapering segments, like a seta slender, feathery extensions.
or hair. • Serrate – like the teeth on a saw.
• Elbowed or Geniculate – with a long base and • Clavate – with the outermost segments forming
an elbow or bend in the middle. a gradually expanding symmetrical club.
• Pectinate – comb-like, with one extension • Capitate – with the outermost segments
projecting from each segment. abruptly enlarged into a round or oval club.
• Bipectinate – comb-like with two extensions • Aristate – in flies, with a hair or bristle arising
projecting from each segment. from the terminal basal segment.
• Filiform – thread-like with long, cylindrical
In addition to varying in shape and size, insect

PY
segments.
antennae also vary in number of segments. Sometimes

O
• Moniliform – bead-like, with round bead-like one or more of the terminal antennal segments are

C
segments. enlarged or swollen. This kind of antenna is known

W
as clavate (clubbed) or capitate.

IE
EV
R
SE
R
U
O
C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

The 12 major types of insect antennae. Top (from left to right): setaceous, elbowed, pectinate, bipectinate, filiform, and monoliform.
Bottom (from left to right): lamellate, plumose, serrate, clavate, capitate, and aristate. Illustrations by Magdalen Cattle.

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motion, they are used to detect differences in light

intensity. Simple eyes, appearing as little dots, are
small and are more difficult to see than compound
eyes. The number, shape, location, and size of eyes
are sometimes used to identify insects and other
arthropod, especially spiders.

PY
O
The powderpost beetle (Lyctopsis scabricollis) above and the

C
red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) below look very similar

W
and can be difficult to distinguish from one another. But a

IE
careful look at the antennae shows that they have different

EV
numbers of segments, and the clubs have different shapes.
The size and shape of their eyes can also be used to distinguish
the two insects. Photos by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria, R
This carpenter bee has two large compound eyes and three
small simple eyes (ocelli). Photo courtesy of the National Pest
SE
Melbourne Australia.
Management Association.
R

In addition to the antennae, which are equipped

U
O

with chemoreceptors to allow insects to “smell” The Thorax

C

things, the palps near their mouths also have re-

Insect legs and wings are attached to the thorax,
EP

ceptors that allow them to “taste.” The largest palps

are generally associated with the maxillae. However, the middle body region, making the thorax the body
PR

the labium may also have palps. The palps of some region most associated with movement. With some
insects, especially insects in the larval stage, it can
E

insects have evolved for other tasks in addition to

AC

tasting, so they often vary in structure and can be be difficult to tell exactly where the thoracic region
used for identification. begins and ends. However, the location of the legs
S

always provides a sure clue. The true (segmented)

IN

legs will always be attached to the thorax.

LL

Insects can have two types of eyes—compound

eyes and simple eyes. Compound eyes are made
O
R

up of multiple eye units called ommatidia. Each

ommatidium has its own lens, and some compound
eyes may have several thousand ommatidia.
Compound eyes are especially good for detecting
motion, plus they allow for an unusually wide field
of vision. Dragonfly compound eyes, for example,
can see 360 degrees in nearly all planes of vision,
something a single-lens eye, like the human eye,
cannot do.

Some insects have simple eyes, either alone or in

combination with the compound eyes. These simple
eyes are called ocelli, and are usually located at the
top of the head. Instead of detecting shapes and Insect legs and wings are attached to the thorax, the middle
body part. The thorax is the center for movement. Illustration
by Magdalen Cattle.

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The true legs of all insects are composed of five Flies are an exception, however. In the true flies
segments. The coxa is the roughly cone-shaped (Diptera), the second pair of wings have all but
segment closest to the body. It is followed by the disappeared. Instead, two small structures called
trochanter (a short joint-segment), the femur, the halteres are located on the second thoracic
tibia, and the tarsus. The tarsus is the insect’s segment. Halteres do not provide lift like true wings,
“foot,” and most tarsi are composed of five different but they do seem to assist in flight by providing
subsegments called tarsomeres. However, some balance or orientation, similar to a gyroscope on
insects have fewer than five, which can often be an airplane.
used in the identification process. The tarsi of many
insects are equipped with chemoreceptors, which
means they can “taste” with their feet in addition to
their palps.

PY
O
femur

C
W
coxa

IE
EV
R
SE

tibia tarsus A crane fly with one pair of forewings and one pair of halteres.
R

Photo by Matthew Chism.

U
O

Insect wings contain veins, which provide support

C

trochanter and serve to transport “blood” (hemolymph) and

EP

oxygen. The pattern of veins in an insect’s wing is

PR

All insect legs have five parts: the coxa, the trochanter, the known as venation. Like mouthparts, vein patterns
femur, the tibia, and the tarsus. Illustration by Magdalen Cattle.
vary among different groups of insects. However, all
E
AC

Like mouthparts, different insects are equipped insects share some variation of the same basic wing
with different types of legs. Some are best suited venation. The major vein types (from top to bottom) are:
S

for running, while others are for jumping, digging,

IN

• Costal veins
swimming, catching prey, holding pollen, etc.
LL

• Subcostal veins
O

Insect wings come in various shapes and sizes and

R

• Radial veins
can be very useful for identification. As previously
mentioned, the names of many insect orders are • Medial veins
derived from their wing characteristics. The suffix • Cubital veins
“-ptera” comes from the Latin word for wing, and is
• Anal veins
frequently used in order names. For example, Diptera
(flies and mosquitoes) means “two wings,” Hemiptera
(true bugs) means “half wings,” and Lepidoptera Not all vein types are present in all insect orders,
(moths and butterflies) means “scaly wings.” and special terminology is often used to describe
unique vein patterns found within the different
Not all insects have wings, of course. Lice, fleas, orders. However, because there is so much diversity
bed bugs, and some other insects are wingless in wing venation, wing veins are very useful in insect
(apterous). But for the ones that do have them, the identification. Veins are often numbered to assist
forewings and hindwings are always attached to the with descriptions. For example, the initials M1 and
first and second thoracic segments, respectively. M2 refer to the first and second medial veins.

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fine—tracheole diameters are usually one micron

Costal or less in diameter, about 1/50th the diameter of a
Subcostal human hair.
Radial
The respiratory system can be exploited as a weak
Medial point in the defensive armor of insects. Some
Cubital insecticides enter the bodies of insects through the
Anal spiracles (as well as the mouth and anus). Also,
insecticidal oils are thought to kill insects by moving
An insect wing showing the major vein types. into the tracheae and physically clogging the air
Illustration by Magdalen Cattle. passageways. The viscous nature of oil allows it
to creep into spiracles and tracheae when directly
sprayed on insects and mites. Insecticidal soaps
The Abdomen can also enter the tracheae in this way, causing
The abdomen is the insect body part that contains tissue damage to the thin tracheal walls.

PY
most of the organs for reproduction, digestion,

O
excretion, and defense. The abdomen is composed

C
of as many as 11 segments (much fewer in some

W
insects), the next to last of which sometimes bears

IE
appendages called cerci. Cerci in cockroaches act

EV
as sensory organs. In other insects, they may be
used as pincers or as claspers during mating. R
SE

The final abdominal segment of some females may

R
U

bear an ovipositor (female genitalia used to lay

O

eggs). In some insects—such as ants, bees, and

C

wasps—the ovipositor is modified into a defensive The oval, eye-like spiracles can clearly be seen on this
EP

organ called a stinger. Only females have ovipositors tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) caterpillar.
Photo by Mike Merchant.
PR

or stingers, so only female insects are capable of

stinging. Male genitalia can be quite complex, and
E

are often used by entomologists to identify insects The Insect Circulatory System
AC

to species level. The genitalia are also found on the While insects do not have blood, they do have
S

terminal segments of the abdomen. something similar called hemolymph. Unlike the
IN

blood of mammals, which is contained within a

LL

The Insect Respiratory System system of arteries and veins, hemolymph flows
O
R

freely throughout the insect’s body cavity.

Unlike mammals, which use lungs to breathe
Hemolymph is circulated by a pump (the heart),
air—or fish, which use gills to obtain oxygen from
which is located on the dorsal (top) side of the body.
water—most insects have tiny holes on the sides
Hemolymph carries nutrients, salts, and hormones
of their bodies called spiracles. There are usually
throughout the insect’s body, but is not used to
two spiracles per abdominal segment (one on each
circulate oxygen in most insects.
side). Spiracles are also found between one or two
of the thoracic segments.
The Insect Nervous System
Air enters an insect’s body through the spiracles
The insect brain consists of three lobes that are
and continues through long tubes called tracheae.
connected to a pair of nerve cords that run along
Tracheae, which branch into smaller tubes called
the bottom (venter) of the body. The nerve cord is
tracheoles, eventually penetrate through all of the
close to the legs, making it particularly sensitive to
organs and tissues of the body to deliver oxygen.
insecticides that penetrate the body through the
This delivery pipeline is very delicate and extremely
feet and ventral side of the body.

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Nerve cells in insects—and other animals, including

humans—are responsible for transmitting messages
from the brain to the body, and for transmitting
stimuli from the body to the brain. The smooth
delivery of these messages is essential for insect life.

Some of the most commonly used pesticides act as

nervous-system toxins known as neurotoxins. These
chemicals typically work by continually exciting
or suppressing nerve impulses. Certain classes of
insecticides (discussed in a previous chapter) affect
insect nervous systems by disrupting the exchange
The brain and ventral nerve cord of a cockroach. of these neurotransmitters at the synapse. Other
Illustration by Magdalen Cattle.
neurotoxins disrupt the exchange of ions along the
axon, which is how nerve impulses travel. Any sig-

PY
The nerve cord is made up of nerve cells, or neurons,
that transmit electrical impulses. Each neuron nificant disruption of the nervous system can have

O
consists of a cell body called a soma and a long deadly consequences for insects—and people!

C
arm called an axon.

W
The Insect Digestive System

IE
When nerve cells connect, they do not physically

EV
touch each other. Instead, there is a very small The insect digestive system consists of a long tube
space called a synapse where the axon of one
R
called the alimentary canal, which extends through
SE

neuron meets the soma of its neighbor. Chemicals the body from the mouth to the anus. The alimentary
canal consists of three main parts: the foregut, the
R

called neurotransmitters are sent from the tip of

U

an axon across the synapse, and are received by midgut, and the hindgut. Saliva is usually added to
O

receptors in the neighboring neuron at the other food either after entering the alimentary canal, or
C

before—as is the case with many sucking insects.

EP

end of the synapse. That neuron will then send

an electrical impulse through its own axon to still Some viruses and pathogens can be spread during
PR

another neuron, and the process is repeated again feeding in this way. In addition, insect saliva can be
extremely irritating, and is the cause of the allergic
E

and again until the message is delivered.

AC

reaction that is produced by biting insects like

mosquitoes.
S
IN
LL
O
R

axon terminals
on
ax
cell body

nucleus

The synapse

Two adjacent nerve cells (neurons). The axon of the one on the left ends at synapses, where neurotransmitters are
sent to other cells, which receive them with their receptors. The inset shows a close-up view of the synapse, the
neurotransmitters, and the receptors. Illustration by Magdalen Cattle.

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Some insects, such as termites and cockroaches, characterized by having three life stages: the egg,
have a symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship nymph, and adult.
with microorganisms that live in their guts. These
microorganisms are passed from one generation to Termites, bed bugs, crickets, and cockroaches are
the next when the immature stages feed on the common structural pests that go through gradual
feces of the adults, a behavior known as coprophagy. metamorphosis. These insects emerge from their
This behavior can also assist with the transmission eggs as nymphs. Nymphs look similar in many
of some insecticides that are applied as baits. respects to adults, only smaller and without functional
wings or reproductive organs. They often eat the
same things as adults and share the same habitat.
Insect Life Cycles Over time, nymphs molt and pass through several
As insects develop, they go through a process called larger instars until they reach the adult stage. Later
metamorphosis, which means a change in form. instar nymphs usually develop visible wing pads, the
Humans undergo obvious changes in appearance precursors to functional adult wings. Once an insect
as we mature, but the changes that accompany reaches the adult stage, it is then able to mate and

PY
insect growth are much more dramatic. Humans, reproduce. Upon reaching the adult stage, most

O
for example, do not suddenly sprout wings or grow true insects no longer grow or molt. (See diagram

C
legs after birth. But insects may indeed develop on next page.)

W
wings, grow legs, change shapes or colors, and

IE
completely change habits and environmental Although gradual metamorphosis is common among

EV
requirements as they go through their growth insects, far more insect species go through complete
stages. A classic example is when a caterpillar R
metamorphosis. This form of metamorphosis has
SE

metamorphoses into a butterfly, but there are many four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Common
structural pest groups with complete metamorphosis
R

more transformations in the insect world that are

U

equally impressive. include bees, wasps, ants, flies, fleas, moths, and
O

beetles. These insects emerge from the egg as

C

True insects go through one of two basic types of larvae, which are very different in appearance from
EP

metamorphosis. Many species go through a process their future adult forms. Caterpillars, maggots, and
PR

called complete metamorphosis, also known as grubs are all specialized kinds of larvae.
holometabolous development. The other type is a
E

In addition to looking very different from the adults,

AC

simpler form known as gradual metamorphosis,* or

hemimetabolous development. larval diets and habitats are often very different as
S

well. Thus, proper identification of the life stages

IN

Gradual metamorphosis is less complicated, so it is of a particular insect pest can be very important,
LL

thought to have appeared earlier in the evolutionary requiring PMPs to learn the habits and habitats of
O

history of insects. Gradual metamorphosis is both the larval and adult stages.
R

Holometabolous Hemimetabolous Ametabolous

development development development
Complete or complex Gradual, simple, or incomplete,
Also known as No metamorphosis
metamorphosis metamorphosis
Stages egg, larva, pupa, adult egg, nymph, adult egg, juvenile, adult
Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Blattodea, Dermaptera, Zygentoma (formerly
Insect orders
Lepidoptera, Siphonaptera Hemiptera, Isoptera, Orthoptera Thysanura)
An easy way to remember the terms describing the three different types of insect development is that “holo” means whole or
complete, “hemi” means half, and the prefix “a-” usually means “without.”

*Note that there are different terms used in entomology texts and pest control references for these two basic types of metamorphosis. Some books use the term “complex
metamorphosis” for complete, and “incomplete” or “simple metamorphosis” for gradual. Complicating matters, some books make a distinction between gradual and incomplete
metamorphosis, reserving the term “incomplete” for some aquatic insects that have an imago stage, which is not usually included in gradual metamorphosis descriptions.
Scientists wishing to be precise generally use the term holometabolous and hemimetabolous. To keep things simple, this study guide will use the terms complete and gradual.

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PY
O
C
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IE
EV
R
SE
R
U
O
C
EP

Bed bugs undergo gradual metamorphosis, with only three life stages: egg, several instars of nymph, and adult.
PR

Image courtesy of Purdue University Extension.

E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

Fleas undergo complete metamorphosis and have four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, adult.
Image courtesy of Purdue University Extension.

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Like nymphs, larvae pass through several instar All insects develop from eggs, although occasionally
stages (usually from three to six) before they eggs hatch within the body of the female and the
transform into the next stage, the pupa. The pupal young are thus “born” live. A few cockroaches fall
stage is the most significant transformational stage. into this category. Eggs come in various colors,
Because it does not feed and is mostly inactive, shapes, and forms, and can often provide clues as
the pupal stage is sometimes called a resting stage to the species involved. This is especially true for
between larva and adult. However, the pupa is cockroaches, which produce egg cases called
actually a very active stage in regards to development. oothecae that are filled with multiple eggs. Differences
During the pupal stage, larval tissues dissolve and between the oothecae of various species can be so
reorganize into a very different adult form. In great that identification of the cockroach can often
addition, wings form during this stage. be made from the egg case alone.

It can be important to know the duration of the

pupal stage for pest control, because insects in this Insects and Temperature
stage are often hidden or inactive. For some pests, Insects are cold-blooded, meaning that their body

PY
it may be necessary to re-apply an insecticide after temperature and metabolic rate is largely determined

O
a period of time that is equal to the length of the by the temperature of their environment. This has

C
pupal stage, especially when using an insecticide important implications for predicting the growth

W
with a short residual life. This will ensure that any and developmental times of insects. Any statement

IE
pests that are protected from pesticides during the dealing with the generation time, or adult or larval

EV
pupal stage will later be exposed to fresh insecticide lifespan, must be qualified by noting the temperature.
residue as adults. R
Generally, insect development slows when
SE

environmental (ambient) temperatures are cooler,

R

and it speeds up when the ambient temperature is

Insect Reproduction
U

warmer. German cockroach nymphs, for example,

O

Most insects have relatively short lifespans, some require 50-55 days to complete development at
C

as short as 2-4 weeks. However, the reproductive room temperature (77 ºF; 25 ºC), but only require
EP

capabilities of even short-lived insects can be quite 33 days at 86 ºF (30 ºC).

PR

impressive. A single bed bug female, for example,

can lay as many as 200-500 eggs over her adult life. Insect temperature preferences vary by species.
E
AC

Knowing something about the average generation In one test conducted on bed bugs in the 1940s
time (the time from any given stage in an insect’s by the Japanese scientist N. Omori, the common
S

life cycle to the same stage of its offspring—for bed bug (Cimex lectularius) was found to prefer
IN

example, the time from egg to egg, or adult to adult) temperatures between 82-84 ºF (28-29 ºC), while
LL

is important for the control of many pests. Insects the tropical bed bug (Cimex hemipterus) preferred
O

with short generation times generally have very high temperatures between 90-91 ºF (32-33 ºC).
R

reproductive rates, and their numbers can increase Interestingly, Omori found that the temperature that
very quickly. bed bugs preferred was not necessarily the same
as the temperature that resulted in their fastest
Most female insects mate only once, or just a few rate of growth. Omori also found that development
times, in their lives because they are able to store times did not shorten indefinitely with increasing
sperm for long periods of time. A few insects are temperatures. Instead, development time increased
able to reproduce parthenogenetically, which when temperatures became too warm or too cool.
means they do not require fertilization from males. When development slows, insects eventually reach
This allows reproduction to take place even more a point—a threshold of development—at which they
quickly, but it is not common among structural do not immediately die, but eventually cease
pests. Some booklice, mites, and many aphid and to develop.
scale species have parthenogenetic reproductive
cycles.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Insects are generally better able to tolerate cold prey. Semiochemicals hold promise for helping
than heat. Many insects protect themselves from to manipulate or control pests. For example,
freeze injury by lowering the freezing points of their pheromones are increasingly being used in traps
body fluids by adding compounds to their blood, in and baits to increase attraction of the target species.
the same fashion that we add antifreeze to a car’s
radiator. Other species that are “freeze-tolerant”
can survive the actual freezing of body tissues, and
Sociality in Insects
injury is prevented through a variety of mechanisms. Most insects are loners. Though they may live in
close proximity to others of their kind, social
Some insects adapt to cold by modifying their interaction is often minimal. Insect parents tend to
environments. Honey bees, for example, survive either die before their young are hatched, or they
cold winters by eating food they have previously move on after eggs are laid and do not participate
stored, and by gathering together to share body in caring for their offspring.
heat. In extreme cold, they vibrate rapidly to raise
their body temperatures. Still other insects survive Ants and termites, however, along with some bees

PY
winter by hibernating in the egg or pupal stages. and wasps, have evolved complex social behaviors.

O
Some adult mosquitoes in cold climates die shortly Social insects live together, build nests, gather food,

C
after laying eggs in the fall, leaving the next and cooperate in caring for their young.

W
generation to hatch in the spring. Most grasshoppers

IE
do the same, as do praying mantids.

EV
R
Insect Communication
SE

Insects occasionally use sound to communicate,

R
U

but the sense of hearing is poorly developed in

O

most species. Instead, the principle means of insect

C

communication is through scents—volatile chemicals

EP

that adhere to surfaces or are carried in the air.

PR

Scents that are produced by insects (and plants) in

order to communicate are known as semiochemicals.
E
AC

The two main types of insect semiochemicals are

pheromones and allelochemicals.
S
IN

Pheromones are chemical substances that are

LL

secreted by insects in order to influence the Honey bees are eusocial insects. In this photo a queen is
O

behavior of other insects of the same species. surrounded by workers. Photo courtesy of the National Pest
R

Alarm pheromones are used as warning signals, Management Association.

trail pheromones are used to mark paths so other
insects can find resources such as food, and Social behavior varies among different insect
sex pheromones are used to help locate an species. Some exhibit what is known as eusocial
acceptable mate. In addition, some insects produce (truly social) behavior. Eusocial insects live in
aggregation pheromones that help individuals find colonies with closely related nestmates and display
others of the same species. social behavior, including a division of labor.

Allelochemicals are substances that are emitted Other species engage in pre-social behavior, where
by one species to influence the behavior of another parents merely care for their young by provisioning
species. Some allelochemicals, called allomones, the nest site with food. These insects provide some
help the emitter by repelling or harming other species. care for the next generation, but their nests are
Other allelochemicals, known as kairomones, generally built without assistance from others of
benefit the receiving species but harm the emitter, the same species. These insects are usually called
perhaps by alerting a predator to the location of its solitary nest builders. Solitary nest builders, such

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as carpenter bees and other solitary bees, provision

their nests but do not defend them as do the eusocial
insects. Carpenter bees and other solitary bees may
build nests at the same nesting location with other
individuals of the same species, but these insects
do not cooperate in nest building, nor do they
display the other complex traits found among
eusocial insects.

All ants, termites, and honey bees in North America

are eusocial, and some other species of bees and
wasps are as well. All eusocial insects display the
following three traits:

• They cooperate while caring for their young.

PY
• There is a division of labor among different

O
castes in the colony or nest, with most of the

C
tasks carried out by sterile workers.

W
IE
• At any given time, at least two generations are

EV
present and active.
R
SE
Eusocial insect colonies have different castes. Each
caste performs distinct tasks, and they may look
R
U

different from members of other castes. For

O

example, in a honey bee colony, castes include the

C

queen, whose task is reproduction; workers that

EP

care for the young, find food, and protect the

PR

colony; and male drones, whose main role is to

mate with a queen.
E
AC

In some cases, a particular caste is needed to

S

properly identify the species. For example, soldiers

IN

or winged reproductives are used to identify termites

LL

because these castes have more useable identification

O

characteristics than worker termites. On the other

R

hand, workers are used to identify ants because

the identification characteristics of ant queens and
kings have not been well studied, and most keys
are based only on workers.

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CHAPTER 10

Major Structural Pest Groups

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R
U

I
O

n the spring of 2012, the Entomological Society experience. So even if Formosan termites, for
C

of America conducted a nationwide survey of example, are not in your community, you should
EP

hundreds of PMPs in order to determine the most know what they are and how to recognize them.
PR

important pests in the U.S. Participants were asked This skill will serve you well if you move to a
to name the pests they encountered most frequently, different region or are called to diagnose a problem
E

and to discuss how important it was for PMPs to via email or phone. For this reason, we recommend
AC

be able to identify, monitor, and control them. The that when studying, you pay special attention to
S

results of the survey were used to determine which important pests outside of your geographic
IN

pests should appear on the ACE exam, and these comfort zone.
LL

pests are listed online at http://entocert.org/new-

O

ace-exam-content-outline. This section will cover the following major pest

R

groups:
In this chapter, we summarize important information
for some of the major pest groups covered by the • Ants (family Formicidae)
ESA proficiency requirements. This book is not a • Cockroaches (order Blattodea)
replacement for the excellent references listed
• Wood-Destroying Insects
elsewhere, but it should help the reader to
contextualize and place many facts into a logical • Stored-Product and Fabric Pests
framework of entomology. • Flies (order Diptera)
It’s unlikely that anyone has personal experience • Biting and Stinging Pests
with all of the pests covered by the ACE content • Occasional Invaders and General Household
outline. Many of the pests in the outline are regional Pests
and may not occur in your particular service area. • Common Vertebrate Pests (non-arthropods)
Nevertheless, as an ACE candidate, you are expected
to be familiar with pests beyond your personal

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Ants

Results from recent surveys across North America

have identified ants as the most important pest
group facing pest management professionals. There
are an estimated 700 species of ants in the U.S.
and Canada. Fortunately, only 25 or so species are
considered to be pests.

Ants belong to the order Hymenoptera, along with

wasps and bees.

PY
O
Besides size, one way to distinguish the reproductive form

C
of an ant (top) from a worker ant is by looking at the thorax

W
profile. Reproductives display a distinct bulge along the top

IE
of the thorax, like a football player with shoulder pads. This

EV
bulge houses the wing muscles, which are not enlarged in the
wingless workers. Even after the mated queen loses her wings,
R
the bulge remains. The queen (top) and worker shown here are
SE
Pharaoh ants (Monomorium pharaonis). Photo by Mike Merchant.
Although it looks like an ant, this insect—called a velvet ant
R

(Dasymutilla occidentalis)—is actually a wingless wasp. This

After mating, these females will disperse to start
U

photo illustrates the similarities between ants and wasps, both

O

of which belong to the order Hymenoptera. new nests alone, generating their own workers to
C

eventually assist in feeding and building the nest.

EP

Ant Behavior
PR

Sociality. All pest ant species in North America are

E

eusocial. They live in colonies and have a highly-

AC

developed social order with two different castes:

S

workers and reproductives. Most species have only

IN

one egg-laying female reproductive per colony—the

LL

queen—but some species may have more than one.

O

The workers care for the eggs, forage for food, and
R

defend the colony. All worker ants are female. The

only males in an ant colony are pre-reproductives (not
A male ant alate, or swarmer. Some male ants lack the elbowed
yet mated) whose job is to wait for swarming and
antennae that characterize female ants. However, the constricted
mating to begin. Only pre-reproductive ants have waist and the difference in size between the forewings and
wings and are referred to as alates. Worker ants do hindwings both distinguish this ant from a termite swarmer.
not have wings. When attempting to identify an ant Photo by Mike Merchant.
species, it is important to collect more than just the
winged reproductives because workers are generally When male and female reproductives leave the
easier to identify than reproductives. colony in great numbers, it is known as swarming.
Once swarming occurs, unmated males leave the
Depending on the species, the establishment of a colony and fly high in the air to meet females.
new ant colony may involve a single mated queen Mating occurs during these swarming flights. Unlike
with some workers leaving the nest to start a new termites, male ants do not remain with the queen
colony (budding), or it may involve many unmated when she starts her new colony. Mating typically
queens leaving the nest in search of male reproductives. marks the end of the male ant’s life.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Understanding the swarming habits of different ant

species can sometimes be used to identify them. Ants and Honeydew
Certain ant species swarm only under the right It is not uncommon to encounter ants caring for
environmental conditions, and some species (like sap-feeding insects on outdoor plants. Ants tend
Pharaoh ants) do not swarm at all. these insects, protecting and sometimes moving
them, just like farmers tend livestock. What benefit
Nests and Colony Size. Ants nest in a variety of do ants get from these insects? Honeydew.
locations, including tree twigs and cavities, in soil,
under flat objects, in structural wall voids, under Honeydew is a sweet liquid secreted by many
insulation, etc. Knowing the preferred nesting site plant-feeding insects, including scale insects,
for a given species is important for conducting site aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies, and other sap-feeders.
inspections and knowing where to apply insecticides. Some ants have relied on scale insects for so long—
Some colonies are very small—such as those built and scale insects on the ants—that they have
by ants that make twig nests—and they may consist become co-dependent. In this close relationship,
of just a few dozen individuals. Other colonies are ants get a free, long-term, stationary food source.

PY
large, like the ones built by fire ants, which may Scale insects benefit from ant grooming, which

O
have more than 50,000 ants in a single nest. Knowing removes honeydew and mold growth from their

C
the potential colony size may affect the scope and bodies. Scale insects also benefit when ants drive

W
duration of control efforts, and the amount of bait off predators, like lady beetles and parasitic wasps.

IE
needed in a baiting program.

EV
Most pest ant species naturally feed on honeydew,
Navigation. One special behavior of ants worth R
including carpenter ants, crazy ants, fire ants,
SE
noting is their trail-following behavior. Forager ants odorous house ants, Argentine ants, acrobat ants,
follow structural guidelines and use mostly random and rover ants. Being able to recognize signs of
R
U

seeking patterns to find food. Once food has been honeydew-producing insects on or near a structure
O

found, however, they have an uncanny ability to find is an important skill when trying to control such
C

their way back to the nest using electromagnetic ants, and controlling the honeydew-producing
EP

waves, polarized light, and sun-angle cues, as well insects themselves will remove one of the ants’
PR

as visual landmarks. Ants returning to the nest with food sources. Signs of honeydew-producing insects
food lay down a special trail pheromone. As more include egg masses, egg sacs, honeydew, mold, wax,
E

and the insects themselves. The first signs of

AC

and more ants follow the trail, the trail scent gets
stronger. When the food source is exhausted, the honeydew-producing insects, however, are shiny,
S

ants stop releasing the pheromone and the trail sticky leaves. Shiny leaves are usually followed by
IN

scent fades quickly. black, sooty mold deposits. Sooty mold is a type
LL

of fungus that feeds on honeydew deposits, and it

O

Symbiosis. Ants often make use of other insects often coats the leaves and trunks of infested plants.
R

for food, especially honeydew-emitting insects like If you see a plant covered with dark mold, sap-
aphids and scale insects. Ants may even protect feeding insects and their ant caregivers are
these insects from other predators. Eliminating probably close by.
honeydew-producing insects may help reduce ant
populations near a structure.

Diversity. Ants are incredibly diverse—not only in

their number of species, but in their diets and habits
as well—so identification is key for control. Baits,
sprays, or other formulations that work well against
one species may not work against another. Also, baits
that work during one time of year against a particular
ant may not work during another time of year against Odorous house ants (Tapinoma sessile) feeding
that same ant. Ant food preferences change with the on honeydew secreted by scale insects.
changing physiological states of the ant colony. Photo by Susan Ellis, Bugwood.org.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Ant Anatomy
Some ants look superficially similar to termites
Ant Antennae
(especially termite swarmers), but can be
distinguished from termites by the following:

Wings. Ants have two wing pairs of different sizes

(the front pair is longer than the hind pair). In
contrast, termites have four wings of equal length.
The traditional order name of termites, Isoptera,
literally means “equal wings” in Latin because all
four termite wings are nearly the same size—an
unusual trait for winged insects.

Antennae. Ants have geniculate (elbowed) antennae

PY
with a long basal segment called the scape, and
a multi-segmented section called the funiculus.

O
Termite antennae are bead-like (moniliform) and

C
straight, with no distinct bends and all of the seg-

W
Ant antennae consist of two parts: the scape and the

IE
ments are alike. funiculus. The first long segment is the scape. The

EV
funiculus begins at the elbow and consists of many shorter
Waists. Termite waists are about the same width segments. At the end of the funiculus is usually a club
as the rest of their bodies—especially compared to R
of two or three swollen segments. This odorous house ant
SE

ants, which have a distinct constriction between the (Tapinoma sessile) has 12 total segments. Photo from
R

gaster and thorax. www.antweb.org.

U
O

Anatomical terms used to describe ants are slightly

C

different from those we use for other insect orders. between the gaster and the central body region is
EP

The three main body regions of ants include the called the pedicel, and it is actually part of the
PR

head, thorax, and gaster. The term abdomen is not abdomen. All ant pedicels have either one or two
often used because, anatomically, an ant’s abdomen segments, also known as nodes or petioles. The
E
AC

extends from the tip of the gaster to the middle, presence of these nodes is the surest way to tell
thoracic body region. The narrow bridge (the “waist”) an ant from a wasp. Wasps commonly have long
S
IN
LL
O
R

Ants have constricted waists, elbowed antennae, and their front wings are longer than their hind wings. Termites do not have
constricted waists, have straight antennae, and all four wings are the same size. Illustration courtesy of the USDA Forest Service.

112
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

pedicels, but never have nodes between the thorax One useful way of identifying ant species is to look
and gaster. The number of nodes on the pedicel is at the thorax. In some ant species, the thorax is
also a starting point for classifying ants into subfamilies. smooth and hairless, while others have ornamentation
or distinctive setae (hairs). Some species bear
spines in different numbers and configurations. And
some ant species have a thorax that is smooth and
round when viewed from the side, while others look
uneven with distinctive steps.

The gaster can also be used to identify ants. For

example, most individuals in the subfamily Formicinae
have an acidopore, a circular, cone-like, anal orifice
at the tip of the gaster that is surrounded by a ring
of hairs. However, most members of the subfamily
Dolichoderinae have a slit-shaped orifice with no

PY
ring of hairs. None of the ants in either of these

O
two subfamilies have stingers on their gasters, but

C
ants in the subfamily Myrmicinae do (see following

W
section on Ant Classification).

IE
EV
R
SE

The Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) has only one node.

R

The Pharaoh ant (Monomorium pharaonis) has two. Photos by

U

Estella Ortega and Erin Prado, from www.antweb.org.

O
C

From left to right, an ant gaster with an acidopore and a ring

EP

of hairs around the anus (subfamily Formicinae); an ant gaster

PR

with a slit-like anus and no hairs (subfamily Dolichoderinae);

and an ant gaster with a stinger (subfamily Myrmicinae).
E

Illustrations by Eli Sarnat, ©2015.

AC

One of the easiest characteristics to see on ants is

S

the size variation among workers. It usually does

IN

not even require a hand lens or a microscope to tell

LL

whether worker ants following a trail are all the same

O

size, or whether they appear to be multiple sizes.

R

Species with workers that are all the same size,

such as pavement ants, are called monomorphic
(having one form). Species with two distinct sizes
of workers, such as bigheaded ants, are called
dimorphic (having two forms). Species with multiple-
sized workers, like carpenter ants, are called
polymorphic (having many forms). For ants with
multiple-sized workers, the smallest ants are
referred to as minor workers (minors) and the largest
as major workers (majors). Sometimes intermediate
The carpenter ant (Camponotus decipiens) in the top photo
has a smoothly rounded thorax in profile view. The field ant
sizes are called medias. This variability in worker
(Formica rufibarbis) below it has an uneven, bumpy thorax. size can aid in identification, and is another reason
Photos by Will Ericson and April Nobile, from www.antweb.org. why it is important to collect and preserve multiple ant
workers when attempting to make an identification.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Sizes of Ants
One of the most important things about ant identification is also one of the hardest things to
communicate: its size. How big is the ant? Surprisingly, few people are very good at estimating
size, especially with small insects like ants.

If you haven’t figured this out already, an entomologist needs to be precise when describing an
insect. Ant size is no exception. Let’s face it, it doesn’t help when someone says the ant they’re
seeing is “small.” A homeowner’s “small” ant might be medium- or large-sized to an entomologist.
Here are the three size categories we will use in descriptions here. A good field guide will be
more precise, but for our purposes, we’ll refer to the following:

SMALL ANTS (minute): 1/16-inch (1-2 mm) long. Examples: Pharaoh ants,

PY
rover ants, and big-headed ant minors.

O
MEDIUM ANTS: 1/8–1/4 inch (3-6 mm) long. Examples: odorous house ants,

C
W
fire ants (minors), and pavement ants.

IE
LARGE ANTS: More than 1/4-inch (7-12 mm) long. Examples: carpenter ants

EV
(majors). R
SE
R
U

The following key can be used to identify the three

O

major ant subfamilies:

C
EP

1. Ants with two nodes

PR

> subfamily Myrmicinae

E

1'. Ants with one node

AC

> Go to A
S
IN

A. Ants with a ring of hairs around a nozzle-like

LL

anal opening on the tip of the gaster

Carpenter ant workers such as these (Camponatus texanus)
O

are polymorphic. Major and minor workers perform different

> subfamily Formicinae
R

tasks. These were found nesting in the folds of a tarp.

Photo by Stoy Hedges. A'. Ants with a slit-like anal opening, no ring
of hairs
> subfamily Dolichoderinae
Ant Classification
All ants belong to the family Formicidae within the Some important examples of ants, listed by
order Hymenoptera. Knowing the major subfamilies subfamilies, that are considered to be structural
and their characteristics is important for ant pests in North America are shown below. More
identification. While many subfamilies exist in the information about these and other ants, their biology,
U.S., when it comes to identifying ant pests found and key control measures are found in the PCT
in structures, there are only three important ones: Field Guide for the Management of Structure-
Dolichoderinae, Formicinae, and Myrmicinae. Infesting Ants and the NPMA Field Guide to
Structural Pests.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

SUBFAMILY FORMICINAE SUBFAMILY DOLICHODERINAE

All formicine ants have a single node and bear an All ants belonging to this subfamily have only one
acidopore (a round, hair-fringed anus) that is used node. These ants lack stingers, and the tips of their
by many species to spray formic acid at their gasters do not have circular rings of hair. Instead,
enemies (hence the subfamily name). Formicine they have a slit-like anus.
ants do not have stingers.

PY
O
C
W
IE
A white-footed ant (Technomyrmex difficilis).
A Florida carpenter ant (Camponotus atriceps).

EV
Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.
Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.
R
Some important examples of ants in the subfamily
Some important examples of formicine ants are:
SE

Dolichoderinae are:
R

Carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) – Medium-to-

U

Odorous house ant (Tapinoma sessile) – Medium-

large ants that usually nest in wood or above-ground
O

sized ants that commonly infest houses throughout

C

cavities, including attics and wall voids. Some the U.S. Musty smell when crushed. Love to eat
EP

species will nest within any narrow, protected space, sweets. Single, flattened node is difficult to see,
including under insulation or between the folds of a
PR

hidden by forward angle of abdomen. Found

tarp. Smoothly convex thoraxes without spines. Red throughout most of the U.S.
E

to black, sometimes bicolored (red and black).

AC

Polymorphic. Many species, some of which are Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) – Medium-
highly destructive and some of which are just
S

sized ants, physically very similar to the odorous

IN

nuisance pests. For more, see Carpenter Ant box house ant. Large colonies make these one of the
LL

under Wood-Destroying Insects section. most difficult ants to control. Single, pointed node.
O

Mostly found in California and southern states, with

R

Field ants or thatching ants (Formica spp.) – isolated infestations in several other states.
Medium-to-large ants that prefer nesting in the
ground of open fields. May build large mound Ghost ant (Tapinoma melanocephalum) – Small
nests. Monomorphic. Distinct ocelli on head. Thorax ants with dark heads and thoraxes, but white
uneven, not smoothly convex like carpenter ants. pedicels, gasters, legs, and antennae. Mostly found
Common around homes, but rarely found indoors. in Florida, Texas, and Hawaii, but they are easily
transported in tropical plants.
Crazy ants (includes the crazy ant, Paratrechina
longicornis, the tawny crazy ant, Nylanderia fulva, White-footed ant (Technomyrmex difficilis) –
and the Caribbean crazy ant, Nylanderia pubens) – Small-to-medium sized ants that are black with
The name comes from fast, jerky, and erratic yellow feet. Similar in appearance to odorous house
running behavior. These two genera are monomorphic ants. Nests in and around trees, wall voids, and
and bear four pairs of curved setae along the top attics. Mostly in southern Florida, with occasional
(dorsum) of the thorax. They are small ants, and sightings in other southern states. A similar species
workers are monomorphic. Crazy ants can be of Technomyrmex is found in California and Hawaii.
difficult to control.

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SUBFAMILY MYRMECINAE club. Painful sting that usually results in a white

pustule. Makes small to large mounds. Responds
All ants in the subfamily Myrmecinae have two aggressively when nest is disturbed. Very important
nodes, and they possess stingers. However, they do economically and medically. Found throughout the
not all sting, and the stingers of some species are southern states and limited areas of California.
not visible because they are retracted.
Pavement ants (Tetramorium caespitum) –
Medium-sized, slow-moving, reddish-brown to
blackish ants. Sometimes mistaken for fire ants, but
they are monomorphic. Head and thorax sculptured
with fine, parallel grooves. May nest outdoors in soil
or indoors. Found throughout the U.S., especially
along the west coast. This is one of the most
common ant pests of structures in the United States.

PY
Bigheaded ants (Pheidole spp.) – Small-to-medium

O
ants. Yellowish to dark-reddish brown, with a pair

C
of spines on rear of thorax. Dimorphic. Called big-

W
Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) are myrmecine ants headed ants because of the major workers’ oversized,

IE
with a functional stinger. Photo by S.D. Porter, USDA-ARS. heart-shaped heads. Minor workers are easily

EV
mistaken for fire ants. Nests in soil, often next to
Some important examples are:
R
structures. Generally minor pests. Most common in
SE

Pharaoh ants (Monomorium pharaonis) – Very small, warmer or drier regions of the U.S.
R

monomorphic, yellow-brown ants that do not sting.

Harvester ants (Pogonomyrmex spp.) – Medium-to-
U

A common indoor nester that will also forage

O

large ants, reddish to dark-brown or black. Harvester

outdoors in warmer weather. There may be many
C

ants have a unique “beard” called a psammophore

female reproductives in a Pharaoh ant colony. These
EP

under the head, consisting of two rows of inward-

ants do not swarm. Instead, they form new nests
PR

curving hairs used to help carry soil or seeds.

by “budding” when a queen and some workers
Though not especially aggressive, they do have
leave the original colony for a new site. They are
E

a painful sting. Occasional pest of lawns or play-

AC

found throughout the U.S.

grounds. Nests with few entrance holes built in soil,
S

Little black ants (Monomorium minimum) – Very sometimes clearing circular areas. Some species
IN

small, shiny-black, outdoor-nesting ants that may construct shallow mounds around nest entrances.
LL

enter buildings. Monomorphic. Painful sting. Makes Especially common in arid grassland and desert areas.
O

small mounds in soil and also nests within dead

R

wood. Found throughout the U.S., but especially

common in south-central states.

Acrobat ants (Crematogaster spp.) – Medium-sized,

outdoor ants that primarily nest in dead, moist
wood, but will also nest in structural wall voids.
Light-reddish to black, often bicolored (red and
black). The pedicel attaches to the top of the gaster,
which is heart-shaped. Monomorphic. Two back-
ward-pointing spines on thorax. Mostly a nuisance
pest. Found throughout the U.S.

Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) –

Small-to-medium ants that are reddish-brown in Nest mounds built by harvester ants. Photo by Stoy Hedges.
color. Polymorphic with two-segmented antennal

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Ant Management
Ant management requires many considerations
as to species, colony location, relative size of the
infestation, structural integrity, and the purpose of
the structure to be serviced. The first steps involve
reducing ant attraction to a structure by improving
sanitation, weed management, water management
on the exterior (such as irrigation schedules), and
removing unnecessary clutter.

Exclusion techniques such as sealing and caulking

can be important, depending on nest location
(indoors vs. outdoors). However, in structures that
are in poor repair, finding and sealing all entry

PY
points may not always be practical.

O
Foraging ants leave trail pheromones for others

C
to follow to sources of food, so cleaning trails with

W
IE
soaps and detergents can disrupt their communication

EV
by erasing the chemical clues they leave behind.

Baits are very effective against some ant species, R

SE

especially when the nests are numerous or well-

R

hidden. Baits can also be highly economical

U

compared to other formulations because less

O

insecticide active ingredient is needed. In addition

C

to the ants that pick them up, baits also kill other
EP

members of the colony because of mouth-to-mouth

PR

food sharing (trophallaxis) that occurs in all ant

colonies.
E
AC

Repellent insecticides should generally be avoided

S

when treating Pharaoh ant colonies indoors because

IN

they may cause ant colonies to split and spread

LL

to more areas of the structure. Repellency should

O

be less of an issue when applying insecticides as

R

perimeter or broadcast applications.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Cockroaches

Cockroaches, in the order Blattodea, are not eusocial species are found in the U.S., and less than two
insects, though they do share some primitive social dozen are considered to be even occasional
behaviors with their closest relatives, the termites. structural pests. In fact, most species prefer to live
For example, cockroaches commonly aggregate in outdoors where they commonly feed on decaying
groups where they share food and digestive fluids plant matter. Only two species—the German
with their offspring and harborage mates. Cockroaches cockroach (Blattella germanica) and the brown-
do not have castes, nor do they have a division of banded cockroach (Supella longipalpa)—are known
labor like termites and other social insects. to live indoors exclusively. Others may be found
indoors, but they are usually associated with
Worldwide, nearly 4,500 cockroach species have outdoor populations.
been discovered and described, but only about 70

PY
O
Pests that Threaten Human Health

C
W
IE
Good pest management is essential for the preservation of human health because several

EV
important household and outdoor insect pests are known to cause serious health problems.
R
Cockroaches can spread pathogens that cause diseases, like Salmonella, and they produce
SE

allergens that can affect human health. The allergens come from proteins found in cockroach
R

feces, shed exoskeletons, and their dead bodies, which become airborne in the confined
U

space of infested homes. The result is higher rates of asthma, runny noses, rashes, and other
O
C

allergic reactions for people who live in infested buildings.

EP

The mosquito is without doubt the most dangerous animal on the planet. According to the World
PR

Health Organization, a child dies each minute from malaria. Mosquitoes also transmit other diseases,
E

such as St. Louis and West Nile encephalitic viruses, dengue fever, chikungunya, and yellow fever.
AC

Rodents can be a source of Salmonella, and their dander, urine, and feces can also be sources
S
IN

of allergens. Rodents can also transmit pathogens that cause arenavirus, hantaviruses, and
LL

other diseases.
O
R

Rodent parasites also play a role in spreading important diseases like typhus, plague, Lyme
disease, anaplasmosis, and ehrlichiosis. When rodent parasites—like ticks, fleas, or mites—feed
on an infected rodent and subsequently on a human, the disease can spread. The Oriental rat
flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) is thought to be the vector responsible for transmitting plague—a
disease that killed millions of people in the 14th century. Typhus is also transmitted by
Oriental rat fleas, and Lyme disease is transmitted by ticks that feed on white-footed mice
and other small mammals and birds.

A central tenet of disease prevention is to eliminate the source or vector of the disease.
Therefore, pest management service and expertise are two of the factors that stand between a
healthy community and one plagued by these pests and their corresponding disease organisms.
Never forget that the service you provide as a pest management professional is not just
important—it’s essential to a healthy society.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Cockroaches are important household and industrial

pests. In addition to being annoying, they can be
mechanical vectors of pathogens that contribute
to food poisoning, wound infections, respiratory
infections, and dysentery. Some proteins found in
cockroach feces, exuviae (skin castings), and dead
individuals can also contribute to allergies that may
trigger asthma and other respiratory problems,
especially in children.

Cockroach Biology
All cockroaches develop via gradual metamorphosis
from egg to nymph to the adult stage. Immature,
nymphal cockroaches generally eat the same food

PY
as adults, and resemble adults to some degree.

O
Adults and nymphs frequently congregate in the

C
same areas, though they may prefer different types

W
of crevices based on the size of their bodies.

IE
EV
Cockroach eggs are deposited in a purse-like sac or
egg case called an ootheca. The oothecae of differ- R
SE
ent species vary noticeably in shape, size, color, and
number of eggs, making them useful for species
R
U

identification. In addition to their appearance,

O

oothecae are deposited in different environments

C

and situations by different species. Some, like the

EP

German cockroach, carry their oothecae for about Key to oothecae from common cockroaches. Image courtesy of
PR

the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

three weeks until the eggs are ready to hatch; others
drop their oothecae within a day or two after forming
E

Cockroach Behavior
AC

them, which may be days or weeks before they will

hatch. One pest species, the Surinam cockroach
Sometimes knowledge of cockroach behavior can
S

(Pycnoscelus surinamensis), carries the ootheca

IN

be used to identify species. For example, Asian

internally until the nymphs hatch, giving the
LL

cockroaches (Blattella asahinai) and German

appearance of live birth.
O

cockroaches (Blattella germanica) look very similar,

R

but only the Asian cockroach can fly.

Cockroaches are mostly nocturnal, although diurnal

species are fairly common. Mainly active at night,
most structural pest species hide quickly when
lights in a dark room are turned on. However,
nocturnal cockroaches can also be seen during the
day, especially when heavy infestations exist.

Cockroaches frequently regurgitate and defecate

around their harborage areas. Special scents
(aggregation pheromones) in their feces attract
Comparison of cockroach oothecae. Top: Oriental (left),
nymphs and adults. As a result, cockroaches are
German (right). Bottom: American (left), brownbanded (right). most likely to be found living close to other
Photo courtesy of the University of Nebraska Department of cockroaches and their feces.
Entomology.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Fecal and regurgitating spots are usually dark in Cockroach Anatomy

color and can serve as a clue to current or recent
All cockroaches have flattened bodies with their
infestations. Pest management professionals look
heads and mouthparts folded under their bodies.
for cockroach fecal droppings around cracks and
Adults of some species bear long, many-veined
crevices, inside cabinets, and wherever cockroaches
wings. Both adults and nymphs have cerci—a pair
aggregate. Often, cockroach aggregations are found
of short, tail-like appendages arising from the tenth
in the upper corners of cabinets, requiring close
abdominal segment, and thought to function as
inspection with a flashlight and a small mirror.
sensory organs. When viewed from above, a plate-
Sometimes, where cockroaches are abundant, the
like shield called a pronotum can be seen between
smell of cockroach feces can be strong enough to
the head and the wing covers. The pronotum covers
be detected by the nose of an experienced inspector.
the top of the thorax and may partially or totally
Coprophagy (the eating of feces) is an important conceal the head. Cockroach legs are slender and
means for young cockroaches to obtain nutrition, spiny, and are well-suited for running fast.
especially for first-instar nymphs of the German

PY
cockroach. This is one reason why some cockroach Cockroach Classification

O
baits are so effective—foraging cockroaches defecate

C
some of the bait before they die, and first-instar Some experts argue that cockroaches and termites

W
nymphs then consume it and die. Necrophagy (the are so closely related that they ought to be classified

IE
eating of one’s dead) and cannibalism also are in the same order. However, the many differences

EV
believed to contribute to the distribution of insecticides between cockroach and termite families will
among cockroaches in harborage areas. R
undoubtedly support their treatment as distinct pest
SE
groups long into the future.
Cockroaches are readily caught in sticky traps
R

The two most important structural-pest cockroach

U

designed for crawling insects. Therefore, sticky

O

traps or glue boards can make excellent cockroach families in the U.S. are Blattidae and Blattellidae.
C

monitoring tools. To be most effective, traps should The most practical difference between the two
EP

be placed near suspected cockroach harborage families is size. Blattids are generally larger, usually
more than 5/8-inch (16 mm) long, while blattellids
PR

areas. Some traps include pheromones to increase

the capture rate, and technicians often add a small are usually smaller. Species belonging to another
E

family called Blaberidae, including the Surinam

AC

dab of food to attract cockroaches to the sticky trap.

cockroach (Pycnoscelus surinamensis) and the
Cuban cockroach (Panchlora nivea), may also be
S

The reproductive potential of some cockroaches

IN

is quite impressive. German cockroaches, for encountered in the U.S., depending on region. See
LL

example, produce five or more oothecae over the the table in this chapter for more information on
O

course of a year, with each ootheca containing as the major cockroach species and their important
R

many as 50 eggs. Others, like the American or identification features.

Oriental cockroaches, may not lay as many eggs
per ootheca as the German cockroach, but they
tend to have longer lifespans.

The high reproductive potential of cockroaches

makes them likely candidates for developing
insecticide resistance. For this reason, it’s important
to use pesticides as part of an overall IPM strategy
that is based on cultural controls (modifying the
environment), mechanical controls (for example,
vacuuming), good sanitation, and exclusionary
measures. Rotating insecticides from different
chemical classes can also help reduce the risk of German cockroach (Blattella germanica) adults, nymphs,
and ootheca. These belong to the family Blattellidae. Photo
resistance, as discussed in a previous chapter. courtesy of the University of Nebraska Department of Entomology.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

• The use of insecticidal dusts in inaccessible

void areas and walls.
• A thorough structural analysis to identify
potentially unrecognized harborage and access
points.
• The use of paste and gel baits, either
containerized or not, in and around areas of
suspected harborage.
• The use of sprays and aerosols in areas of
heavy cockroach infestation, and outdoors to
prevent cockroach entry.
American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) adults, nymphs, • The cooperation of customers in reporting
and ootheca. These belong to the family Blattidae. Photo infestations and working with PMPs to

PY
courtesy of the University of Nebraska Department of Entomology.
continually improve sanitation and pest-proofing.

O
• Adequate recordkeeping to monitor the success

C
Cockroach Control of an IPM program.

W
Cockroach-control strategies vary by species. • An insecticide rotation strategy that uses active

IE
Applications of baits, dusts, and sprays should be

EV
ingredients from different chemical classes.
directed into and around harborage areas. Baits
have been the product of choice for cockroaches for
• R
Rotation of different gel-bait formulations to
SE
limit formation of bait aversion in cockroach
the past 20 years, but overuse of baits can and has
populations.
R

led to resistance, aversion, or avoidance in some

U

situations. For this reason, an integrated approach • Written protocols and/or thresholds to ensure
O

to control should always be used. A good IPM the sustainability of an IPM program as personnel
C

program for cockroaches should include many or change.

EP

all of the following components: For in-depth coverage of cockroaches, see the
PR

Mallis Handbook of Pest Control and the NPMA

• Sanitation, including the elimination of food,
E

Field Guide to Structural Pests.

AC

water, and harborage resources.

• Scheduling cleaning and garbage-removal for
S
IN

later in the day to eliminate food before the

LL

most active periods of nocturnal cockroach

feeding.
O
R

• Pest-proofing the outside of a structure to

prevent cockroach invasions.
• Clutter reduction in kitchens, food-service
areas, and food-storage areas.
• The use of sticky traps to monitor and pinpoint
the areas of highest infestation.
• Vacuuming heavy infestations prior to bait
applications.
• Sealing crevices and voids, repairing cracks
in walls and flooring, and closing electrical
and plumbing fixtures to prevent cockroach
movement within buildings.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Major Cockroach Species and Important Identification Features

Common name,
Body Length Wing Length Pronotum Forewings
Scientific name

American cockroach, 1 3/8–2 1/8 inches Reddish-brown with indistinct

Covers abdomen Reddish-brown
Periplaneta americana (35-55 mm) yellowish pattern

Asian cockroach, 1/2–5/8 inch Ashy-gray with two longitudinal

Covers abdomen Ashy gray
Blattella asahinai (13-16 mm) black stripes

Reddish-brown,
Australian cockroach, 1 1/4–1 3/8 inches Yellow with distinct black
Covers abdomen cream-yellow along
Periplaneta australasiae (32-35 mm) pattern
wing margin
Covers half of abdomen
Brownbanded cockroach, Yellowish brown with

PY
1/2-inch (13 mm) (female), covers abdomen Brown with yellow margins
Supella longipalpa brownband patches
(male)

O
C
Field cockroach, 3/8–1/2 inch Silvery-gray with longitudinal
Covers abdomen Silvery gray

W
Blattella vaga (10-15 mm) black stripes

IE
Florida woods cockroach, 1 1/8–1 1/2 inches Very short wing pads, Reddish-brown, may have
Not applicable

EV
Eurycotis floridana (30-40 mm) leathery, meet at midline yellow longitudinal borders

German cockroach, 1/2–5/8 inch

R Yellowish-brown with two
SE
Covers abdomen Yellowish-brown
Blattella gemanica (13-16 mm) longitudinal black stripes
R
U

Native woods cockroaches, Much shorter than abdomen

3/8–1 1/4 inches Light to dark brown (varies by
O

Parcoblatta spp. (female), covers abdomen Brown-gray

(10-30 mm) species)
C

(12 species in United States) (male)

EP

Very short, leathery, do not

Oriental cockroach, 1 inch
meet in middle (female), Black Black to dark brown
PR

Blatta orientalis (25 mm)

covers 75% abdomen (male)
E
AC

Smokybrown cockroach, 1–1 1/2 inches Black to very dark

Covers abdomen Uniform, shiny blackish-brown
Periplaneta fuliginosa (25-38 mm) brown
S
IN

Surinam cockroach, 3/4–1 inches Covers abdomen, male not

Shiny dark brown Light grayish-brown
Pycnoscelus surinamensis (18-25 mm) present
LL
O

Pale brown,
R

Very short, triangular, leath- cream-yellow along

Turkestan cockroach, 1 inch ery, do not meet in middle Pale brown (male), wing margins (male),
Blatta lateralis (25 mm) (female), covers abdomen dark brown (female) dark brown with
(male) cream-yellow stripe
(female)

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Distribution in
Habitat Ootheca Eggs per Ootheca Able to fly
United States
Outdoors in warmer 12-18; females deposit
Dark-reddish or blackish
climates; sewers; indoors ootheca into cracks and
Cosmopolitan brown; capsule-shaped; about Yes
in heated buildings year- crevices, especially moist
3/8-inch (10 mm)
round areas
20-40; females carry
FL, SC, GA, AL, TX, AZ, Smaller than German cockroach ootheca, but it does not
potentially southern and Low, weedy vegetation ootheca, about 3/8-inch extend as far from Yes
southeastern coastal areas (10 mm); yellow/brown abdomen as German
cockroaches

Dark brown; about 3/8-inch 24; females carry ootheca

Mostly in the southern U.S. Indoors and outdoors Yes
(10 mm) for a short period of time

Indoors, especially in 14-18; females sometimes

Yellowish or reddish-brown;

PY
Cosmopolitan warmer sites and near glue ootheca to furniture, Yes; only males
about 1/4-inch (6 mm)
ceilings ceilings, or appliances

O
C
14-18; females carry
Southwestern areas (from CA Pale yellowish-brown; about
Low, weedy vegetation ootheca until ready to Yes

W
to TX) and coastal LA 1/4-inch (5-6 mm)
hatch

IE
Dark-brown to black; about 20-24; often glued into
Gulf Coast (from FL to MS) Outdoors No

EV
1/2-inch (13 mm) cracks and crevices

Indoors, especially near

Light brown/yellow,
purse-shaped; 15–25
R 30-50; females carry the
SE
Cosmopolitan ootheca until eggs are No
water sources segments, about 5/8-inch
ready to hatch
(16 mm)
R
U

32-36; females deposit

Most parts of United States Yellowish-brown; about
O

Outdoors eggs on trees, logs, or Yes; only males

except interior western states 1/2-inch (13 mm)
C

stumps
EP

Mostly outdoors, 16; female may carry

occasionally indoors, Dark red-brown; about ootheca for up to five days
Worldwide distribution No
PR

especially in cooler sites 1/2-inch (10 mm) before depositing it near a

and at ground level food source
E

20-28; females carry

AC

South and southeastern areas, Mostly outdoors, Dark brown or black; about
ootheca for a day or so Yes
local in CA occasionally indoors 3/8-inch (10 mm)
before dropping it
S

Gulf Coast (from FL to TX); Mostly outdoors, 26; female carries ootheca
IN

Light color; about 1/2-inch

southern Atlantic seaboard; occasionally indoors and appears to give birth to No
(13 mm)
LL

HI; NM especially in potted plants live young

O
R

Southwestern states Outdoors, occasionally Dark brown; about 1/2-inch

17-18 Yes
(from CA to TX) indoors (13 mm)

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Wood-Destroying Insects

The best-known insects that destroy wood in

structures are termites and beetles. Others include
carpenter ants and carpenter bees.

Termites
Termites are in the traditional order Isoptera,
although the taxonomy is being re-examined and
many entomologists believe Isoptera is actually an
infraorder of Blattodea (cockroaches). Worldwide, A worker and pre-reproductive subterranean termite. All
there are nearly 2,700 species, but only about 20

PY
reproductive termites are dependent on the worker caste for
species are considered to be structural pests in food and nurture. Photo by Mike Merchant.

O
the U.S.

C
Termites eat cellulose (a complex carbohydrate found

W
TERMITE BIOLOGY in plant cell walls), which is not easily digestible by

IE
insects or by many other animals. To accomplish

EV
Unlike ants, termites develop via gradual this feat, termites harbor special microorganisms in
metamorphosis, so there are no true larval or pupal R
their digestive tracts—symbiotic bacteria and protozoa.
SE
stages. Instead, the newly hatched immatures look These symbionts help break down cellulose into
much like miniature versions of the adult workers.
R

sugars that the termites can digest.

U
O

The caste organization, life-cycle pathways, and After termite workers ingest wood during foraging,
C

terminology used to describe termites can be both they return to the colony. During this time, the wood
EP

complex and confusing. Some terminology used to is digested. Upon their arrival, they share their
describe termite castes and life cycles is inconsistent
PR

now-liquid stomach contents—digested cellulose and

with terminology used for other insect groups. For symbionts—with their nest mates. This exchange
E

example, in entomology the term “larva” usually of nutrition via regurgitation or anal secretions is
AC

refers to immature stages of insects with complete called trophallaxis. Trophallaxis enables termites to
metamorphosis. However, termite experts often use
S

share food not only with other workers, but also with
IN

the term larva to refer to their earliest instar stages. other individuals that depend on them—the larvae,
LL

nymphs, soldiers, and reproductives. Trophallaxis

Termite larvae lack any sclerotization (the darken-
O

also makes it possible to manage termite colonies

R

ing and hardening of the exoskeleton), even of their

with toxic baits.
mouthparts, so they must be fed by others in the
colony. However, after a few molts some sclerotization
occurs and at that point the immatures are referred
to as nymphs instead of larvae.

Unlike ants, which have two different castes

(workers and reproductives), termites have three
castes: workers, soldiers, and reproductives.

Worker termites are by far the most common

individuals in the colony. They are responsible for
eating cellulose, building tunnels through soil and
wood, tending the nursery, and sharing food. With their highly specialized fighting jaws, soldier termites,
like the two on the left, are incapable of obtaining their own
food. These soldiers must rely on regurgitated food provided by
worker termites for their nutrition. Photo by Mike Merchant.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

As it does with ants, the term alate refers to adult Another term commonly used by termite specialists
winged reproductives that are capable of becoming is neotenic, which refers to individuals that develop
primary kings or queens. Genetic evidence suggests functional reproductive systems while retaining
that alates are responsible for founding most new characteristics of juveniles. The exoskeletons of
termite colonies. neotenics remain mostly unsclerotized, their eyes
remain rudimentary and non-functional, and their
When alates emerge from the nest at the appropriate wings do not develop.
time of year, they are also called swarmers. During
swarming season, alates emerge in large numbers Newly hatched larval termites can develop into
at approximately the same time to enhance their workers or nymphs. Some worker termites remain
probability of finding mates from different colonies. workers all of their lives, others eventually turn into
Because every termite within a given colony is a soldiers, and still others may develop into wingless
sibling, inter-colony mating is necessary to supply (apterous) neotenic reproductives. Nymphs can
the genetic diversity that is essential for survival in develop into neotenics with wing buds or into alates.
a changing world. Swarming, therefore, is very

PY
important for the long-term survival of any given In a termite colony, the king and queen mate for life

O
termite species. Swarming flights are of interest to and they are thought to be quite long-lived. However,

C
both PMPs and their customers because they act we now know that the primary king and queen

W
as a warning that termites are active and present. termites are not the only ones capable of laying

IE
eggs and maintaining a colony. In addition to the

EV
R
SE
R
U
O
C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

Termite colony life cycles are complex and involve different possible pathways for caste development. Although the queen
and king are considered the primary reproductives, eggs can also be laid by neotenic (juvenile-like) reproductives.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

primary king and queen, the colony will have both some species that are known as nasutiform termites
apterous neotenic reproductives which develop use chemical secretions from a special gland on the
from workers, and brachypterous (having short head to repel or entangle prey. Nasute soldiers have
wings) neotenic reproductives which develop from prolonged beaks instead of mandibles.
nymphs. Both apterous and brachypterous neotenic
reproductives are capable of laying eggs. Neotenic
reproductives may also take over reproduction
responsibilities for the colony (or for a portion of
it) in the event of the death, or separation from, a
primary queen.

TERMITE ANATOMY
Termites are readily distinguished from ants by their
straight antennae, lack of a constricted waist, and

PY
their wings of equal length. Furthermore, instead of

O
the stinger seen on some ants, termites have cerci A nasute termite soldier (Nasutitermes corniger). While mostly

C
on the terminal segment of the abdomen. found in the tropics, nasutiform termites can be found in

W
regions of Florida and Texas. Unlike other termite soldiers,
nasute termites have beaks instead of mandibles.

IE
All termites have moniliform antennae, which look
Photo by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria, Melbourne Australia.

EV
like a series of beads strung together. Unlike some
ant species, the antennae of termite pests in North R
Termite soldiers’ mandibles can sometimes be
America are never clubbed or bent.
SE
useful for identifying species. Subterranean termite
soldiers have smooth mandibles, for example, but
R
U

most dampwood and drywood soldiers in North

O

America have jagged mandibles.

C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

The Asian subterranean termite soldier (Coptotermes gestroi) on

the left has smooth mandibles and its pronotum is thinner than
Termite antennae, like those seen on this Formosan subterranean
its head. The western drywood termite soldier (Incisitermes sp.)
termite worker (Coptotermes formosanus) are moniliform,
on the right has jagged mandibles and its pronotum is
resembling strings of beads. Photo by Gerald J. Lenhard,
wider than its head. Photos by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria,
Louisiana State University, Bugwood.org.
Melbourne Australia.

Termite soldiers are also usually light-colored, but The pronotum—the plate-like structure on the
their heads are darker and bigger than the heads thorax, behind the head—can also be useful for
of workers. All soldiers are sterile and lack wings, identifying soldiers of some species. Whereas the
and most of them lack eyes as well. As their name pronotum of subterranean termite soldiers is narrower
implies, soldiers are the fighters and defenders of than the head, the pronotum of most drywood
the colony. Most fight off enemies with a pair of and dampwood termites is as wide or wider than
large mandibles (jaws). However, the soldiers of the head.

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Some soldier termites bear a fontanelle, a small

opening on the top of the head that secretes
defensive fluids. The presence and form of the
fontanelle is sometimes used to identify species.
For example, the Formosan subterranean termite
(Coptotermes formosanus) has a pronounced
fontanelle on the front part of its head, with two
pairs of hairs on each side. However, the Asian
subterranean termite (Coptotermes gestroi) only has
one pair of hairs at the base of its fontanelle. Other
subterranean termites have less pronounced
fontanelles or lack them completely.

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Wings from an eastern subterranean termite (Reticulitermes

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flavipes), top; a Formosan subterranean termite (Coptotermes
R
formosanus), middle; and a drywood termite, bottom.
Photos by Mike Merchant.
SE
R

Shortly after their emergence and nuptial flight,

U

king and queen alates lose their wings. The wings

O
C

actually break off at a specific spot called the

EP

humeral suture, slightly above the point where the

wings connect to the thorax. After wing loss, alate
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termites retain four wing “scales,” the remnants of

E

the bases of the four wings.

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S
IN
LL
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The Formosan subterranean termite (Coptotermes formosanus)

R

in the top photo has two pairs of hairs near the fontanelle. The
Asian subterranean termite (Coptotermes gestroi) below has
only one pair of hairs at the base of the fontanelle.
Photos by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria, Melbourne Australia.

Termite wings vary among species, and can be

A termite reproductive with four wing scales on its thorax.
used for identification. For example, the wings of Termites that have lost their wings, like this individual, are
the eastern subterranean termite (Reticulitermes sometimes referred to as “de-alates.” These wingless de-alates
flavipes) are smooth, without hairs, and have two are sometimes mistaken for ants by inexperienced inspectors.
heavy veins along the leading edge of the forewing. This drawing appeared in Termites and Termite Control,
published in 1934 by University of California Press, edited
Meanwhile, the wings of the Formosan subterranean
by C.A. Kofoid.
termite (Coptotermes formosanus) are covered with
fine hairs that are visible under magnification, and Even after they drop off, termite wings can be used
the wings of drywood termites (Cryptotermes and to identity the swarmers, and keys of termite wings
Incistitermes species) are often dusky and have at exist for this purpose. During a termite inspection,
least three strong veins along the leading edge of it is important to look for swarmer wings in window
the forewing.

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sills and, sometimes, in spider webs in the corners alates may be seen emerging from “swarm castles,”
of windows, attics, and rooms. The presence of elaborate forms of mud tubes constructed by the
termite wings is an indication that termite swarming workers.
has occurred in the past.

Termite wings can last for many years in a dry,

protected location. Therefore, it’s a good idea to
consider using a vacuum cleaner when conducting
a termite inspection. By vacuuming up old cobwebs
and window-sill debris at least once a year, you
can be pretty certain that any new wings that show
up later are an indication of new termite swarming
activity.

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Subterranean termite soldiers and a worker.

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Photo by the National Pest Management Association.

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Some important subterranean termite pests in North

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America are:

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R
Formosan subterranean termites (Coptotermes
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Subterranean termite wings, such as this wing from Coptotermes formosanus) – Native to Asia, but they are now
formosanus, can be identified by the two main leading veins found in the U.S. in southern California, and from
R

with relatively few connecting veins. The color, hairiness, and

U

Texas to North Carolina. Swarmers are large—about

vein patterns of wings can be used to identify most important
O

termite species. Illustration by Magdalen Cattle. ½-inch (12-15 mm) long with wings—and yellowish
C

bodies. They emerge at dusk and are drawn to

EP

TERMITE CLASSIFICATION lights. Soldiers have teardrop-shaped heads and

PR

produce a whitish, milky defensive secretion. With

In North America there are three main types of some colonies of millions of individuals, this is
E

termites: subterranean termites in the family potentially our most destructive termite.
AC

Rhinotermitidae, drywood termites in the family

Kalotermitidae, and dampwood termites in the
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Reticulitermes spp. – The most common termite

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families Kalotermitidae, Termopsidae, and genus, found over most of the contiguous U.S.
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Rhinotermitidae. Reticulitermes alates are dark, about 5/16–7/16

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inch (8-11 mm) long with wings, and they swarm

R

Subterranean Termites during the day. Soldiers have rectangular heads and
As their name suggests, subterranean termites jaws that taper from base to tip.
live underground, and they require a good deal of
moisture to survive. Because they remain below Heterotermes spp. – Sometimes referred to as
ground most of the time, they can be difficult to desert termites, they are found in the southwestern
detect. However, a tell-tale sign of subterranean U.S. Swarmers are yellowish, approximately 3/8-
termites is the presence of mud tubes. Subterranean inch (10 mm) long with wings, and they swarm at
termites—and some conehead termites in South night. Soldiers have rectangular heads with slender
Florida—build mud tubes (also known as “shelter mandibles from base to tip. They are destructive
tubes” or “mud shelter tubes”), which they use to termites in Arizona and parts of southern California.
connect their colonies with wood and other food
Drywood Termites
sources. Mud tubes protect the colony by keeping
intruders out and by keeping moisture in. They can Drywood termites make their nests in the wood that
frequently be seen on concrete walls and floors, they eat. As their name implies, they need little
especially in cracks. During swarming season, moisture to survive. Drywood termites do not live in

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the ground or make mud tubes, but they do produce are about ½-inch (10-11 mm) long with wings, and
distinctive six-sided fecal pellets (frass) that can be are active at dusk in the summer. Their wings have
used to identify them. As the termites excavate the three heavily sclerotized veins with the medial vein
wood, these fecal pellets are often expelled through curving to join the radial vein at approximately two-
tiny kick holes. Special anal pads allow them to thirds of the length of the wing. Soldiers’ heads are
extract most of the water from the pellets, which thick, short, peg-like, and black.
look like piles of sawdust near the nests.
Kalotermes approximatus – A less-commonly
encountered termite found in Florida, along the Gulf
of Mexico to southern Mississippi, and along the
Atlantic coast to Virginia. They are found in mostly
dead trees and rarely in structures. Swarmers are
dark reddish-brown to black, 3/8-inch (10 mm)
long with wings, and their dark-brown wings have
numerous cross veins. Swarms occur during the

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day from September to November.

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C
Dampwood Termites

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Dampwood termite is the general name for termites

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Six-sided fecal pellets from drywood termites.
Photo by Mike Merchant. that require high moisture levels and usually live in

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damp, often decaying wood. Dampwood termites,
Drywood termites infest wood that is in good R
as defined in this way, include members of three
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condition (not rotten or rotting) with moisture levels
families of termites: Kalotermitidae, Termopsidae,
of 15% or less. They can be found in boards, studs,
R

and Rhinotermitidae.
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furniture, and other woodwork. They do not need

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external sources of water. Instead, they extract water Dampwood termites do not build mud tubes, but
C

from the wood that they eat, which allows them to they do produce six-sided fecal pellets, the sides
EP

survive in arid conditions. of which are either flat or convex, unlike the
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prominently ridged, concave sides of drywood

Some important drywood termite pests in North
termite pellets. The pellets may be retained in the
E

America are:
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nest or ejected, and in damp situations may stick

Incisitermes spp. – The most widespread genus of to the walls of the galleries. Dampwood soldiers are
S

mostly large and reddish-brown with heavy, multi-

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drywood termites in the U.S., with species occurring

toothed mandibles. Like drywood termites, they
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in the western and eastern states. Swarmers range

build their nests in the wood that they eat. However,
O

from yellow-brown to dark reddish-brown and are

dampwood termites prefer wood that is moist, like
R

about ½-inch (11-13 mm) long with wings. Their

wings range from yellowish (eastern species) to decaying tree stumps or logs. They can damage
blackish (western species), and they have three structural wood if a source of moisture is available,
dark, heavily sclerotized foreveins. Their smooth especially if the wood is in contact with the ground.
galleries can be found in both soft spring wood
Some important dampwood termite pests in North
and in hard summer wood. Drywood termites are
America are:
commonly transferred out of their normal range in
furniture or lumber. Pacific dampwood termites (Zootermopsis
angusticollis and Zootermopsis nevandensis) are
Cryptotermes brevis – Commonly known as the
in the family Termopsidae. They are mostly found
West Indian drywood termite, Cryptotermes brevis is
along the Pacific coast from British Columbia to
a tropical termite that is common in Hawaii, Florida,
Baja, California, but they also occur in West Texas
and some other southeastern states. It is a common
and eastern New Mexico. The swarmers are very
termite in furniture, where it can be moved to areas
large and may be up to one inch (25 mm) long with
outside of its normal range. The dull-brown swarmers
wings. Soldiers are 3/8–3/4 inch (9-19 mm) long.

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Swarmers’ forewings have three or more dark- – Carton nests in walls.

pigmented veins. – Unexplained motion or noises in walls as
detected by termite motion detectors or
Cuban subterranean termites (Prorhinotermes
listening devices.
simplex) are in the family Rhinotermitidae. They are
found in southern Florida, usually within five miles – Unusual thermal signatures in walls or
of saltwater, where they nest in damp wood and ceilings that cannot easily be explained.
logs and forage in the soil like true subterranean – Excessive moisture, water leaks, or poor
termites. Swarmers are dark, 5/16–7/16 inch (8-11 drainage around the structure.
mm) long with wings, and have two unbranched, – Mulch or soil levels above tops of foundations.
sclerotized veins in their forewings, and they are – Poor foundation visibility as a result of
active at dusk from September to February. The plants that obstruct inspection.
soldiers are similar in appearance to Coptotermes – Poor crawl space ventilation with high levels
species, with teardrop-shaped head capsules, but of moisture.
they have a fontanelle gland on the middle-top

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– Foam insulation that is below grade.
portion of the head.

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• Physical barriers or chemical treatments to

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Neotermes spp. are in the family Kalotermitidae. prevent termite entry into the structure from the

W
Sometimes referred to as Florida dampwood termites, soil. Such barriers can include:

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these termites live only in damp wood and do not – Plastic or stainless-steel screens, or solid

EV
forage in soil. They are found in Hawaii and the metal barriers installed under or above
southern half of Florida. The front wings of swarmers R
foundations.
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have four sclerotized veins along the leading edge.
– Chemical barriers with insecticides that are
Soldiers within a colony can vary in length from
R

designed to either repel or kill termites that

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5/16–1/2 inch (8-13 mm). They differ from all other

pass through treated soil.
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Florida termite soldiers in that the pronotum is as

C

wide as the head. – Special coarse sands of the proper diameter

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to prevent termite passage.

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TERMITE CONTROL • Wood removal and replacement with treated

wood.
E

Much has been written about termite control over

AC

the years, and methods have evolved with • External treatment of exposed wood with
improvements in chemicals and formulations. preservatives.
S
IN

• Termiticides applied to wall voids or voids

Strategies for termite control must include:
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under foundations where termites are thought

O

to be active.
• A high-quality inspection to identify both signs
R

of termite activity and conditions that are • Termiticides applied directly to active or
conducive to termite activity. Things typically damaged areas.
noted in inspection reports include: • Baits placed in locations attractive to termites.
– Mud shelter tubes. Techniques include:
– Swarmers or signs of swarmers (wings, – Bait stations placed over active, above-
swarm castles, mud tubes). ground termite tubes.
– Fecal pellets (especially drywood termites). – Dry bait formulations placed inside active
– Damaged wood with or without live termites. termite tubes.
– Wood in contact with soil. – Soil-installed bait stations.
– Suspicious higher levels of moisture in • Fumigation (especially for drywood termites).
walls.

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Carpenter Ants
Like termites, carpenter ants are social with their changing nutritional needs, makes
insects that can damage wood. However, baiting for carpenter ants a challenge.
unlike termites they do not eat wood. Wood
damage from carpenter ants occurs when
the ants excavate cavities in wood for
nesting purposes.

Favored nesting sites for carpenter ants

include trees or large stumps. However, they
will readily nest in structures, especially
for secondary or satellite nest construction.

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It is important to note that the potential

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for carpenter ant damage varies across the

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country. The most damaging species of

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Florida carpenter ants (Camponotus atriceps). Photo
courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.

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carpenter ants are those that make large

EV
colonies and excavate large nests. These Wood that has been excavated by carpenter
include Campanotus pennsylvanicus in the R
ants will have galleries that appear to be
SE

eastern U.S., and Campanotus modoc in the smooth, as if rubbed with sandpaper, with
R

Pacific Northwest. Carpenter ant species in no evidence of mud. As they excavate and
U

other parts of the country may have lower

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maintain their nest areas, carpenter ants

C

potential for serious structural damage, but push trash out of exit holes, along with bits
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they can still be nuisance household pests. of insects that they have eaten. The resulting
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Carpenter ant diets are varied and may frass can vary widely in appearance. It may
consist of sawdust or wood fibers, insulation,
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consist of other insects, honeydew from

AC

aphids, and other organic materials like rigid foam board, or other materials. Finding
insect parts mixed in with this debris is
S

decaying fruits. This variable diet, along

IN

usually strong evidence of carpenter ants.

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Wood-Destroying Beetles life forms on the planet. And considering their

diversity and adaptability, it shouldn’t be surprising
Beetles are by far the most diverse form of life on
that beetles are counted among some of the most
the planet. Out of the estimated 1.2 to 1.5 million
important structural pests.
known species of living things described so far by
science, beetles make up about 25% of the count.
BEETLE BIOLOGY
Small wonder that when famed British population
geneticist J.B.S. Haldane was asked what could be All beetles develop via complete metamorphosis,
concluded about God from the study of science, he have chewing mouthparts, and range greatly in size
replied that: “The creator, if he exists, must have an from 0.25 mm (the smallest featherwing beetles)
inordinate fondness for beetles.” to the Goliath beetle, which is nearly seven inches
(17 cm) long. Beetle larvae (grubs) vary greatly in
With more than 350,000 known kinds of beetles, appearance, from the legless weevil larvae to the
accounting for more than 40% of all known insect spindly-legged scarab beetle grubs. All beetle grubs
species, this group is certainly one of the predominant lack abdominal prolegs.

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Beetle larvae and adults often have different diets,

and many beetles get their common names from the
food preferences of the larvae. For example, larvae
of Agrilus planipennis prefer to chew tunnels in the
tissue beneath the bark of ash trees, so the common
name of this beetle is the emerald ash borer. Even
though the adults eat pollen, the larvae of Anthrenus
scrophulariae feed on items containing animal
proteins such as silk, feathers, and woolen carpets,
so they are commonly known as carpet beetles. And
the larvae of Dermestes maculatus eat dried meat
and rawhide, so they are known as hide beetles.

While many beetles are considered to be agricultural

and horticultural pests, in the world of structural

PY
entomology, beetles fit into three pest categories:

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wood-destroying insects, stored-product and fabric

C
pests, and occasional invaders.

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BEETLE ANATOMY

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The head of the western lyctus beetle (Lyctus cavicollis) can
Beetles belong to the order Coleoptera, the largest clearly be seen when viewed from above, while the head of
R
insect order. The order name, which means this false powder-post beetle (Xylopsocus capucinus) is hidden
SE

by its pronotum. Photos by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria,

“sheathed wings,” refers to their hardened forewings
R

Melbourne Australia.
(elytra) that ensheath and protect the second,
U
O

delicate pair of membranous hindwings. Indeed, Beetle antennae are especially diverse and are
C

when viewing a beetle from above, most of the commonly used to distinguish different beetle
EP

visible part of the body consists of the elytral wing families. The term clubbed is commonly used to
covers. The elytra are a unique characteristic of
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describe insect antennae with terminal segments

beetles which helps distinguish them from most that are larger than the preceding segments; but for
E

other insect orders. beetles, even more terms are needed to describe
AC

the many different forms of clubbed antennae (for

Elytra are usually heavily sclerotized and hard, and
S

example, capitate, clavate, and lamellate; see figure

IN

are almost always opaque. The length of the elytra

on antennae in the previous chapter).
LL

varies among beetles, as does the ornamentation.

Many bear striae—grooves or rows of punctures
O

Some beetle antennae are found on a distinct beak

R

that run the length of the elytra. Veins on the wings or proboscis, like those of weevils. The elongate
of beetles are not used very often for identification, proboscis of weevils may make them appear as if
which is a good thing since the membranous hind- they have piercing-sucking mouthparts. However,
wings are almost always hidden. at the tip of the proboscis, weevils have a chewing
mouthpart, like all other beetles.
After the elytra, the most prominent feature of the
top (dorsum) of beetles is the pronotum. In some Other features often used for beetle identification
beetles, the pronotum appears to cover the entire include the number of subsegments (tarsomeres)
thorax, though it is really just the shield over the on the last segment (the tarsus) of the legs, and
top of the first thoracic segment. The top plates of the overall shape of the body (terms like cylindrical,
the second and third thoracic segments are small elongate, oval, nearly-round, and ant-like are often
and hidden on beetles. The heads of some beetle used). A good microscope is often needed to see
species can clearly be seen in front of the pronotum some of the finer features of beetle anatomy and to
when viewed from above, but the heads of other properly identify species.
species are often concealed by the pronotum.

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• The type and age of wood attacked.

• The size and shape of the holes.
• The presence and consistency of frass coming
from holes.
• The moisture level of the wood.
Determining the type of wood is important because
wood-destroying beetles are usually very selective
of their food source. Some only attack wood that is
still alive or that was recently cut, while others will
A close-up shot of a weevil’s head. Notice how the clubbed attack wood that is many years old. Some prefer
antennae arise from the elongate proboscis (the snout). Photo hardwoods, while others prefer softwoods. Examples
courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.
of hardwoods include oak, ash, hickory, maple, poplar,
cherry, locust, walnut, and elm. Examples of softwoods
WOOD-DESTROYING BEETLES

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include pines, spruce, cedar, fir, and hemlock.
Beetles commonly feed on trees in nature, and can

O
It is not enough to note whether exit holes are large

C
also become pests of wood used in structures. The
or small. Instead, a ruler should be used to determine

W
first sign of beetle damage is usually the presence

IE
of holes in wood. When damage is fresh, such holes the precise diameter of round holes, and the length

EV
are usually the result of beetles emerging from the and width of oval holes. Measurements in millimeters
wood to mate and seek new oviposition sites. Other or fractions of an inch should be written down and
R
compared with charts like the one on the following
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times, the milling process of wood might reveal old
galleries that may or may not be active. page.
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U
O
C

sapwood
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PR
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AC

heartwood
S
IN
LL
O
R

Old beetle damage to structural wood. Note the nail penetrating

the top gallery hole, an indication that the wood was damaged
phloem and
cambium
prior to its use in construction. Photo by Mike Merchant.

Detection and identification of wood-boring beetles

can be a challenge because, according to the ESA
Handbook of Household and Structural Pests,
Heartwood (dark, in the center) is the strongest and most
“Adults often are not present … larvae are within insect-resistant part of the wood. Cells in heartwood contain
wood and either unavailable or difficult to identify, higher levels of resins and gums and are less preferred by
and … emergence [of the beetle pest] may take many wood-destroying insects. Lighter-colored sapwood
place months or years after the initial attack occurred.” consists of the live, water-bearing portions of the trunk and
Important clues to look for when attempting to generally makes better food for wood-eating beetles and
termites. The most sugar- and nitrogen-rich zone for beetles
diagnose a wood-destroying beetle infestation and sap-feeding insects includes the cambium and phloem layers,
include: located just under the bark. Illustration by Magdalen Cattle.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

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O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R
U
O
C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

This is a slightly-edited version of a table that first appeared in the Entomological Society of America’s Handbook of
Household and Structural Insects, edited by Roger E. Gold and Susan C. Jones.

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Some beetles cannot survive in wood with moisture

content that is lower than a certain level (see chart
on facing page), so a moisture meter is an important
tool when conducting inspections for wood-destroying
beetles. Also, it is important to know whether a
particular beetle pest is capable of reinfesting the
wood it is in, or if it is capable of infesting other
wood in a structure. This is often the critical factor in
determining whether damage from wood-boring
beetles is serious enough to warrant expensive
treatments.

WOOD-DESTROYING BEETLE CLASSIFICATION

An old house borer (Hylotrupes bajulus), a longhorned beetle
The following paragraphs describe some of the most in the family Cerambycidae. Photo by Gyorgy Csoka, Hungary

PY
important wood-destroying beetle groups, as well as Forest Research Institute, Bugwood.org.

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their habits and evidence of infestation.

C
They develop most rapidly in wood with moisture

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Roundheaded borers are in the family Cerambycidae, content between 15-25%, and cannot develop in

IE
and are one of the largest and most important families wood with less than 10% moisture.

EV
of wood-boring beetles. However, they are rarely
serious pests of structures because they generally Evidence: Exit holes are oval, 1/4–3/8 inch
R
do not reinfest wood (the old house borer, described (6-10 mm) in diameter. Frass is tightly-packed.
SE

below, is a notable exception). The adults are known They most commonly attack softwoods that are
R

as longhorned beetles because they generally have less than 10 years old, and the surface of the
U
O

antennae that are more than half the length of their damaged wood has a distinctive rippled
C

bodies. Most roundheaded borers attack living or appearance, like sand over which water has
EP

recently killed trees. Once they exit lumber, they do flowed.

not reinfest it. Active infestations of these beetles in
PR

Adults: From 5/8–1 inch (16-26 mm) long.

structural wood is an indication that the wood was
Slightly flattened, brownish-black insect with
E

not kiln-dried long enough or hot enough to kill the

AC

gray hairs on head and forepart of body. The

beetle larvae. Some of these beetles can be quite
pronotum has a shiny ridge down the middle,
S

large, with oval galleries that are ½-inch (13 mm)

with shiny, raised bumps on either side, forming
IN

or more in length. A few species can live many

the appearance of a face.
LL

years (60+) in wood before emerging.

O
R

Evidence: Round to oval exit holes, 1/8–3/8 Flatheaded borers belong to the family Buprestidae,
inch (3-10 mm) in diameter. Frass resembles a very common family of beetles that attack living
fine, granular powder. Attacks freshly cut and dying trees across the U.S. An example is the
hardwoods and softwoods. Also a common highly destructive emerald ash borer, which attacks
beetle emerging from firewood and log homes. and kills ash trees. Flatheaded borers, however,
Adults: Cylindrical beetles, usually with are rarely a problem in seasoned wood and rarely
prominent antennae at least as long as half emerge inside buildings except from recently cut
the length of the body. Various sizes. firewood. Wood that has been previously damaged
by flatheaded borers is often used in structural
lumber, and it is important to recognize these
Old house borers (Hylotrupes bajulus) are one insects for that reason. One species of flatheaded
of the few reinfesting beetles in the family borer of interest is the golden buprestid (Buprestis
Cerambycidae, and they are one of the most aurulenta), which has been known to live for up to
important wood-destroying beetles in the eastern 50 years after initial infestation.
U.S., especially in the Atlantic seaboard states.

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Evidence: Oval exit holes that are usually at Anobiine beetles are in the subfamily Anobiinae,
least three to four times as wide as they are high which belongs to the family Ptinidae. Others in this
and tightly packed with frass. Frass resembles subfamily includes deathwatch beetles, furniture
sawdust and may contain pellets. Attacks beetles (Anobium punctatum), and anobiine
hardwoods and softwoods. powderpost beetles. They attack the sapwood of
Adults: Various sizes, but bodies are flattened both hardwoods and softwoods when wood moisture
with a V-shaped end to the elytra. They often content exceeds 12-14%. They are relatively minor
have a metallic sheen, especially on the pests of heated and occupied homes, except
underside, which is why the family is often possibly in humid areas of the southeastern states.
referred to as metallic wood-boring beetles. Damp crawl spaces are most frequently attacked.

Carpenter Bees

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Bees in the genus Xylocopa are known as carpenter prefer softer woods, such as cedar, redwood, or

O
C
bees. At least seven species are known to exist in aged pine. Carpenter bees do not eat the wood

W
the U.S. Carpenter bees are relatively large and they excavate.

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resemble bumble bees, but they can be distinguished

EV
by their abdomens. Those of bumble bees are
quite hairy on top, while the dorsal surface of the R
SE
abdomens of carpenter bees are smooth, shiny,
and mostly hairless.
R
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O
C
EP
PR
E
AC

Carpenter bee gallery with developmental cells in pine

soffit board. Each entry hole may lead to several galleries.
S

Photo by G.S. Wegner.

IN
LL

After boring a hole, the female bee lays her eggs one
O

at a time at the end of the gallery. She provisions

R

each egg with “bee bread” (pollen mixed with

A carpenter bee. Notice the smooth, hairless abdomen.
regurgitated nectar) for a larva to consume when it
Photo by National Pest Management Association.
hatches. After the provisioning, she seals the egg
The nesting habits and behavior of carpenter bees into its own compartment and repeats the process
also differ from those of bumble bees. Carpenter until five to eight eggs have been deposited.
bees are not social like bumble bees, although
Because carpenter bees prefer soft, exposed wood,
females may occasionally share the same site or
painting can help discourage them from nesting in
piece of wood while nesting.
structures. Carpenter bees are not social insects,
As their common name suggests, carpenter bees so they are not considered to be very dangerous.
nest in wood. In the wild, carpenter bees drill nest Nevertheless, they do frighten some people, and
holes in dead or living trees, but they will also nest the damage they cause to wood can become
in the wood of fences, decks, barns, homes, or extensive over time.
anywhere that exposed wood is available. They

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Evidence: Exit holes are round, 1/16–1/8 inch Adults: Small (1/8–1/4 inch; 3-5 mm), dark-
(1.6-3.2 mm) in diameter. Frass is powdery with brown, cylindrical, and slightly flattened beetles
elongate (bun-like) pellets, loosely packed in with the head visible from above. Distinguished
softwoods. In hardwoods, the frass is tightly from the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum)
packed in galleries and is without pellets. by its bulging, globular eyes, antennae with
Adults: Small (1/8–1/4 inch; 3-7 mm), elongate, two-segmented clubs, and elongate hind coxae.
convex, reddish to brownish-black beetles
with head hidden by hood-like pronotum when Wood-boring weevils are in the family Curculionidae
viewed from above. and the subfamily Cossoninae. They are minor pests
in structural wood, but they may be found in
Bostrichid beetles, which are sometimes called association with wet, decaying wood. Their presence
false powderpost beetles, are in the family in a structure is an indication of a moisture problem
Bostrichidae. They are not considered to be more than it is an indication of a need for pest control.
important pests of seasoned structural wood, but

PY
Evidence: Round exit holes with ragged edges,
they are frequently found infesting wooden objects 1/16–1/12 inch (1.5-2.0 mm) in diameter.

O
such as furniture, grapevine wreaths, bamboo Fine, powdery frass with tiny pellets. Attacks

C
articles, tropical wood items, etc. unseasoned wood, and seasoned wood that is

W
IE
Evidence: Exit holes are round, 1/16–5/16 inch damp and partly decayed. May attack

EV
(1.6-8 mm) in diameter. Frass is coarse and hardwoods, softwoods, and plywood.
tightly packed. They attack soft and hardwoods R
Adults: Small (1/8–3/16 inch; 3-5 mm), elongate,
SE
and tend not to reinfest. with a long snout (proboscis).
R

Adults: Small (1/8–1/4 inch; 3-6 mm), compact,

U

cylindrical, reddish-brown to black beetles with

O

rasp-like teeth on the pronotum, which hides

C

the head when viewed from above. The elytra

EP

are often abruptly cut off and concave at the

PR

ends, sometimes with protruding bumps or

tubercles.
E
AC

Lyctine powderpost beetles are also in the family

S
IN

Bostrichidae, specifically in the subfamily Lyctinae.

LL

These small beetles are important pests of hardwood

An eastern wood weevil (Hexarthrum ulkei). Photo by
O

floors, cabinetry, trim, and bamboo. They are capable Juliana Cardona-Duque, University of Puerto Rico, Bugwood.org.
R

of reinfestation and can survive and reproduce in

wood with low moisture content (less than 15%),
WOOD-DESTROYING BEETLE CONTROL
even in buildings with year-round heating and air
conditioning. They prefer ring-porous hardwoods Some key points for the control of wood-destroying
and must have unfinished wood in which to lay their beetles include:
eggs. They will however oviposit into their own
Control is needed mainly for beetle species that
emergence holes, reinfesting the site of initial
have the potential to reinfest wood. Non-reinfesting
infestation. Most lyctine powderpost beetle
species, like most roundheaded and flatheaded
infestations are due to wood that was improperly
beetles, pose little long-term threat to a structure.
dried or stored.
Wood removal or destruction is sometimes the most
Evidence: Very small, round exit holes from
effective and practical method for control, especially
1/32–1/16 inch (0.8-1.6 mm) in diameter. Fine,
for lyctine powderpost beetles and bostrichid beetles.
silky frass without pellets. Attacks hardwoods
only. Favored wood includes oak, ash, walnut,
hickory, maple, and cherry.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Moisture control in wood may solve some beetle

infestations. Good moisture control in attics and
crawl spaces, and running heating and air
conditioning year-round in homes is often sufficient
to minimize beetle infestations in many cases.

Borate salt solutions applied to wood can be

effective against some wood-infesting beetles,
such as anobiine beetles. However, borates
achieve best penetration in newly cut wood or
wood with high moisture content. Penetration
of wood, even under ideal conditions, is usually
measured in fractions of an inch.

Fumigation can be an effective measure for

PY
wood-destroying beetle control when other options

O
are impractical or too costly. Fumigators should

C
be aware of higher fumigant rates and longer hold

W
times needed to achieve control of some wood-

IE
destroying beetles.

EV
Heat can be a viable alternative treatment to R
fumigation for small objects, such as wooden
SE

artifacts found in museums.

R
U

For more information about the management and

O
C

biology of wood-destroying beetles, see the ESA

EP

Handbook of Household and Structural Pests, and

the PCT Field Guide for the Management of
PR

Structure-Infesting Beetles: Volume I.

E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Stored-Product and Fabric Pests

Arthropod pests of stored food products and fabrics an agricultural setting, these insects may be more
include beetles, moths, psocids, flies, and mites. susceptible to insecticides than internal feeders are,
Some of these pests feed primarily on dry plant but they can still be highly destructive. One insect
materials and are usually associated with kitchens, may damage numerous grains in the course of its
food storage, warehouse areas, and anywhere grain development, and many important pests are found
or other plant-based foods are stored or processed. in this group.
Other insects feed primarily on products containing
animal proteins like the ones found in hair, fur, Scavengers only attack grains that have been
feathers, woolen fabrics, leather, hides, powdered processed or damaged by other insects that have
milk, and pet foods. Such pests are more likely previously fed on them. They are not normally found
to infest rooms and areas where these items are in whole grains. Finally, secondary pests infest grain
found. products that are rotten or moldy. Sanitation is often

PY
the principal control method for these pests.

O
Stored-Product Pests

C
MOTHS AS STORED-PRODUCT PESTS

W
Stored-product insect pests are found in sites where Moths, along with butterflies, are in the order

IE
food is stored or processed, such as commercial Lepidoptera, which literally means “scaly wings.”

EV
food warehouses, food-processing plants, shipping More than 11,000 species of Lepidoptera are found
containers, restaurants, museums, and many other R
in the U.S. and Canada, but only a few species of
SE
places where food sources are available. In the food stored-product and fabric-feeding moths are
R

storage and processing industry, grains, nuts, and considered structural pests. No butterflies are
U

other foods destined for storage are sometimes considered structural pests because they feed on
O

treated with an insecticide. Insects that feed and

C

plants growing outdoors. The feeding and damaging

develop internally—within a grain, nut, or legume—
EP

life stage of moths is the larval stage, usually

are more difficult to manage with contact insecticides referred to as the caterpillar stage. Adults are
PR

and therefore are usually given special attention. short-lived and cause little to no feeding damage.
In structural pest management, little emphasis is
E

Caterpillars are often difficult to identify to species

AC

placed on treating food products directly. However, level, even for experts.
we do organize stored-product pests into four
S

different categories, depending on their feeding All Lepidoptera develop via complete metamorphosis.
IN

habits: 1) internal feeders, 2) external feeders, Female adults locate suitable food sources, upon
LL

3) scavengers, and 4) secondary pests. Knowing which they lay their eggs. The caterpillars that hatch
O

the feeding habits of a stored-product pest can help

R

have chewing mouthparts. When fully grown,

direct one to the potential food sources for that caterpillars often leave their food source in search
pest in a home or commercial setting. of an appropriate location to pupate. They may spin
a silk cocoon at this time from special silk glands
Internal feeders are insects that feed and develop located in their mouths. In fact, the presence of
entirely within kernels of whole grains or seeds cocoons and associated silk residues can be a sign
during the immature stages. Such insects can be of an infestation.
highly destructive of stored food because they are
difficult to detect and manage. Typically, internal Anatomy of Moth Pests
feeders damage only one seed or grain during their
Moths are generally thought of as outdoor insects,
development, but in high numbers they can be
and they usually are. But some species of moths
extremely damaging.
occasionally become pests in structures when they
The larvae of external feeders develop outside of feed on stored foods or fabrics. For this reason, it may
whole grain kernels, but they are capable of feeding be useful to review a few aspects of moth anatomy.
on both whole grains and on processed grains. In

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Adult moths are characterized by having two pairs STORED-PRODUCT PEST CLASSIFICATION
of wings that are covered with scales, which are the
INTERNAL FEEDERS
source of the wings’ coloration and markings.
Unfortunately for moth identifiers, wing scales are Internal feeders feed and develop entirely within
loosely attached to the wings and are easily rubbed kernels of whole grains or seeds. They include the
off over time. This means that wing coloration is not following beetles (Coleoptera) and moths (Lepidoptera):
always a reliable characteristic for identification.
Weevils
Other characteristics that can help with identification Weevils are beetles in the family Curculionidae.
include wing shape and size, venation, patterns of They are easily recognized by an elongate proboscis
scales or hairs on the head, the labia, the body, and (snout) and the clubbed antennae that arise from its
the genitalia. For example, when identifying clothes sides. Most develop internally in grains and nuts.
moths the shape and orientation of the labial palps
and the tufts of hair on top of the head are useful Commonly encountered species include the rice
identification features. Fortunately, most of the weevil, maize weevil, and the granary weevil. These

PY
important moth species can be identified without weevils are among the most destructive pests of

O
resorting to these more advanced characteristics. stored grains in the world. The adult female weevil

C
chews into a kernel and lays a single egg. The larva

W
Caterpillars are the immature or larval form of moths hatches and pupates inside the kernel, and when it

IE
and butterflies. Their bodies are distinctly segmented, reaches the adult stage it chews a characteristically

EV
with three pairs of jointed legs attached to the three round exit hole and emerges. They mainly attack
segments of the thorax. Additional pseudo-legs, R
whole grains and cereals, such as corn, oats, barley,
SE
called prolegs, are found on abdominal segments rice, wheat, millet, and chickpeas. However, they
3-6 and on segment 10. Each proleg has a series
R

may also attack pasta products. They rarely attack

U

of hooks, called crochets, arranged on its bottom finely ground flour or cornmeal.
O

surface that can be examined under magnification

C

and used for identification. The presence of prolegs Rice weevils (Sitophilus oryzae) are about 1/8-inch
EP

is a sure sign that a larva is a lepidopteran rather (2.5-3.5 mm) long and brown. They have densely
PR

than a beetle because beetle larvae lack prolegs spaced pits on the pronotum that are round or
entirely. irregularly shaped, and there are two lighter reddish
E
AC

or yellowish slash markings on the outer corners

of the elytra, the four markings roughly forming an
S

X-shaped pattern.
IN
LL
O
R

A tomato hornworm (Manduca quinquemaculata) caterpillar. A rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) in rice. Photo courtesy of the
The three thoracic legs near the head (top-right) are true National Pest Management Association.
(jointed) legs. The four soft appendages on the abdomen
are prolegs. Another pair of prolegs is on the last abdominal Maize weevils (Sitophilus zeamais) are similar in
segment (far left). Photo by Mike Merchant. size and general appearance to the rice weevil,
but may be slightly larger (3-4 mm). The thorax is

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

densely and uniformly pitted with round punctures and they leave characteristic round holes in seeds
and may have an X-shaped pattern on the elytra upon exiting.
that is similar to that of the rice weevil. Separation
of rice and maize weevils is usually left to experts Bean weevils (Acanthoscelides obtectus) are
because it involves dissection and examination of the triangular-shaped with yellow hairs and darker
genitalia. markings on the abdomen. Their hind femurs have
3-4 teeth near the tibial end. These internal feeders
Granary weevils (Sitophilus granarius) are one of the eat dried beans. Adults are strong fliers.
most important grain pests in temperate climates.
They are more common in northern regions of the
U.S. than in southern regions. The reddish-brown
to black granary weevil can be most easily distin-
guished from maize and rice weevils by the elon-
gate dimples or pits on the pronotum, compared to
the round pits on maize and rice weevils. Pits are

PY
also larger and more widely-spaced on the granary

O
weevil compared to the other two species. Granary

C
weevils lack pale X-shaped markings on their elytra

W
and are, on average, larger (3-5 mm) than rice and

IE
maize weevils. They cannot fly and are not attracted

EV
to lights.
R
SE
A bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus) on a soybean.
Photo by Clemson University, USDA Cooperative Extension
R

Slide Series, Bugwood.org.

U
O
C

Cowpea weevils (Callosobruchus maculatus) are

EP

triangular-shaped with paler markings on the elytra

and abdomen. The hind femur has two teeth near
PR

the tibial end. They feed on cowpeas, mung beans,

E

garden beans, and other legumes. Adults are good

AC

flyers.
S

Angoumois Grain Moths

IN

A granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius). Dimples on the

LL

pronotum are longer and more widely spaced than those of the Angoumois grain moths (Sitotroga cerealella) are
O

rice and maize weevils. And, unlike the other two, it lacks pale in the family Gelechiidae. This moth is named after
R

markings on the elytra. Photo by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria,

Melbourne Australia.
a French province where it was a notable pest of
wheat, and where it was first scientifically described
Bruchines (formerly known as Bruchids) in the late 1700s. These moths are relatively small,
with a wingspan of 1/2–5/8 inch (12-17 mm). They
Bruchines are beetles in the subfamily Bruchinae,
are yellowish-white with narrow, pale, yellowish
which belongs to the family Chrysomelidae. Sometimes
forewings. The hindwings are similarly narrow, but
referred to as bean weevils, bruchines are not true
abruptly narrowed at the tips. The wings are fringed
weevils, despite the name. These insects are generally
with long, hair-like scales. The heads of adults in
compact and oval in shape, with a small head that
this family are smoothly scaled, with scaled tongues
is somewhat bent under. They are usually black or
and sharply upward-curving labial palps. Adults can
brown, often with mottled patterns. Although their
fly and are attracted to lights. The larvae have
mandibles may be elongate, they do not have long
weakly developed prolegs with only 2-3 crochets
snouts like true weevils. Their elytra are short, leaving
each. The caterpillars feed internally on whole
the terminal abdominal segment exposed. These
grains of barley, rye, corn, oats, and rice.
are internal feeders on whole beans and peas only,

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

EXTERNAL FEEDERS borders the elytra gives this beetle a humpbacked

External feeders develop outside of whole grain appearance. The antennal segments are serrate.
kernels, but are capable of feeding on both whole These beetles are attracted to lights. They also infest
grains (usually damaged or broken) and processed many different products, including pet food, cereals,
grain products. They include the following beetles tobacco, peppers, spices, dried fruits, seeds, flour,
and moths: and pasta. They will also eat leather, dried fish, and
dead insects. In the home, dry dog food and paprika
Anobiine Beetles are most commonly attacked.
Anobiine beetles are in the subfamily Anobiinae, An insect that is known as the furniture beetle
which belongs to the family Ptinidae. The insects in (Anobium punctatum) is generally similar in
this subfamily have a hood-like pronotum and head appearance to the drugstore and cigarette beetles,
that bends down, so it is not visible from above. but it is a wood-feeder rather than a grain feeder.
These beetles include two of the most common It tends to be slightly larger and longer (4-5 mm),
residential stored-product pests, the cigarette and and the pronotum, when viewed from above, tends

PY
drugstore beetles. These species are similar in size to have more of a bell-shaped outline. To accurately

O
and general appearance, in food preferences, and diagnose an anobiine problem, it it is important to

C
behavior. be able to distinguish between grain and wood-

W
feeding anobiine beetles.

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Drugstore beetles (Stegobium paniceum) are

EV
1/16–1/8 inch (2-3.5 mm) long. They are brown, Pyralid Flour Moths
and the elytra have distinct rows of pits. Their R
Pyralid flour moths are in the family Pyralidae. This
SE
antennae end with a loose, three-segmented club.
These beetles are attracted to lights and are able to important group of stored-product pests includes
R

fly. They infest a wide variety of products, including the Indian meal moth, almond moth, Mediterranean
U

flour moth, tobacco moth, and many others. In

O

pet food, cereals, drugs, peppers, spices, dried

C

fruits, flour, and pasta. They will also eat leather, contrast to the smaller Angoumois grain moth, these
EP

dried fish, and dead insects. moths have a relatively short fringe of hairs on the
hindwings. They prefer flour, meal, cereal products,
PR

dried fruits, nuts, pet foods, and birdseed. Silk may

E

be associated with caterpillar infestations. When

AC

fully grown, caterpillars may be seen crawling on

walls and ceilings, where they will pupate.
S
IN

Indian meal moths (Plodia interpunctella) are the

LL

most common stored-product pests in homes and

O

food warehouses. They have a medium wingspan of

R

5/8–3/4 inch (16-20 mm). Their wings are bicolored—

tan at the base, but the outer half is covered with
bronze or copper colored scales. Adults are nocturnal,
able to fly, and are attracted to lights. During the
day they normally rest on surfaces with their wings
folded. A very effective pheromone is commercially
The drugstore beetle (left) and the cigarette beetle (right) are
two of the most common stored-product-infesting beetles. available for monitoring traps and for population
Image adapted from USDA Pub. AH655. control through mating disruption.

Cigarette beetles (Lasioderma serricorne) are also

about 1/16–1/8 inch (2-3 mm) long and brown, but
the elytra are smooth with no grooves. When viewed
from the side, the angle at which the pronotum

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Carpet Beetles
Carpet beetles are in the family Dermestidae, and
they are also known as dermestids. Carpet beetles
include several species of important pests of food,
fabrics, and museum specimens, such as the black
carpet beetle and the common, varied, and furniture
carpet beetles. These beetles generally feed on
foods containing animal proteins, such as furs, silk,
wool, hair, dead insects, dried eggs, dried milk,
cheese, meat products, etc. They are very common
pests in both residential and commercial buildings.
An Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) larva. Photo by
Clemson University, USDA Cooperative Extension Slide Series, Furniture carpet beetles (Anthrenus flavipes) and
Bugwood.org.
varied carpet beetles (Anthrenus verbasci) are

PY
Mediterranean flour moths (Ephestia kuehniella) are members of the genus Anthrenus. All adult beetles
in this genus are small (2-4 mm long), hairless, oval

O
relatively large, with a one-inch (25 mm) wingspan.

C
They are gray, and their wing patterns are often to round in shape, and have colorful patterns of

W
indistinct, with two black, zigzag lines in the middle. scales on the pronotum and elytra. The antennae of

IE
They are mostly pests of food- and feed-processing these beetles are concealed in deep cavities in the

EV
plants, where their silk can mat food particles and pronotum, but they are visible when looking directly
clog milling equipment. Adults fly and are attracted at the front of the beetle. There is a single ocellus
R
on the head, between the compound eyes. The
SE
to lights.
larvae have clumps of hastisetae (spear-headed
R

Almond moths (Cadra cautella) have ½–¾ inch hairs) arising between the plates on the last three
U
O

(13-21 mm) wingspans. They are mottled-gray and segments of the abdomen. Hastisetae can affect
C

look similar to Mediterranean flour moths. Their human health. Live insects with hastisetae and their
EP

wing patterns are often indistinct, but their brownish cast skins can cause gastrointestinal irritation if
ingested with food. Mild to severe allergic reactions
PR

to blackish-gray forewings may have a darker

transverse line that separates a somewhat paler to hastisetae may also occur if they are ingested or
E

basal area from the rest of the forewing. Adults fly inhaled, sometimes resulting in anaphylaxis.
AC

and are attracted to lights. They are serious pests

S

of almonds, but are also known to infest dried fruit,

IN

cereals, cocoa beans, flour, grain, and other shelled

LL

nuts. Pheromone lures that attract the males of

O

almond moths, Indian meal moths, and certain

R

other species are available for population-monitoring

purposes.

Tobacco moths (Ephestia elutella) have a 1/2–5/8

inch (13-16 mm) wingspan. The wing pattern
is often indistinct, but may include two dark,
transverse, wavy bands at the one-third and two- The larval stage of a varied carpet beetle (Anthrenus verbasci).
thirds points of the wings, which are bordered by Hastisetae, located on the terminal segments of the abdomen,
parallel lighter bands. In addition to being pests of can cause health problems if inhaled or ingested by humans.
Photo by Mike Merchant.
tobacco, they may feed on cereals, chocolate, cocoa
beans, coffee, cottonseed, dried fruits, nuts, flour, Black carpet beetle (Attagenus unicolor) adults are
and various seeds and spices. oval and elongate. They are uniformly dark-brown
to black and do not have any color patterns on the
pronotum or elytra. They are an economically
important species because they attack woolen

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

fabrics and furs, and they can also be found in Adult warehouse beetles have a single ocellus in
warehouses and grain mills. The larvae lack the middle of the head, between the compound
urogomphi (spines at the tail) and hastisetae, and eyes. They are small (1.5-3.2 mm long) and are
they tend to be carrot-shaped (wider at the front brownish-black with yellowish-brown markings. The
and thinner posteriorly), and usually have a “tail” elytra are hairy and are marked with pale banding
of long setae (hairs). patterns.

Hide and Larder Beetles Like other dermestid larvae, warehouse beetle
immatures are cigar-shaped and hairy. They
Hide and larder beetles are also in the family
have a banded appearance from the transverse,
Dermestidae. They are larger beetles (¼–½ inch;
sclerotized plates and setae that run horizontally
6-13 mm) that lack an ocellus (simple eye). The
across their backs. Trogoderma larvae have
larvae, which are dark-brown or black and hairy,
hastisetae, which appear as darker or longer clumps
can be as long as ½-inch (15 mm). They are easily
of hairs, and arise directly from the tops of the
distinguished from other dermestid larvae by the
plates on the last three abdominal segments. These

PY
presence of two stout, curved spines (urogomphi)
hastisetae can cause gastrointestinal problems if
on the second-to-last abdominal segment. They

O
ingested by humans.

C
feed on a variety of animal-protein-based foods,

W
including leather goods, hides, skins, dried fish, The warehouse beetle is a close relative of a

IE
pet food, and dead animal carcasses. Outdoors, highly destructive and tightly quarantined pest

EV
hide beetles are part of nature’s cleanup crew, and called the Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium).
they are often used by museums for the cleaning of R
If Trogoderma beetles are discovered in a shipment
bones and skulls for collections and exhibits.
SE
from a foreign country known to have Khapra
beetles, they should be sent immediately to a USDA
R

Hide beetle (Dermestes maculatus) adults are

U

laboratory for identification. If they are determined to

uniformly dark-colored with whitish undersides, and
O

be Khapra beetles, then the site will be quarantined

C

the edges of the abdominal end of the elytra are

and fumigated. The Khapra beetle is native to India
EP

serrated (sawtoothed) and end in a small spine that

and has become established in other countries
projects straight out. The larvae have two upward
PR

in the Mediterranean, the Middle East, Asia, and

and forward curving urogomphi (in side view) on
Africa.
E

the ninth abdominal segment, and a broad, dorsal

AC

yellowish stripe that runs lengthwise.

S

Larder beetle (Dermestes lardarius) adults are

IN

similar in shape and size to the hide beetle, but

LL

they have a cream-colored band across the forward

O

third of the elytra. The urogomphi on the larvae are

R

sharp-pointed and curve rearward at the tip (in

side view).

Warehouse Beetles
Warehouse beetles (Trogoderma variabile) are also
in the family Dermestidae and are one of the most
A warehouse beetle (Trogoderma variabile).
diverse feeders among stored-product pests. Photo by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria, Melbourne Australia.
Trogoderma beetles mostly feed on products con-
taining animal proteins (milk, cheese, hair, feathers, Other External-Feeding Beetles
skins, etc.). The warehouse beetle, however, readily
Lesser grain borers (Rhyzopertha dominica) belong
feeds on both animal and plant food sources. They
to the family Bostrichidae, which is better known
are commonly found outdoors, and adults fly and
for wood-destroying beetles. Adults are cylindrical,
are attracted to lights.
dark-brown to black, and are 2.5-3 mm long. When

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

viewed from above, the head is nearly hidden by the processed grains, damaged grains, and grains that
hood-like pronotum, which is invested with conical have been previously attacked by other stored-product
spines. The antennae are short and clubbed, and pests. They do not feed on whole, undamaged grains.
there are numerous small pits on the elytra. The
primary larval foods are whole wheat, corn, rice, Red flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum) have an-
and millet in storage. tennae that end in an abrupt, three-segmented club.
They are more common in warmer regions of the U.S.
Redlegged ham beetles (Necrobia rufipes) belong They are able to fly and are attracted to light.
to the family Cleridae and are about ¼-inch (4-7
mm) long. Adults have shiny, metallic, blue-green Confused flour beetles (Tribolium confusum) are
elytra, and the legs and the base of the antennae very similar in appearance to red flour beetles.
are red to reddish-brown. The antennae have a However, the antennae end in a gradually enlarged
four-segmented club. They feed primarily on cured four-segmented club. These beetles, which are
meats and cheese. attracted to light but do not fly, are more common
in cooler regions of the U.S.

PY
Cadelles (Tenebroides mauritanicus) belong to the
Sawtoothed Grain Beetles and Merchant

O
family Trogossitidae. They are about 5/16-inch (8

C
mm) long, and are shiny-black, flattened beetles Grain Beetles

W
with a distinct separation between the base of the These beetles are in the family Silvanidae. Both of

IE
pronotum and the front edge of the elytra. They these species are in the same genus, Oryzaephilus,

EV
attack grains and grain products, biscuits, bread, and they are similar in appearance. Both have
tobacco, vegetables, nuts, and dried fruit. They are R
saw-like notches on each side of the pronotum.
SE
occasionally found outdoors, living under the bark Both have elongate, flattened bodies that are
of dead trees and in rotten wood. Consequently, in
R

2.5-3 mm long. They are yellowish-white, without

U

a mill or warehouse environment, these beetles will urogomphi, and have darker head capsules. Both
O

also bore into wood and damage shipping crates. feed on a wide variety of foods, including grains,
C

Adults can fly, but both adults and larvae avoid light. bread, cornmeal, pasta, nuts, dried foods, candy
EP

bars, drugs, and tobacco. They are common

PR

SCAVENGERS residential and commercial pests.

Scavengers only attack grains and other food items
E
AC

that have been processed or damaged by other Sawtoothed grain beetles (Oryzaephilus
insects that have previously fed on them. They surinamensis) – The length of the temple (the head
S

include the following: area behind the compound eye when viewed from
IN

above) is greater than half the vertical diameter of

LL

Flour Beetles the compound eye. Adults do not fly and are not
O

attracted to lights.
R

Flour beetles are in the family Tenebrionidae,

members of which can be distinguished from most
other beetle families by their unusual tarsal count:
the first two pairs of legs have five tarsal segments
and the last pair of legs have only four segments.
This is known as a 5-5-4 tarsal formula. Two
species of flour beetles are commonly encountered
scavenger pests. Flour beetles are approximately
3-4 mm long, reddish-brown, elongate, and slightly
flattened. They have clubbed antennae and
compound eyes that wrap around the sides of the
flattened head. The cylindrical, hard-bodied larvae The sawtoothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis) is
are creamy-yellow to light-brown in color, with two one of the most commonly encountered beetle pests in both
dark, pointed projections (urogomphi) on the last residences and food-processing facilities.
Photo by Mike Merchant.
body segment. They feed on flour and other

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Merchant grain beetles (Oryzaephilus mercator) – constructed homes. This mold may not be apparent
Very similar in appearance to the sawtoothed grain to homeowners or other inhabitants. Infestations
beetle. The length of the temple is less than half the may last for weeks or months, but usually resolve
vertical diameter of the compound eye. Adults fly themselves as lower moisture levels stabilize. All
and are attracted to lights. plaster beetles are fungus eaters.

SECONDARY FEEDERS Spider beetles are in the family Ptinidae. They are
small (1-5 mm), slow-moving beetles with a spider-
Secondary feeders infest grain products that are
like appearance. The body is usually oval, and the
rotten or moldy, and are usually indicators of poor
legs and antennae are usually long, thin, and
sanitation and/or excessive moisture.
covered with hairs. The head is usually concealed
Foreign grain beetles (Ahasverus advena) are in the from above, and the prothorax is narrower than
family Silvanidae. Adults are small (2-3 mm long), the elytra. They feed on a variety of food sources,
reddish-brown, greatly flattened, and the pronotum ranging from rodent droppings to plant-based grain
is almost square. The two front corners of the products to materials of animal origin, like fur,

PY
pronotum project outward into tubercles with feathers, and hair. The presence of spider beetles

O
rounded ends. The antennae end with a three- usually indicates poor sanitation practices, or, in

C
segmented club. Adults fly and are attracted to warehouse settings, possibly inadequate product

W
lights. They feed on mold and mold spores rotation. They may also be associated with bird

IE
associated with moldy grain. They are also frequently nests, wasp and bee nests, mammal nests, bat

EV
found in new homes, where they presumably feed roosts, and dry carrion. The elytra of some species
on mildew growing on building materials (e.g.,
R
are fused, making them incapable of flight.
SE

sheetrock, lumber) that were exposed to moisture

Mealworm beetles are in the family Tenebrionidae,
R

during or prior to construction.

U

and the genus Tenebrio. Adults are rather large

O

(1/2–5/8 inch; 12-16 mm), somewhat flattened,

C

parallel-sided, and dark-brown to black in color. The

EP

antennae are 11-segmented and end with a slight

PR

club, and the tarsal formula is 5-5-4. Adults are

able to fly and are attracted to light. Larvae of yellow
E
AC

mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) and dark mealworms

(Tenebrio obscurus) are commonly sold in pet
S

stores as food for turtles, fish, reptiles, and birds.

IN

These beetles are often found breeding in damp or

LL

damaged grain refuse, which is usually an indication

O

of poor sanitation. Eggs and larvae of mealworms, if

R

The foreign grain beetle (Ahasverus advena) is associated with

mold and mildew in food products and building materials. present in food that is eaten, can result in tapeworm
Photo by Mike Merchant. infection. They may also survive digestion and infest
the human gastrointestinal system.
Plaster beetles and mold beetles are in the family
Lathridiidae. They are very small (1-3 mm long) and Flat grain beetles (Cryptolestes pusillus) are in
are typically reddish-brown to brown. The head is the family Laemophloeidae. They are among the
prominent, the pronotum is narrower than the smallest (1.6 mm) of stored-product pests. Adults
elytra, and the elytra are elongate-oval. The antennae are reddish-brown and greatly flattened, and the
end in an elongate club with 1-3 segments, antennae range from half the length of their bodies
depending on the species. Many have minute teeth to the entire length. Adults can fly and are attracted
or notches on the pronotum. Their tarsal formula to lights. They are considered to be secondary
is typically 3-3-3. Their name comes from their pests because they require damaged grain, which
association with freshly plastered walls, where they is often attacked by other stored-product pests.
feed on growing mold. They also feed on mold and Grain-processing mills require thorough cleaning
mildew on lumber or sheetrock, especially in newly and insecticide treatments to eliminate them.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Pyralid Moths vs. Clothes Moths

Moths in a home? In many cases, the first thing a customer needs to know is whether the moth is a stored-
product (pantry) moth or a fabric pest. Pyralid moths, including the Indian meal moth and the Mediterranean
flour moth, are the most common types of stored-product pest moths found in residential and commercial
settings. The adults of pyralid moths are large, having ½–1 inch (13-25 mm) wingspans, and they are more
likely to be seen flying about in living areas of a home. The hindwings are characterized by a relatively short
fringe of hairs.

Clothes moths are rarely seen in daylight, nor do they readily fly. They are the smallest of the moths that are
likely to be found indoors, with a wingspan of less than ½-inch (12 mm). The wings and body and are covered
with grayish to light-brown or golden scales. The hindwings have a broad fringe of hairs, and both front and
hindwings are rounded at the tips. Clothes moths also have a distinct tuft of hairs on the forehead, which is

PY
visible with a microscope or a good hand lens.

O
C
W
IE
An Indian meal
moth, Plodia

EV
interpunctella (left),
R and a webbing
SE
clothes moth,
Tineola bisselliella (right).
R

Photos by Tom Myers.

U
O
C

Meal moths (Pyralis farinalis) are noticeably larger Grain mites (Acarus siro) are extremely small
EP

than the other pyralid moths described in the External (about 0.32-0.65 mm long). Infestations are found
PR

Feeders section. Meal moths have a wingspan of primarily in grain or flour that is damp or has a
nearly one inch (20-25 mm). The front wings have a high moisture content (75-85% relative humidity
E
AC

brown area at the shoulder and another at the outer is preferred). They feed on both the plant material
tip, with a lighter tan area between. The wings are and the mold and fungi that grow on it. In addition
S

held partially open in a delta shape while at rest. to grain and flour, they can infest cereal foods, dried
IN

Larvae infest many of the same food items used by fruits, vegetable materials, animal feed, and cheese.
LL

their pyralid relatives. However, meal moth larvae Grain mites are sensitive to dehydration, and relative
O

are more likely to attack food that has been exposed humidity below 60% is generally lethal. Skin contact
R

to damp conditions or that has been improperly with grain mites can result in a condition known as
stored in homes or warehouses. Larvae have even “grocer’s itch.” These skin reactions subside within
been found in damp rodenticide bait in bait stations. a few days to a week once contact with the infested
food source is discontinued.

The meal moth (Pyralis farinalis) is one of the most distinctively

marked stored-product moth pests. Photo by Mike Merchant.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Fabric Pests wings are mottled with black and gray. The larvae
build galleries out of silk as they burrow into items
Fabrics pests attack clothing, carpet, and starchy
on which they feed, which includes coarse fabrics,
materials that are found in clothes, glues, and other
carpets, furs, and feathers.
materials used in paper and books. They include
beetles, moths, booklice, and others.
OTHER FABRIC PESTS
CLOTHES MOTHS Carpet beetles are in the family Dermestidae, an
important group that was discussed in the previous
Clothes moths in the family Tineidae are small
section on Stored-Product Pests. Carpet beetles
moths that include the webbing and casemaking
are commonly found in homes and are probably
clothes moths, the carpet moth, and others. These
responsible for as much damage to sweaters, furs,
moths have narrow, scale-covered wings with a
and feathers as clothes moths. The adults are
fringe of hairs on the hindwings. Clothes moth
common insects outdoors, where they feed on
larvae typically attack wool, furs, cashmere, and
pollen, and they may accidentally enter indoor
feathers. They are also known to feed on the

PY
areas. Sometimes they are attracted to bird and
desiccated bodies of dead rodents. Many species

O
animal nests in soffits and attic areas. In addition to
of clothes moths do not readily fly, preferring instead

C
rugs and clothing items, carpet beetles reproduce
to scuttle or run. For this reason, they can sometimes

W
on feathers, cracked and dried eggs, old rodent
be ruled out if a client reports seeing flying moths

IE
baits, and dead birds in and around bird-nesting
indoors.

EV
sites in chimneys and soffits. They may also feed on
Webbing clothes moths (Tineola bisselliella) are R
dead rodents and accumulations of dead insects in
SE

the smallest, with a ½-inch (12 mm) wing span. structural voids surrounding light fixtures and other
sites. Carpet beetle infestations can be a difficult
R

Adults are golden in color, and they have a tuft of

U

reddish-orange hairs on top of the head. Adults problem to solve because of the many things that
O

shun light. The larvae spin silken cocoons once they attract them and the variety of foods they will eat.
C

reach the pupal stage, which they usually attach to

EP

Psocids or booklice are in the order Psocoptera.

the damaged fabric on which they feed. Unlike the
Despite the common name, booklice are not true
PR

casemaking clothes moth, webbing clothes moth

lice in the order Phthiraptera, and they do not
larvae do not carry cases with them. A monitoring
E

feed on people or other animals. Approximately 50

AC

pheromone trap is available for the webbing clothes

species of psocids have been reported from stored
moth.
S

foods and indoor residences. These minute insects

IN

Casemaking clothes moths (Tinea pellionella) are are only 1-2 mm long as adults and are often over-
LL

slightly larger, with a wing span of 3/8–5/8 inch looked due to their small size, which is similar to the
O

(10-15 mm). Adults are brownish and have three size of springtails (Collembola). Superficially, under
R

dark spots on the forewings. Adults shun light. The magnification, they may resemble termite workers,
larvae carry a silken, tube-like case throughout their with a pale body and thorax that is narrower than
development, which makes them easily recognizable. the head and abdomen. However, they can easily
Their heads and legs can often be seen in front of be distinguished from termite larvae by their minute
the case as they crawl. They are known to attack size, a swollen labrum (upper lip), and by the two- or
wool, but will also feed on tobacco, spices, and three-segmented tarsi (termites have four-segmented
almonds. A pheromone lure is available for the tarsi). Psocids do not have a pupal stage, and they
casemaking clothes moth that is different from the develop via gradual metamorphosis.
one for webbing clothes moths.
Booklice are believed to feed on microscopic molds
Carpet moths (Trichophaga tapetzella) are the and a variety of food items of both animal and
largest of the three (5/8–3/4 inch; 14-18 mm), and vegetable origin, including dried fruit, flour, meal,
they are the least commonly encountered in the and dried plant or insect specimens that are found
U.S. The heads are white. The basal third part of in museum collections. The presence of psocids in
the forewings is black, and the remainder of the food-processing plants and manufacturing facilities

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

is considered to be highly undesirable due to possible These mites do not bite people or pets. However,
microbial contamination and contamination of the their feces and cast skins can be found in house
product with psocid body parts. Psocids require a dust, where they can be common household
high level of humidity in order to survive, and reducing allergens. These mites are very sensitive to low
air-moisture levels to less than 58% is an effective humidity, and do not thrive when relative humidity
method of physical control. is less than 50%.

Silverfish and firebrats are in the order Zygentoma CONTROL MEASURES FOR STORED-
(formerly Thysanura). Unlike insects in all other PRODUCT AND FABRIC PESTS
orders, they do not undergo metamorphosis, and
they continue to molt throughout their entire lives, Stored-product and fabric pests are a diverse group,
even in the adult stage when they are sexually so control measures for them are also diverse.
mature. The old order name, Thysanura, literally Integrated pest management tactics for these pests
means “bristle tail.” Silverfish have long, tapering include:
antennae and soft, scale-covered, carrot-shaped

PY
• Identifying the pest as an essential first step.
bodies with three tail-like appendages (bristles). By knowing whether the insect is a fabric pest

O
They have no wings. Firebrats are similar in

C
or a stored-product pest, and whether it is an
appearance, but instead of being uniformly silver,

W
internal feeder, external feeder, scavenger, or
they are mottled with gray and darker markings.

IE
secondary pest, it should then be possible to

EV
Silverfish seem to especially like paper that has identify likely food sources.
been treated or coated with edible substances like • R
Conducting a thorough inspection to locate
SE
starch, dextrin, casein, gum, and glue. Although the breeding site or sites. Infested food items
silverfish are able to digest cellulose, they almost should be eliminated, and the practicality of
R
U

never eat newsprint, cardboard, or brown wrapping sealing uninfested items to prevent further
O

paper. They will feed on linen, cotton, and lisle, but spread of the problem should be evaluated.
C

silk and wool are rarely eaten by them. They prefer Look for hidden cracks and crevices where
EP

to feed on animal proteins, such as those found in reservoirs of pests might remain. This can be
PR

glue and dead arthropods, and they can seriously the most important step in achieving control,
damage book bindings and wallpaper. and can be the most challenging step.
E
AC

• Locating infested items with the assistance of

sticky traps, pitfall traps, or pheromone traps.
S
IN

In large warehouse situations, it may be

LL

advantageous to set up a trapping grid. In

residential accounts, traps should be placed
O
R

near suspected sources.

• Sanitation is perhaps the most important aspect
of stored-product pest management. Rotation
of stock (FIFO = first in, first out), removal of
spilled and damaged food products, and
minimization of cracks and crevices around
plant equipment are all critical for control. The
A silverfish. Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management longer food products are stored, the greater the
Association. risk of a stored-product pest infestation.

Dust mites (Dermatophagoides spp.) live in • Disinfestation of valuable items can be

mattresses, pillows, and upholstered furniture, and accomplished through heat treatment, cold
they are present in most homes to some extent. treatment, fumigation, fogging, inert gases like
They are extremely tiny (0.2-0.3 mm) and are carbon dioxide (which is often used on sensitive
scavengers of human and pet dander in homes. items in museum settings), or other pesticide
treatments.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

• Heat is more efficient than cold for killing potential food sources for pests, such as dead
stored-product and fabric pests, but it is not insects, animal fur, old bird and rodent nests,
appropriate for all situations. Most stored-product spilled food materials, etc. The old-fashioned
and fabric pests will be killed at a temperature “spring cleaning” done on an annual basis
of 131 °F (55 °C). Careful attention must be (or more often) is still useful for management
paid to how quickly heat builds and the of stored-product and fabric pests. A HEPA-
consistency of the heat. “Cold spots” in wall equipped vacuum cleaner is recommended.
voids will allow pests to survive. Heat can also • Dry cleaning effectively kills all stages of fabric
be used in combination with carbon dioxide or pests. Dry cleaning or hot drying all susceptible
other fumigants to speed control. clothes is advisable when an account is being
• Cold can be used to disinfest valuable items, treated for fabric pests. Be careful to avoid
but care should be taken when freezing and damaging items as some materials may be
removing objects to avoid damage via water heat sensitive.
condensation. Any items to be frozen should • Pheromone traps and monitors are readily

PY
first be placed in a strong, airtight container or available today for a wide variety of stored-
bag. After freezing, the items should be kept

O
product and fabric pests.

C
in the container until they return to room
• Insecticide treatments should be directed

W
temperature. Doing this will cause condensation
toward the hidden sources of the problem,

IE
on the surfaces of the bag, not the items.

EV
Temperatures and lengths of time for freezing not just flying adults. While there may be a
place for controlling adult stored-product
vary by pest, but in general freezing at 0 °F R
pests (in combination with other methods),
SE
(-18 °C) for two weeks, -13 °F (-25 °C) for
seven days, or -22 °F (-30 °C) for three days is adulticides alone will not solve a stored-
R

sufficient for killing most insects and their eggs. product or fabric pest problem.
U
O

• Take steps to pestproof suspected entry points • Fumigation can be an effective tool in otherwise
C

and eliminate attractive elements, such as open difficult or impossible-to-treat pest infestations.
EP

food sources, light sources, exposed pet and Chamber or truck fumigation can be useful for
PR

bird food, and bird and rodent nests. rugs, taxidermy items, or other small objects.
Sulfuryl fluoride and phosphine gas can be
E

• If a site has rodent problems, avoid the use effective, but require thorough training and
AC

of rodent baits that cannot be retrieved (e.g., licensing to be done safely and effectively.
so-called “toss packs”) and keep good records
S

Work with the fumigant manufacturer to ensure

IN

of traps to avoid the possibility of uneaten bait that sensitive items can be treated safely,
LL

attracting other pests. If old bait is already without damage. Dichlorvos and other fogs
O

present, it should be removed if possible. may also be useful in limited situations.

R

• In sensitive accounts like museums, all

incoming artifacts should be inspected and/or
treated before storage or display. Staff should
be trained in the inspection and treatment of
stored-product and fabric pests.
• Vacuuming is useful not only for removing pests
in rugs and taxidermy, but also for removing

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Flies

Flies belong to the order Diptera, which literally do not have legs, and are almost always associated
means “two-winged.” Diptera is one of the largest with aquatic or other moist environments. The term
orders, and there are approximately 120,000 known maggot is applied to some fly larvae that lack head
species of flies worldwide. However, only a few dozen capsules, such as the house fly or the blow fly.
of them are considered to be structural pests.
The diet and habitat of fly larvae is generally very
Most winged insects have two pairs of wings, different from that of adult flies. For example,
attached to the second and third thoracic segments mosquito larvae live as filter feeders underwater, but
(the mesothorax and metathorax, respectively). Flies adult mosquitoes live in a variety of above-water
have only one pair of functional wings attached to habitats, feeding on nectar and, typically, the blood
the mesothorax and a pair of small, knob-like of birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals. Larval

PY
structures on the metathorax called halteres. habitats are quite diverse, but are nearly always

O
Halteres are thought to be remnants of the second associated with water or high moisture levels.

C
pair of wings. They do not function directly in flight, Common breeding sites for urban pest flies include

W
but are thought to assist flies with balance and standing water in containers, potting soil, drains,

IE
manure, carcasses, condensate pans, garbage,

EV
orientation.
decaying organic matter, mold, fungus, etc.
R
SE
Upon completion of feeding, many maggots have
the habit of wandering away from their breeding
R
U

site. This occurs during the prepupal stage, just

O

prior to pupation but after the larva has grown to a

C

mature size. When breeding sites are hidden, the

EP

prepupa is the stage most likely to be seen by a

PR

client or by a pest management professional. The

crawling, prepupal stage of the blow fly—an insect
E
AC

that feeds on dead animals—often provides the

first visible evidence that such flies are active in a
S

residential structure. Once these prepupae find a

IN

Crane flies are not structural pests, but this one is shown here suitable crevice in which to hide, they begin the
LL

because the halteres can clearly be seen. Note the single pair pupation process, eventually emerging as adults.
O

of wings and the stubby halteres immediately behind them.

R

Photo by Mike Merchant.

The order Diptera is very diverse, and it includes

mosquitoes, gnats, midges, fruit flies, and filth flies.
It is worth noting that some insects that have the
word “fly” as part of their common names are not
really true flies—that is, they do not belong to the
order Diptera. Some examples are whiteflies (in the
order Hemiptera), sawflies (in the order Hymenoptera), A typical fly larva, this blow fly is legless and pale with a thin
butterflies (in the order Lepidoptera), and dragonflies exoskeleton suitable for moist environments. The head (left)
(in the order Odonata). is much reduced, and the spiracles, which are useful for
identification, are located on the terminal segment (right).
The dark structures inside the narrow head are the sclerotized
FLY BIOLOGY mouthparts. Photo by Mike Merchant.
All flies develop via complete metamorphosis, with
egg, larval, pupal, and adult life stages. Fly larvae Outdoor breeding sites can sometimes be far from
where the adults are found. House flies, for example,

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

can easily fly a mile (1.6 km) away from a breeding flies eat only liquid or finely particulate foods. They
site, and some floodwater mosquitoes can travel cannot chew as adults, though the larvae do have
5-10 miles (8-16 km) or more from a breeding site. chewing mouthparts.
Other times, especially with indoor flies, adults are
found close to the breeding site, and sticky cards or Some flies have mouthparts that are very specialized.
tape placed over drains in floors (for phorid flies or For example, horse flies and deer flies have sponging
moth flies) can be helpful in pinpointing a breeding mouthparts that are combined with a series of
location. knife-like mouthparts that they use to first slice open
the skin of their hosts and then mop up the pooling
Flies can be highly efficient breeders with short life blood.
cycles. Small fruit flies, for example, can complete
their development in as little as eight days, and a A good microscope helps when identifying flies.
single female may be capable of laying as many as Some of the structures, such as the number and
500 eggs. House flies breeding in an outdoor arrangement of bristles on the body (chaetotaxy)
dumpster can complete their development in as or the color and hairiness of the squamae, are

PY
little as 10-14 days. impossible to see without a high-quality microscope

O
and good lighting.

C
FLY ANATOMY

W
Larval flies are identified most frequently by the

IE
Fly anatomy is largely geared toward flight. Fly shape and form of their spiracles, which are located

EV
bodies are usually compact and their antennae on the terminal segment of the abdomen.
are streamlined—usually either filiform, stylate, or R
aristate. The veins on their wings are very diverse
SE
FLY CLASSIFICATION
and are used extensively for species identification.
R

For example, at the base of the flight wings of some From a pest control perspective, most flies can be
U

categorized into three main groups: 1) muscoids

O

flies, there are lobes or calypters (also called

and related filth flies (house flies, cluster flies, flesh
C

squamae), the color and hairiness of which are

flies, stable flies, blow flies, dung flies, and soldier
EP

useful for identification.

flies), 2) small indoor flies (phorid flies, fruit flies,
PR

Fly adult mouthparts are either piercing-sucking fungus gnats, and moth flies), and 3) mosquitoes
(see following section on Biting and Stinging Pests).
E

(stable flies, mosquitoes), sponging (house flies) or

AC

missing altogether (some crane flies). In general,

S
IN

Likely Origins of Flies in Structures

LL
O

Drains or Rotting fruits,

Potting soil Carrion Outdoors
R

sewers organic matter

Moth flies •
Phorid flies • • •
Fruit flies •
Soldier flies • •
Fungus gnats • •
Blow flies • •
Flesh flies • •
House flies •
Crane flies •
Mosquitoes •
Cluster flies •

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Muscoids and Related Filth Flies On rare occasions, some filth flies may cause
Muscoids are flies in the superfamily Muscoidea, myiasis in humans. Myiasis is defined as the
which includes the families Muscidae, Sarcophagidae, invasion of human tissue or organs by dipteran
Calliphoridae, Scathophagidae, Oestridae, and larvae. Perhaps the most well-known flies that cause
Tachinidae, among others. A couple of others that myiasis are bot flies and warble flies. These flies lay
do not belong to the superfamily Muscoidea are eggs directly on the skin or exoskeleton of other
included in this group as well because they are animals, and the eggs and larvae penetrate the body
considered to be related filth flies. The most important and develop in the cutaneous tissue. These sorts of
filth flies from a pest management perspective are: attacks rarely occur in the U.S., but may result from
visits to tropical countries on occasion. Myiasis may
• House fly (Musca domestica) also occur accidentally by eating maggot-infested
• Lesser house fly (Fannia canicularis) food, eating food that contains fly eggs, or from flies
• Blow flies (family Calliphoridae) that lay eggs on broken skin or oral openings that
• Flesh flies (family Sarcophagidae) are fetid and unsanitary.
• Stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans)

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• Cluster fly (Pollenia rudis) House flies (Musca domestica) are common pests

O
• Small dung flies (family Sphaeroceridae) of kitchens and restaurants where doors open

C
• Soldier flies (family Stratiomyidae) frequently. They are about ¼-inch (4-7 mm) long,

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gray, have four black stripes on the thorax behind

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the head, and the fourth wing vein (designated as

EV
M1+2, M1, or just M in some keys) curves sharply
R
forwards toward the wing tip.
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House flies have sponging mouthparts and do not

R
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bite. They prefer to breed in manure or garbage

O

outdoors, and they are known to harbor at least

C

100 different pathogens, including Salmonella,

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Campylobacter, and E. coli. House flies rarely breed

PR

indoors, but are important health pests when they

fly into food-prep or food-service areas. Health
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AC

departments usually have very low tolerances for the

A muscoid fly in the family Tachinidae. Notice the sponging presence of house flies in restaurants and kitchens.
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mouthpart. Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management The spiracle slits of house fly larvae are sinuous and
IN

Association. snake-like.
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O

Many of the flies in this group resemble the common

R

house fly, though they may vary in size, color, and

other features. They have compact bodies, a longitudinal
suture on the second antennal segment, and much
reduced antennal segments. They are important
structural pests not only because they are annoying,
but because of their ability to transmit pathogens
that cause diseases. For example, the common
house fly (Musca domestica) can transmit at least
100 known pathogens, including those that cause
typhoid fever, dysentery, tuberculosis, and cholera.
The house fly (Musca domestica) is familiar to most of us, but
The ability of muscoid flies to transmit disease is
is easy to confuse with a few other similar species. Note the
due in part to the filthy materials in which they four stripes on its gray body, and the bent M vein leading to
prefer to lay their eggs and breed. For example, the wing tip. Illustration courtesy of the Centers for Disease
house flies prefer to lay eggs in garbage or manure, Control and Prevention.
and blow flies lay their eggs on animal carcasses.

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Lesser house flies (Fannia canicularis) look similar Flesh flies in the family Sarcophagidae also breed
to house flies, but they are much smaller in the by laying eggs on animal carcasses, and may often
adult stage, and the thorax stripes are less distinct. appear together with blow flies. Flesh flies are
The fourth wing vein (M1) is almost straight and 1/4–7/16 inch (6-11 mm) long and are usually dull
does not bend towards the wing tip. Fannia larvae gray with three black longitudinal stripes. The tip of
are slightly smaller, browner, and more flattened the abdomen is commonly red or pink, and there
than house fly larvae, and they have lateral spines. are bristles on the thorax. The fourth wing vein (M1)
Like house flies, they prefer to lay eggs in manure, is sharply bent forward towards the wing tip. Like
but also lay them in moist, rotting, organic materials. blow flies, flesh flies can be temporary indoor pests
Fannia flies are found throughout the U.S., but are if an animal has died inside. Both flesh flies and
more common pests in parts of California. They blow flies are (rarely) capable of infesting human or
occasionally invade human tissue, causing myiasis. animal tissue, causing myiasis.

Blow flies (family Calliphoridae), also known as

bottle flies, are perhaps the most important insects

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for forensic entomologists, people who study the

O
insects found on dead bodies in order to determine

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the time of death, whether or not a body has been

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moved, and other clues. Adult females lay eggs on

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carcasses. When the eggs hatch, large numbers of

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maggots devour the dead body.
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Blow flies range in size from 1/8–5/8 inch (4-16
mm) long, but are usually a little larger than house
R
U

flies. Most species have a metallic blue, green, or

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bronzy sheen and whitish squamae. They are not A stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) displays its piercing-sucking
C

uncommon indoor pests, especially when an animal mouthparts, which are able to deliver painful bites. Photo by
EP

dies in an attic, crawl space, or other inaccessible G.S. Wegner.

PR

area in a structure. A large number of blow flies

Stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans) look superficially
indoors is almost certain evidence of a dead animal
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similar to house flies with 5/16-inch (7-8 mm) long,

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in the structure. Mature larvae are headless and

gray bodies and four black stripes on top of the
range from 3/8–7/8 inch (9-22 mm) long, with two
thorax. Stable fly abdomens are slightly wider than
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posterior spiracles.
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those of house flies, and they are spotted like a

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checkerboard. The fourth wing vein (M1) is curved

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forward towards the third vein. They are most readily

R

distinguished, however, by a prominent proboscis

that is capable of causing a painful bite.

Stable flies may be an annual pest in some areas,

and periodic in others. Wetter years tend to produce
higher numbers of stable flies in some areas due to
their preference for breeding in wet, rotting grass
clippings, hay, straw, and other organic materials,
especially when combined with manure. They are
common farm and stable pests of people, pets, and
livestock. Stable flies are strong fliers and may travel
up to 70 miles (112 km) from their breeding areas.
Illustration of a common green bottle fly, or blow fly (Lucilia
sericata). Illustration courtesy of the Centers for Disease They are sensitive to wind and frequently aggregate
Control and Prevention. along lake or ocean shorelines, where they take
refuge in dunes and may even breed in decaying
seaweed.

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Cluster flies (Pollenia rudis) occasionally invade black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Adult flies are
structures in the fall, especially in the northern about one inch (26 mm) long and may resemble
states. Pollenia rudis is about 5/16-inch (8 mm) wasps in appearance. They are less well-known and
long and lacks distinct lines or stripes behind the less commonly encountered than the larvae, which
head. It has short, golden-colored hairs on the grow to more than one inch (26 mm) in length, and
thorax, and irregular light and dark gray areas on are dark-brown, flattened, and leathery in appearance.
the abdomen. Cluster flies are typically slow-moving.
Adult females lay eggs in soil, where their larvae These flies breed in manure and garbage, sometimes
parasitize earthworms. When they enter buildings in very large numbers. The black soldier fly (Hermetia
in the fall, they may form overwintering clusters in illucens), is sometimes reared commercially as a
attics and walls, along with face flies (Musca recycler of manure and food waste, and the larvae
autumnalis). are used for fish or livestock feed in some countries.
When found near homes or other buildings, they will
likely be in or near trash cans, dumpsters, compost
piles, or septic tanks. They may also feed on animal

PY
carcasses.

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A cluster fly (Pollenia rudis). Photo courtesy of the National A black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Photo by Marilyn Sallee.
Pest Management Association.
E
AC

Small dung flies in the family Sphaeroceridae do

not belong to the superfamily Muscoidea. However,
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they are considered to be filth flies because of their

IN

breeding habits and their ability to infest homes

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and commercial facilities. Adults are 1-5 mm long,

O
R

stout-bodied, and dark brown or black in color. The

front (costal) wing vein is broken in three places in
the basal half. The first tarsal segment of their hind
legs is swollen and is shorter than the second tarsal
segment.
No other fly larva looks quite like that of the soldier fly. This
As their name implies, these small flies breed in prepupal-stage larva has left its breeding site and is looking for
manure and decaying vegetable matter, but they a suitable location to pupate. Photo by Mike Merchant.
will also do so in kitchens wherever small scraps of
moist, decaying food are found. Because of their Small Indoor Flies
size, they may be misidentified as fruit flies or other Small flies from many different families are considered
small flies. to be pests inside homes, restaurants, and other
places that offer sources of food and water. Although
Soldier flies in the family Stratiomyidae do not most are primarily considered to be nuisance flies,
belong to the superfamily Muscoidea. However, they their presence in healthcare facilities, food plants,
are among the better-known filth flies, especially the

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and food-handling establishments is considered material. Examples include Drosophila repleta, Dro-
poor sanitation and a potential health threat. sophila hydei, and Drosophila robusta.

Fruit flies (also known as vinegar flies or pomace Moth flies (also known as drain flies, filter flies, or
flies) belong to the family Drosophilidae. Pests in sewer flies) are in the family Psychodidae. Their
the genus Drosophila are the most common. Adults broad, oval-shaped wings with pointed tips are
are small (3-4 mm), usually tan to brownish-yellow typically held in a rooflike manner over their very
or black, and their eyes may be bright-red or dark. hairy bodies. Veins on the wing are parallel, and the
The antennae are aristate (three-segmented with a wings are densely covered with hairs, giving them a
feathery bristle on the terminal segment), and the moth-like appearance.
costal vein (along the wing’s front edge) is broken
twice in the basal half of the wing. Fruit fly larvae
are about 5/16-inch (7-8 mm) long and have two
dark “hooks” on the head end.

PY
Although they can be found year-round in structures,

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they are especially common during the warmer

C
seasons. Female fruit flies lay eggs on overripe or

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decaying fruits and vegetables, or in fermenting

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liquid food sources. When larvae hatch from the

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eggs, they complete their life cycle in 8-10 days.
Females lay as many as 500 eggs at a time, so R
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infestations can grow quickly. Fruit flies are common
outdoors and readily start new infestations when
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U

they enter structures and find suitable breeding sites.

A moth fly. Photo by Mike Merchant.
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C

Fruit flies in the genus Drosophila are classified

Drain flies prefer to live in drains, sewers, sump
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into two functionally different groups. The red-eyed

pumps, and under cracked tiles where moisture is
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fruit flies breed and feed on fruits and fermenting

plentiful. Females lay eggs on the scummy layers of
syrups. In kitchens they are usually associated with
film that are found in standing water, and the larvae
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rotten fruits and organic matter, such as spilled syrups

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feed on fungi, algae, bacterial films, and other

or decaying fruits or vegetables that are found in
microorganisms. They are commonly found breeding
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garbage cans, near the legs of kitchen furniture,

in wastewater treatment plants, and are a common
IN

around drains, and in cracks in floors or next to

fly in homes, schools, and commercial facilities
LL

walls. Adults are typically 3-4 mm long, with stocky

where they breed primarily in drains.
O

bodies and bright-red eyes. Examples include

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Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans. Phorid flies (also known as humpbacked flies, coffin
flies, scuttle flies, or mausoleum flies) are in the
family Phoridae. They too are found in sewers and
drains, but they can be distinguished from moth
flies by a general lack of hairs, their humpbacked
profiles, their wings with two heavily-sclerotized
veins at the front, and by the flattened femurs of
their hind legs.

Fruit flies (Drosophila spp.) are common pests of schools,

In addition to sewers and drains, phorid flies are
restaurants, homes, and bars. Photo by Mike Merchant. also found near decaying organic matter, on which
the larvae feed. They are sometimes mistaken for
The dark-eyed fruit flies are less attracted to fruits fruit flies, especially those with dark eyes, because
and are more likely to be associated with floor they are similar in size. Some species are known to
drains, trash cans, dishwashers, urinals, and fecal breed in human corpses, which is why they are also

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called coffin flies. Heavy infestations in buildings conditions that need attention. For example, an
are commonly associated with underground sewage indoor infestation of blow flies usually indicates that
lines that are broken. the structure is not well-sealed against rodents or
other wildlife. Likewise, a heavy phorid fly infestation
may indicate leakage from nearby sewage lines.

Exclusion is critical when managing indoor populations

of flies that are common outdoors. Inspectors
should thoroughly examine the screens on windows,
vents, and doors.

Air curtains installed at critical points of entry

should be inspected regularly for proper operation
and adjustment. In many cases, air curtains are
more effective in interior doorways between rooms

PY
because these doorways are not subjected to strong

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Fungus gnats can breed in potted plants or drains. negative air pressure that is more common near

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Photo by Mike Merchant. many exterior doorways.

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Fungus gnats are in the families Sciaridae and Tight-fitting warehouse doors are especially important

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Mycetophilidae (formerly known as Fungivoridae). in industrial or food-preparation settings where a
Most common pest species are tiny (1-3 mm long), high level of sanitation is critical. Nighttime
R
but some lesser-known species are larger. Adult legs inspections can reveal interior light escaping to the
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are slender with long first segments (coxae), and outside, and gaps can then be sealed. Staff policies
R

they have long, filamentous antennae that usually regarding doors may also need attention in facilities
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have 16 segments. where employees commonly prop doors open for

C

ventilation or easier access.

EP

Indoors, females most commonly lay their eggs in

the over-watered soil of potted plants or atriums, Lighting can be a critical issue with outdoor flies.
PR

where the larvae feed on plant roots and fungi. Outdoor lights, especially unshielded mercury vapor
E

Although harmless to humans, they can become a or halogen lighting, can be highly attractive to flies
AC

major nuisance, especially in office settings where and other nocturnal insects. Whenever possible,
they disrupt work and irritate employees. They may outdoor lights that are less attractive to insects
S
IN

also breed in drains, which can pose a challenge for (e.g., sodium vapor lamps or other light sources
LL

PMPs who are looking for their breeding locations. with lower UV output) should be used, and they
Finding and treating the breeding site is the best
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should be located away from doorways and loading

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solution for managing these pests. docks. Shielding outdoor lights so that they only
provide illumination where needed, instead of into
Control of Indoor Flies the atmosphere, can reduce flying insect numbers
Even though the adult life stage is the principal pest and nighttime light pollution.
form of most flies, finding and eliminating larval
breeding sites is the ultimate goal of fly management. Traps, such as indoor light traps (house flies) and
Integrated pest management tactics and tips for food traps (fruit flies), can supplement other fly-
indoor flies include: control efforts, but they will not solve a fly pest
problem by themselves.
Proper identification of the fly is a necessary first
step in management. If the type of fly pest is not Light traps should generally be placed 4-6 feet
known, it will be much more difficult to identify the (1.2-1.8 meters) above the ground (where house
likely breeding site where larvae will be found. flies usually fly) and at least 12-15 feet (3.6-4.5
meters) from exterior doors. To avoid attracting more
Sometimes flies are useful as environmental indicators insects from outside, they should not be visible from
that can tell the customer and the PMP about the exterior. High-voltage electrocution traps should

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not be used in or around food-handling areas due to Hot water, bleach, drain cleaners, or mechanical
the risk of contamination. cleaning with a brush will not always eliminate the
bacterial films and organic debris found inside
Light traps need regular maintenance and bulb drains where many flies breed. Microbial drain
replacement. Sticky boards must be replaced weekly cleaners are often necessary.
or when 60% full of insects, and traps should be
cleaned regularly for sanitation purposes. Even Sewage and plumbing leaks are not always visible.
lights that appear to be functioning properly should Consider all locations in walls, crawl spaces, and
be replaced at least annually because UV emissions under slabs when searching for leaks that can
(portions of the light spectrum that are most supply necessary food and moisture for fly breeding.
attractive to flying insects) decline as bulbs get
older. A good time to replace bulbs is in the spring, Placing clear pieces of packing tape over floor
before the heaviest fly pressure begins. Installation drains (with space for water to drain) or wall joints
dates for new bulbs should be visible on the bulbs can serve as a sticky trap to verify the source of a fly
or on the traps. problem. If after 24-48 hours flies are stuck to the

PY
tape, then the drain is a likely source of infestation

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Remember that most flies breed in moist locations. and should be thoroughly cleaned. If the flies on

C
Look for areas that are constantly wet or damp, the tape are phorid flies and the infestation persists

W
and inspect them closely. These areas include after a thorough cleaning, then further inspection

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floor cracks, garbage containers, condensate pans, by a plumber may be necessary to inspect sewage

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drains, spaces under cracked tiles, and other places pipes for leaks.
where moisture and organic matter accumulate. R
Residual insecticides, aerosols, and baits will not
SE
Even small breeding sites can breed large numbers
of flies. eliminate a chronic fly problem by themselves.
R

Insecticides should be used as supplements to

U
O

good sanitation and breeding-site elimination.

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S
IN
LL
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Biting and Stinging Pests

Perhaps no other category of pest generates as related deaths are reported each year in the U.S.
much emotion or concern as those that bite or For allergic individuals, even a single sting can be
sting. Compared to other risks, like traffic accidents, fatal. The number of deaths due to biting pests is
biting and stinging arthropods are low on the list. less clear, but their role in disease transmission is
However, the dangers from stinging insects like well-known.
ants, bees, and wasps are real, and the risk is more
tangible to most people, especially those with known
allergies to arthropod venom. Biting and stinging
Bees and Wasps
pests include many insects from the orders Diptera, In addition to ants, the order Hymenoptera also
Hymenoptera, Siphonaptera, Hemiptera, and includes bees and wasps. Some are solitary and
some are social.

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Phthiraptera, as well as some other arthropods
such as spiders, mites, and scorpions.

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Social bees and social wasps can be dangerous

C
Although the terms are often used interchangeably, due to their venom and their social nature. One of

W
there is a difference between a bite and a sting. the characteristics of sociality in insects is mutual

IE
Bites take place through the action of mouthparts. defense of the colony. This means that anyone who

EV
Bites may or may not carry venom. Even without ventures too close to a social bee or wasp colony
venom, bites may expose the victim to allergens, R
may experience stings not just from one or a few
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accidental secondary infection, or disease-causing individuals, but possibly from dozens to hundreds.
R

pathogens. Examples of arthropods that bite humans This mass defense of the nest makes social insects
U

include conenose bugs, assassin bugs, bed bugs, more dangerous and more difficult to control.
O

mosquitoes, ticks, mites, flies, and spiders. Stings

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BEES
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occur through a stinger or through barbed hairs

associated with a venom sac. Examples of stinging Bees are usually considered to be beneficial insects
PR

arthropods include certain ants, bees, wasps, that pollinate plants as they gather pollen and nectar.
E

stinging caterpillars, and scorpions. A PMP should However, they can also be pests if found nesting in
AC

make an effort to know the difference between a wall voids or other locations in or near a home.
bite and a sting, and use the terms correctly.
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IN

Honey bees are one of the most widely domesticated

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insects in the world. European honey bees (Apis

mellifera) were brought to North America as
O
R

domesticated animals by European settlers in the

early 1600s, but have since escaped into the wild
and are now naturalized in all parts of the country.
Most stinging incidents occur when feral (wild) bees
establish colonies in structures or in areas close
to human activities. Honey bees are able to enter
buildings through small holes, and typically nest in
walls, attics, or floors.
This buck moth caterpillar (Hemileuca maia) has spines that
can sting. Photo by G.S. Wegner.
In addition to European honey bees, many other
subspecies are found in Asia and Africa. One
A small percentage of people (approximately 1% subspecies, Apis mellifera scutellata, was brought
of children and 3% of adults) have acute allergic to Brazil from Africa in 1956 and has interbred with
reactions (anaphylaxis) to venom associated with local honey bees. The resulting hybrids are known
insect stings. An estimated 50-100 insect-sting- as Africanized honey bees (AHBs). Unfortunately,

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AHBs were discovered to be more aggressive than transported to a new location. Despite concerns
European honey bees, and they eventually spread about declines in commercial honey bee colonies,
into the U.S. in 1990. They are nearly identical to feral honey bee populations are not endangered.
European honey bees in appearance, but there Indeed, honey bees can be highly dangerous in
are important behavioral differences. AHBs swarm some situations, especially across a large portion of
more frequently, store less honey, are more likely to the South and Southwest, where most feral honey
attack in response to nest disturbance, and a higher bees are partly Africanized and potentially highly
proportion of their workers are defensive. They also aggressive.
tend to nest closer to the ground, where they are
more likely to be encountered by humans, and they When managing honey bee colonies in structures,
will follow fleeing intruders farther from the nest. nests should be removed whenever possible. If
The AHB requires year-round sources of nectar and nests are not removed, the wax will eventually
pollen and is mainly established across the Southwest, melt and honey will seep into walls and ceilings.
from southern California to Arkansas and Louisiana, Fermenting honey and dead bees release odors
and in southern Florida. that can attract secondary pests like cockroaches,

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carpet beetles, wax moths, clothes moths, ants, and

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Unlike most other bees and wasps, honey bees only rodents. When treating a honey bee infestation in a

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sting once. The barbed stinger of the honey bee structure, a complete service should always include

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prevents its withdrawal, so the stinger and venom removal or extermination of the bees, removal of

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sac is torn from the bee’s body, which kills it. the comb, honey, and dead insects, and sealing the

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Although the venom of honey bees is not highly point of entry to prevent reuse of the site.
toxic to most people, the numbers of stings, R
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especially in AHB attacks, can be deadly. Honey

R

bee nests usually consist of 30,000 or more

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individuals.
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Bee control in structures should always include removal of the

R

nest, honey, and comb, and all outside points of entry should be
sealed. Photo by Mike Merchant.

Honey bees are highly beneficial pollinators and should be Bumble bees (Bombus spp.) are important
protected in the landscape. Most insecticides are highly toxic pollinators that also live in colonies. Like honey
to bees, so care must be exercised when applying pesticides bees, they are often used in agriculture, especially in
to plants. Photo by Mike Merchant. greenhouses to pollinate tomatoes and other crops.
Unlike honey bees, they do not build nests in hollow
Honey bees are highly beneficial, and sprays should
tree trunks or other cavities. Instead, their nests
never be applied to blooming plants being visited by
occur primarily in underground holes or cavities,
honey bees or other pollinators. Today most insecticide
although fiberglass insulation batting in building
labels bear strong warnings about applying insecticides
crawlspaces and sill plates may also be used.
to blooming plants to avoid harming pollinators.
Nevertheless, wild honey bee nests are not protected Bumble bee workers are larger (1/4–1 inch; 6-25
by law, and unwanted nests in structures or in unsafe mm), thicker, rounder, and hairier than honey bees.
locations can be legally destroyed, or removed and Most are black with yellowish to orange markings

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and feathered (branched) hairs. Most have wide nests below ground, although above-ground nests
hind tibiae to carry pollen. Bumble bee nests do not also occur. Yellowjacket wasps are opportunistic
survive the winter. Instead, the queen and drones and will eat whatever food is available, such as fruit,
(males) leave the nest and overwinter in protected raw meat, and other insects. They are often found
sites. Mature bumble bee nests usually consist of a near trash cans. In general, yellowjacket wasps
few dozen to a few hundred individuals. present more of a stinging hazard than hornets and
paper wasps because of their concealed nests and
Solitary bees include those found in the families relatively large colonies, which range in size from
Apidae, Andrenidae, Megachilidae, Halictidae, a few thousand to tens of thousands of individuals.
Colletidae, and others. They are found throughout Yellowjacket wasps can sting multiple times and the
North America and nest in underground holes and venom can cause serious pain.
existing cavities in wood and other materials. As
their name implies, these bees are not social, do Yellowjacket wasp nests are completely enclosed
not live in colonies, and do not defend their nests. with an outer paper envelope. When built above
However, many individuals of a given species may ground they can superficially resemble hornet nests,

PY
nest in close proximity where conditions are favorable, except the nests are more irregular in shape and are

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and the territorial (stingless) males of some solitary usually associated with holes in the ground or voids

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bees (e.g., carpenter bees) may hover and behave in walls, soffits, eaves, or concrete blocks.

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menacingly in the vicinity of nest entrances. The

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females rarely sting, and, like honey bees and

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bumble bees, they are important pollinators of
many plants and crops. R
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WASPS
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Wasps tend to be more slender than bees and lack

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feathered hairs on their bodies. Most are either

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parasitoids or predators of other insects or related

arthropods. Others are scavengers that feed on
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dead insects or other organic materials. Like bees,

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wasps can be social or solitary.

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Social Wasps
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Interior architecture of a yellowjacket wasp nest. These brood

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cells are normally surrounded by an external paper envelope.

Social wasps belong to the family Vespidae, and
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Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.

are thus also known as vespids. They include
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yellowjacket wasps, hornets, and paper wasps. They The baldfaced hornet (Dolichovespula maculata),
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are identified by their typical wasp-like appearance despite its name, is actually a type of aerial
and longitudinally folded wings. Most species are yellowjacket wasp. However, it differs from most
distinctively marked with contrasting yellow and other North American yellowjacket species in
black stripes—presumably to help remind humans appearance (black and white instead of black and
and other animals that they should be avoided. yellow) and in its nesting habits. Baldfaced hornets
Social wasps make paper nests from chewed-up build their nests exclusively above ground, and their
wood, paper, or cardboard. They establish colonies colonies are usually relatively small, containing
in the spring and abandon them when winter 300-400 workers. Nests are usually built in trees,
approaches. Populations peak in the summer and sometimes as high as 65 feet (20 meters), although
fall, when they are most commonly encountered. they are sometimes built on sheltered exterior
All social wasps are capable of stinging. features of buildings and in wall voids.
Yellowjacket wasps are social wasps in the genera The European hornet (Vespa crabro) is the largest
Vespula and Dolichovespula. About 18 species are (1–1½ inches; 20-35 mm) social wasp in North
found in North America. They generally build their America. Hornet nests are often inverted, pear-shaped,

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enclosed, or semi-enclosed paper-carton nests that Solitary Wasps

are up to three feet (one meter) long. Nests tend to Solitary wasps are either predators or parasitoids.
be brown in color, compared to the grayer color of Predators are hunting wasps that attack other insects
yellowjacket wasp nests. They prefer to build nests and feed them to their young. A female typically stings
in hollow trees, but will also build them in wall voids, and paralyzes her prey, then drags it back to a
attics, abandoned beehives, or other sheltered prepared nest. An egg is laid on the paralyzed prey,
cavities. Mature colonies have a queen, with typically and the resulting larva develops while ingesting it.
200-400 workers, brood, and sometimes males.
Like all hornets, they are predators and are known Nesting sites are usually holes in the ground, but
to attack large insects like grasshoppers, crickets, some are constructed from mud. Few solitary wasps
and other hymenopterans like yellowjacket wasps are pests, though their nests may be located in
and honey bees. They are active during the day places where they are not wanted. Solitary wasps
and night and are attracted to light from windows, rarely sting people.
porches, etc.
Cicada killer wasps are solitary predators in the

PY
Paper wasps are social wasps in the genus Polistes, genus Sphecius. As their name implies, cicada

O
with about 27 different species in North America. killers capture cicadas and carry them back to

C
Their paper nests, which are found above ground underground nests as food for their young. Their

W
in eaves or other protected places, are a common large size (1–1½ inches; 2.5-4.0 cm) can be

IE
summertime sight throughout the U.S. Some alarming to some people, but they rarely sting.

EV
species prefer to nest within voids. The nests are These wasps prefer sand and sandy soil for their
naked, with exposed brood chambers, and are R
nesting sites. Golf course sand bunkers, play-
SE

shaped like umbrellas so that the brood cells are grounds with sand boxes, and sand volleyball
R

protected from the rain. Paper wasp colonies are courts are known to draw nesting females.
U

relatively small, usually containing fewer than 200

O

workers, though some can grow to be quite large.

C

Like hornets, they prey on other insects, especially

EP

caterpillars.
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

A cicada killer wasp. Photo by G.S. Wegner.

Mud dauber wasps belong to the family Sphecidae.

The best-known species include black and yellow
mud daubers (Sceliphron caementarium and other
related species in the same genus) and organpipe
mud daubers in the genus Trypoxylon. These wasps
A paper wasp nest, with adults, eggs, and larvae. Photo
courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.
use mud to construct their nests, which are found
on walls and ceiling in barns, garages, attics, and
other places. Mud dauber nests are almost always
provisioned with spiders. Mud daubers are not
aggressive and rarely sting.

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Parasitoid wasps are among the most important People who know they are allergic to wasp and bee
beneficial insects. Parasitoids are solitary insects venoms should carry an epinephrine auto-injector
that lay their eggs on (or in) other insects or their while outdoors during the warmer months. An
eggs, which eventually kills them. Parasitoid wasps accidental sting could result in anaphylaxis and death.
are not structural pests and do not sting. However,
they can be found in structures. When found indoors,
parasitoid wasps are usually attacking cockroaches
Biting Flies
or stored-product pests, especially moths. Some flies (dipterans) are bloodfeeders that have
mouthparts that are capable of delivering relatively
painless or painful bites. Mosquitoes possess
slender, piercing-sucking mouthparts that often
produce painless bites. Other flies—like deer flies,
black flies, and biting midges—use their mandibles
to cut painful holes in skin. Both types are capable
of transmitting viruses or other disease-causing

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pathogens.

O
C
Horse flies and deer flies both belong to the family

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This ensign wasp (Evania appendigaster) is a parasitoid of Tabanidae. Besides horses and deer, they will also

IE
cockroach egg sacs. Photo by Mike Merchant.
readily feed on humans and other mammals. About

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350 species are found in North America.
First Aid for Bee and Wasp Stings R
SE
If someone is stung by a bee, wasp, or hornet, the These large (¼–1¼ inch; 6-30 mm), day-flying flies
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are known as pool feeders because they mop up
R

recommend the following first-aid procedures: pooling blood from the cuts of their hosts. Some are
U
O

able to transmit diseases to humans, livestock, and

C

• Have someone stay with the victim to be sure pets. Most notably, the deer fly Chrysops discalis
EP

that he/she does not have an allergic reaction. can transmit tularemia to humans after biting infected
Anaphylactic reactions vary but may include
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hosts, including rodents, dogs, and cats.

rapid heartbeat, difficulty breathing, dizziness,
E

nausea, hives, and loss of consciousness. Adult female tabanids lay their eggs in moist or
AC

• Wash the site with soap and water. muddy areas, especially near water. Larvae hatch
and develop in soil (although some are aquatic),
S

• For honey bee stings, remove the stinger using

IN

where they feed on snails, earthworms, and other

gauze wiped over the embedded sting, or by
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insects.
scraping the stinger out with a fingernail or
O
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straight edge.
• Apply a cold compress to reduce swelling. Do
not apply ice directly to the skin or immerse the
wound in water, as that may cause injury.
• Do not scratch the sting, as this may increase
swelling, itching, and risk of infection.
• Over-the-counter antihistamines, such as
Benadryl®, may be helpful in suppressing an
immune reaction. Follow directions on packaging.
Drowsiness may occur.
• Seek immediate medical attention if a sting
causes severe chest pain, nausea, severe A deer fly. Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management
sweating, loss of breath, serious swelling, Association.
slurred speech, or difficulty swallowing.

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Adults are capable of flying long distances, so encephalitis, dengue, yellow fever, and many others.
chemical and other control measures may be Although mosquito-borne disease is less common
ineffective. Therefore, exclusion (screens, air curtains, in the U.S. than in many other parts of the world,
etc.) and mechanical control methods (indoor light mosquitoes are still important nuisance pests and
traps, sticky traps) are the most effective. These disease transmitters. With the increasing importance
flies are important livestock pests and pests of of diseases like West Nile virus, dengue, and
recreation areas, but usually invade structures only chikungunya, PMPs are often called on to assist
by accident. with municipal and residential mosquito control
efforts.

All mosquitoes belong to the family Culicidae, and

there are more than 3,200 recognized species.
Mosquitoes are aquatic insects. The immature life
stages (eggs, larvae, and pupae) live underwater,
and all mosquitoes must have water to reproduce

PY
and survive.

O
C
Pest mosquitoes can be categorized into two general

W
groups, according to their egg-laying habits. Standing-

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water mosquitoes lay their eggs directly into standing

EV
water. Floodwater mosquitoes lay their eggs in dry
A horse fly. Photo by Stoy Hedges.
R
ground that is prone to flooding in the future. Both
SE
types of mosquito larvae hatch from the eggs and
“No-see-ums” and “punkies” are common live in the water, feeding on bacteria and other
R
U

names used for tiny biting midges in the family microorganisms. After as little as four days, they pupate.
O

Ceratopogonidae. Unfortunately, the term “no- After the pupal stage, adults emerge from the water.
C

see-um” is also widely used to refer to any small

EP

invisible bug, including “mystery bugs” (see next Mosquito adults can be identified by their long legs
PR

chapter). Adult biting midges are 1.0-2.5 mm long, and antennae, prominent slender proboscises, and
with 15-segmented moniliform antennae. They are rows of scales on the veins of their wings. Mosquito
E

larvae are whitish and thin, and hang just under the
AC

capable of transmitting viruses to cattle and people

in some parts of the world, though in the U.S. they surface of the water. When disturbed, both larvae
S

are mostly considered nuisances pest because of and pupae wriggle or tumble to the bottom of the
IN

their painful bites. depression or container to hide.

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Black flies in the family Simuliidae are important

R

seasonal biting flies in some parts of the U.S. These

insects breed in flowing water and are outdoor
nuisance flies that occasionally stress or kill livestock.
They are pool feeders, and heavy infestations can
literally draw blood on exposed skin. They are easily
recognized by their humpbacked thoraxes and by
their wings, which have darkly sclerotized veins only
along the leading edge. These flies avoid indoor or
shaded areas.

Mosquitoes are among the most important human-

health pests worldwide due to their ability to transmit
Mosquito larvae (Aedes aegypti), also known as wrigglers, at the
certain pathogens. Some mosquitoes serve as surface of a pool of water. Photo courtesy of the National Pest
carriers (vectors) of pathogens that cause diseases Management Association.
like malaria, West Nile virus, various forms of

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While nearly all female mosquitoes feed on blood containers. Such mosquitoes are critical pests in
(males do not), feeding habits differ from one urban areas, and potential breeding sites include
species to another. For example, house mosquitoes water dishes under potted plants, bird baths,
in the genus Culex prefer to feed at night, while buckets, clogged gutters, old tires, plastic sheets,
mosquitoes in the genus Aedes (e.g., Asian tiger boat tarps, stormwater drains, and any other site
mosquito, yellowfever mosquito) readily bite during that can hold water for 10 days or more. Therefore,
the day or the evening. In general, mosquitoes are removing standing water is an essential part of
active at night (nocturnal) or in the evening or mosquito control efforts.
morning hours (crepuscular). Mosquitoes that are
active in the daytime generally prefer shady areas
and often avoid sunlight. In addition to blood,
Fleas
mosquitoes feed on plants and nectar and often Fleas are small, wingless insects in the order
hide in and around plants and shrubs, which can Siphonaptera. Fleas are external parasites of
be treated with appropriately-labeled insecticide mammals (95% of flea species) and birds (5% of
sprays or sugar-based baits. species). Both adult and larval fleas feed on blood,

PY
though larvae generally feed on organic debris and

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It is important to be able to recognize potential the dried blood content of adult flea excrement

C
mosquito breeding sites, especially those of standing- that has fallen off the host.

W
water mosquitoes and ones that breed in artificial

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EV
R
Midges and Crane Flies
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R

Midges in the families Chironomidae and Dixidae Crane flies that belong to the family Tipulidae are
U

are sometimes mistaken for mosquitoes, partially also often mistaken for mosquitoes or even for giant
O
C

because they look somewhat similar and because mosquito predators (a common name is “mosquito
EP

they are found in similar habitats—near streams, hawks”). However, like the non-biting midges, crane
PR

ponds, or lakes. They are sometimes considered flies are not predaceous. Crane flies have very long
pests because they can emerge and swarm in large legs—longer than those of mosquitoes—and they
E

numbers. However, midges do not bite, and the do not have scales on their wings.
AC

adults are usually only active for about a week or

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so. The easiest way to tell the difference between

IN

these midges and mosquitoes is to look at the

LL

wings. Mosquito adults have scaled veins on their

O

wings, but midges do not.

R

Midges like this one lack scales on the veins of their wings, This crane fly (Tipula oleracea) has very long legs—longer
which distinguishes them from mosquitoes. Photo courtesy than those of mosquitoes—and it lacks scales on the veins
of the National Pest Management Association. of its wings. Photo by Stoy Hedges

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) are the most measures to remove the dirt can help break the
common indoor flea pests in the U.S. Despite the flea life cycle. In addition to removing excrement,
name, they feed on dogs as well as cats, and a vacuuming can remove up to 30% of flea larvae and
number of other animals. 60% of flea eggs in a carpet.

Once a cocoon is formed, a flea pupa can develop

to the adult stage in as little as five days. However,
an unemerged adult flea may remain inactive in the
cocoon for 4-5 months under adverse conditions,
or when hosts are absent. Such waiting adults will
respond to stimuli—like increased warmth, CO2, or
vibrations—and they can exit their cocoons rapidly,
within seconds. That is why some homes that have
been vacant for months can suddenly “come alive”
with fleas as soon as new inhabitants arrive.

PY
O
On-animal pet treatments have proved highly

C
effective in preventing infestations of cat and dog

W
fleas, but active flea infestations may require

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supplemental environmental treatments. In such

EV
cases, insect growth regulators combined with
R
short-lived adulticides may be effective. Follow-up
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A cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis). treatments with an adulticide may be needed 7-10
Photo by Ken Walker, Museum Victoria, Melbourne Australia. days later to control fleas emerging from the pupal
R
U

stage. Vacuuming and sprays should be directed

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Besides being an itchy nuisance, some flea species toward pet sleeping areas (indoors and outdoors)
C

can transmit pathogens that cause diseases. Rat where flea larvae are most likely to be. Pet beds,
EP

fleas are the principal vectors of plague to humans. blankets, and other small items should be heated
Cat fleas can transmit murine typhus from rats to
PR

in a clothes dryer to kill eggs and larvae.

humans, and they can transmit cat scratch disease
E

from cats to humans. Fleas are also intermediate When flea infestations occur in homes without dogs
AC

hosts for other parasites such as tapeworms or cats, feral sources should be considered. Wild
(Dipylidium caninum), which they can pass on to
S

animals that carry fleas include opossums, raccoons,

IN

dogs, cats, and humans if infected fleas are ingested. and feral cats. Adult fleas from these animals can
LL

enter living spaces from fireplaces, attic and

Fleas develop by complete metamorphosis. Adult
O

crawlspace hatches, as well as HVAC and utility

R

fleas have piercing-sucking mouthparts, which they penetrations.

use to draw blood from their hosts. The adult life
stage is the only one that lives on the host. Adults
lay eggs on their hosts, but the eggs quickly fall to True Bugs
the floor or pet beds, where they hatch into larvae. True bugs are insects in the suborder Heteroptera,
which is in the order Hemiptera. They are identifiable
Unless groomed off, fleas will live on a single host
by their piercing-sucking mouthparts, and by
for their entire adult lives. After feeding, adult fleas
their forewings, which are half-membranous and
defecate partially digested blood as a dark powder
half-sclerotized. True bugs include some relatively
that is approximately the same texture as finely
harmless occasional invaders, such as stink bugs
ground pepper. Infested pets will take on a dirty
and boxelder bugs, but others are capable of biting
appearance from this dried blood (feces) in their fur.
and bloodfeeding.
Flea excrement, also known as flea dirt, provides
food for the next generation of fleas, so sanitary

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

There is no evidence at this time that bed bugs

transmit diseases to humans under normal
circumstances. However, recent studies have raised
concerns that they may have the potential to play
some role in the transmission of two diseases that
are relatively rare in the U.S.—Chagas disease and
trench fever. In any case, the risk for disease
transmission by bed bugs appears to be very low.

One of the most important aspects of bed bug

control is monitoring. A good monitoring program
catches bed bug infestations while they are still
small, and can confirm the effectiveness of treatment
measures. Pitfall traps have proven especially useful
Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius).
for monitoring programs.

PY
Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.

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Bed bug management is most effective when using
Bed bugs are blood-feeding external parasites with

C
an integrated approach. Monitoring, sanitation, bed
a preference for feeding on humans. The common

W
and mattress encasements, foot barriers on beds,
bed bug (Cimex lectularius) is widespread in the

IE
residual insecticides having two or more modes of
U.S. The tropical bed bug (Cimex hemipterus) is

EV
action, and various forms of heat treatment should
a more tropical species and is rare in this country,
although it has been reported from Florida. Adults
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be used together for effective control.
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of both species are reddish-brown and are Bat bugs are in the same genus (Cimex) as bed
R

approximately 3/16-inch long (4-5 mm) and flattened. bugs, and they are sometimes mistaken for them,
U

Bed bugs range from pinhead-sized nymphs to

O

but the hairs on bat bugs are longer and more

C

adults that are approximately the size of an apple noticeable. These hairs are equal to or longer than
EP

seed. Signs of a bed bug infestation include molted the widths of their eyes. Bird bugs, such as the
exoskeletons, fecal stains on mattresses, eggs, and
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swallow bug (Oeciacus vicarius) and the poultry bug

live or dead bed bugs. (Haematosiphon inodorus), are in the same family
E

(Cimicidae) as bed bugs and may also be mistaken

AC

Both nymphs and adult bed bugs feed on blood.

for them. Bat bugs and bird bugs require their own
Bed bug nymphs go through five instars, and they
S

special hosts (bats and birds, respectively) to survive

require a bloodmeal for each one before molting.
IN

for longer periods of time and to reproduce, but they

Likewise, adult female bed bugs require a bloodmeal
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may occasionally bite humans.

before laying eggs.
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R

Bed bug bites can be highly irritating, although

some people do not react at all to them. Studies
have shown less than half of residents of infested
apartments know that they have an infestation or
are willing to admit it. For this reason, reliance on
customer complaints or reports should not take the
place of a good inspection and monitoring program.

Bed bugs are competent hitchhikers and are

commonly spread in suitcases, purses, or backpacks
that are stored overnight next to an infested bed or
other furniture. Bed bugs can also be transferred to
new locations on people or in clothing, old mattresses, A bat bug (Cimex sp.). Notice the long hairs, which are more
furniture, or other household objects. prominent than those found on bed bugs. The hairs on the
pronotum of a bat bug are just as long or longer than the width
of its eye. Photo by Stoy Hedges.

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Assassin bugs are hemipterans in the family Re- The presence of lice is considered to be a medical
duviidae. These are relatively large bugs (1–1½ condition, not a pest control problem, and people
inches; 26-38 mm) that are recognizable by their with lice should be referred to a physician.
heads, which have a long, cone-like appearance
with large compound eyes on each side. Assassin Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are the most
bugs are capable of delivering painful bites. However, common human-infesting lice, especially among
they are also beneficial predators that mainly feed children. Head lice only live on the heads of humans.
on other insects. They do not live on other parts of the body, and they
do not infest animals. They are small (2-3 mm),
Conenose bugs in the genus Triatoma are also elongate insects with legs adapted for grasping
classified as assassin bugs, but they feed exclusively human hair. Females glue small eggs (nits) to the
on the blood of vertebrates, including humans. base of hairs. After hatching, they require 8-12 days
Conenose bugs generally live outdoors and feed on to reach the adult stage.
wild animals, especially certain rodents. However,
in some areas they have adapted to living in and These lice are transmitted mostly by direct, head-

PY
around human structures, where they feed on to-head contact and bed-sharing. They may also

O
people and their pets. Conenose bugs are nocturnal occasionally be transferred on shared items such

C
and may bite people while they sleep. Bites as combs, hats, etc., but this is far less likely than

W
sometimes occur on the face because it is exposed is commonly believed. They are treated through

IE
while sleeping, which is why they are also known as shampooing, combing, and the application of

EV
“kissing bugs.” They are capable of transmitting prescription or over-the-counter insecticidal
a parasite in their feces called Trypanosoma cruzi, R
shampoos or rinses. Head lice cannot live for
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which causes Chagas disease, also known as more than two days off of their human hosts.
R

American trypanosomiasis. Chagas disease occurs

U

mainly in Central and South America, probably

O

because U.S. species of Triatoma are less effective

C

vectors than the Latin American species.

EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN

An adult female human head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis).

LL

Photo courtesy of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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Body lice (Pediculus humanus humanus) are

R

almost identical to head lice, but they are slightly

larger (3-4 mm). Body lice infestations are rare
among people who bathe and change clothes
regularly. Females glue their eggs to clothing fibers,
just as head lice glue their eggs to hair. Unlike head
A bloodsucking conenose bug (Triatoma sanguisuga). lice, which do not transmit diseases, body lice are
Photo by Stoy Hedges. important vectors of epidemic typhus, trench fever,
and relapsing fever. They are a major source of
disease and suffering in areas with strife and
Lice disruption due to war, famine, or natural disasters.
Lice are small, wingless insects in the order Adults and nymphs cannot live for more than 2-5
Phthiraptera. Three species are known to feed on days without a bloodmeal from a human host.
humans: the head louse, the body louse, and the However, eggs may take as long as 10-14 days to
crab louse. All three species have piercing-sucking hatch, so reinfestations may occur if clothing,
mouthparts and develop via gradual metamorphosis. bedding, etc. is not treated.

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Crab lice (Pthirus pubis), also known as pubic lice, Recluse spiders are often misidentified, and are often
have short, flat, crab-like bodies with well-developed blamed for bites in regions where they are not even
claws for grasping body hairs. They are usually found. In addition, many harmless spiders are
found on hair in the pubic region, but may also be misidentified as brown recluses, typically resulting in
found in other areas, such as armpits or beards. overreaction by homeowners and increasing the
Crab lice are usually transmitted by sexual contact hyperbole surrounding recluse spiders. Other species
or bed-sharing. They cannot survive more than two of Loxosceles found in the southwestern states are much
days without a human host. less likely to bite, and are less likely to enter homes.

Spiders
Spiders are one of the most common and diverse
arthropods in and around homes. Although beneficial
in the sense that they eat unwanted insects, many
people are uncomfortable with the idea of living with

PY
spiders. Consequently, spiders are among the top

O
pests of homes and many commercial buildings.

C
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Spiders can be classified according to their hunting

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behavior. Passive hunters do not spin webs; instead,

EV
they sit and wait for prey to pass by. Examples
include tarantulas, trapdoor spiders, and crab R
SE
spiders. Active hunters move about in search of The brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) has six eyes
prey and include wolf spiders, ground spiders,
R

arranged in three pairs in a semicircle on the forepart of its head.

U

jumping spiders, sac spiders, and recluse spiders. Photo by Stoy Hedges.
O

Web builders use silk to build elaborate structures

C

to entrap or entangle prey, and they include the Brown recluse spiders have slender legs that
EP

most well-known spiders, such as orb-weavers, extend over an area about the size of a quarter to a
PR

cellar spiders, funnel-web spiders, widow spiders, half-dollar. Two characteristics that help distinguish
and other cobweb-making spiders. this spider from similar species include the darker,
E

violin-shaped marking on the back of the front

AC

Almost all spiders have venom for subduing their portion of the body, and the semicircular, paired
S

prey. However, few spider bites are medically arrangement of its six eyes. The violin mark can vary
IN

important to humans. Only two genera of spiders in darkness and may, on some individuals, be quite
LL

occurring in the U.S. and Canada are considered to faint. Another identification characteristic is the
O

be dangerous: the widow spiders (Latrodectus spp.) brown recluse’s habit of leaving their star-shaped
R

and the recluse spiders (Loxosceles spp.). cast skins hanging on timbers and the backs of
furniture.
Brown recluse spiders (Loxosceles reclusa) are the
most important biting pest species out of 11 species As their name implies, brown recluse spiders are
in the genus Loxosceles that are found in North shy and are not naturally aggressive, but they do
America. These spiders are commonly referred to as frequently live in and around structures. They are
recluse spiders, fiddleback spiders, violin spiders, most often found indoors or in outdoor locations
or brown spiders. Breeding populations are not that are protected from rain—under boards, in junk,
found in all areas of the U.S. The native range for under rocks, under the bark of dead trees, in caves,
Loxosceles reclusa is centered in the Ozarks region and under rock outcrops. Indoors, they are most
of Missouri, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, but extends commonly found in cluttered closets, garages, crawl
as far north as Nebraska and southern Indiana, and spaces, and attics—especially in cardboard boxes.
south to Texas and Georgia.

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Deny food supply. Determine what food sources

might be sustaining the infestation, then take steps
to eliminate the food source (e.g., silverfish, termites,
cockroaches, etc.).

Residual dusts. Insecticide dusts should be applied

into wall voids and cracks behind baseboards and
molding in attics, basements, and crawl spaces.
Dusts penetrate places that cannot be reached
by sprays, and often provide longer control. Avoid
broadcast dust treatments of attics to keep belongings
and ventilation systems from becoming contaminated.
The current range of recluse spiders in the U.S.
Image courtesy of Rick Vetter and PCT Magazine. Residual sprays. Spot treatments using residual
insecticides should be applied to closets, storage

PY
Brown recluse spiders spin silk, but webbing is areas, behind furniture, along baseboards, behind
minimal and usually restricted to retreats where

O
furniture, and to surfaces in attics, crawl spaces,

C
they return after hunting and where the females lay and basements, if necessary. Wettable powder,

W
eggs. These retreats are usually constructed in dark, capsulated suspensions, and suspension concentrates

IE
out-of-the-way corners, in boxes, or under debris. are preferred formulations.

EV
Brown recluse spiders are mostly nocturnal, coming
out at night to hunt for their insect prey. Widow spiders include the black widow, brown
R
widow, and others belonging to the genus Latrodectus,
SE

Brown recluse venom is necrotic (tissue-killing). which is in the family Theridiidae (comb-footed
R

Their bites can be painful and may result in spiders). Colors vary among species, but they are
U

slow-healing sores, disfiguring skin ulcers, severe

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usually recognizable by an hourglass-like marking

C

pain, and, occasionally, life-threatening complications. (two triangles joined together) on the bottom (ventral)
EP

However, according to arachnologist Rick Vetter, side of the abdomen. This hourglass may consist
author of The Brown Recluse Spider (Cornell
PR

of a single spot or two spots, and may vary in color

University Press), “Ninety percent of brown recluse from bright-red to orange, depending on the individual.
E

bites are not medically significant and heal very Widow spiders get their name from the incorrect
AC

nicely, often without medical intervention.” Several belief that females always eat the males after
types of serious bacterial skin infections look similar
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mating. Four structure-infesting species of widow

IN

to brown recluse bites, making diagnosis tricky. spiders are found in all 48 states in the continental
LL

Therefore, if someone is bitten by a spider, a U.S. and in parts of Canada.

specimen of the spider should be retained (if
O
R

possible) to help confirm a brown recluse bite

diagnosis.

Brown recluse spiders require a combination of

insecticide and sanitary measures to attain control,
which may require diligence and time. IPM control
methods and tools include:

Sanitation. Eliminate clutter and seal boxes stored

in closets and attics. Cardboard boxes should be
vacuumed and taped to reduce suitable harborage
sites. Store clothing, shoes, and other sensitive
items in sealed containers or clothing bags. A southern black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) with
typical hourglass marking on the bottom of the abdomen.
Photo by Clemson University, USDA Cooperative Extension
Slide Series, Bugwood.org.

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Three black widow species occur in different areas The venom of widow spiders is a neurotoxin, and
of the U.S., while the brown widow (Latrodectus bites can cause pain, muscle contractions, cramps,
geometricus) is firmly established along the Gulf perspiration, increased body temperatures, nausea,
Coast and in parts of California. Brown widows are and, in rare cases, death. The skin around the site
varying shades of brown, with varying patterns on of a bite may become red with a central white area,
the dorsal side of the abdomen. Their egg sacs and sometimes two small holes can be seen where
have spikes all over the surface. the fangs have punctured the skin.

House spider is a term that is used by different

people for various spiders, but is most commonly
applied to several members of the cobweb-building
spiders known as comb-footed spiders in the family
Theridiidae—a family that also includes widow
spiders in the genus Latrodectus. Their body shape
is similar to widow spiders, with globular abdomens

PY
and long, tapering legs. The venom of comb-footed

O
spiders is thought to be at least slightly toxic to

C
humans, though not as much as that of the widow

W
spiders. They build tangled cobwebs, and, unlike

IE
A brown widow spider (Latrodectus geometricus) with a spiky
widow spiders, they are common residents in homes,

EV
egg sac. The egg sacs of black widow spiders are smooth.
Photo by G.S. Wegner. where they feed on a variety of flying insects.
R
Steatoda and Parasteatoda are particularly common
SE
Adult female widow spiders are about ½-inch genera.
(12-13 mm) long (not including the legs) and the
R
U

abdomen is spherical. Males are about half the size

O

of females and are brightly colored.

C
EP

Widow spiders are cobweb builders and live mostly

PR

outdoors. Their webs, and those of other spiders in

the family Theridiidae, are messy, sticky, tangled
E

structures. They are usually constructed in dark,

AC

sheltered spots near the ground. In and around

S

structures, widow spiders are typically found in only

IN

partially enclosed sites where their flying insect prey

LL

is common. Such sites include outhouses, crawl

O

Parasteatoda tepidariorum is one of the most common house

spaces, industrial plants, warehouses, garages, water
R

spiders, seen here with its egg case. Photo by Stoy Hedges.
meter boxes, electrical boxes, and air conditioning units.
Cellar spiders are also sometimes referred to as
house spiders. They are in the family Pholcidae,
and there are more than 30 species in North America.
Their bodies are 1/16–3/8 inch (2-10 mm) long,
and they have very long legs, so they are sometimes
mistakenly called daddy-longlegs spiders (see
Daddy-Longlegs box). Most have eight eyes—two in
the middle and three on each side. Cellar spiders
prefer cool, dark sites like basements, crawl spaces,
garages, warehouses, and storage buildings. They
weave irregularly-shaped webs and do not clean or
recycle (eat) them, as some spiders do, so extensive
A brown widow spider (Latrodectus geometricus). webbing can be built relatively quickly. They prefer
Photo by Rick Vetter.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

to hang upside down in their webs as they wait for

their prey. Another thing that sets them apart from
other spiders is their habit of carrying their eggs in
Are Daddy-Longlegs Spiders?
their fangs. Cellar spiders are able to bite, but they
The common name “daddy-longlegs” is often
are harmless.
used for different things. Sometimes people use
it for cellar spiders in the family Pholcidae, and
other times it is used to describe a harvestman,
an eight-legged arachnid that is not even in the
same order as spiders. Harvestmen are in the
order Opiliones. Instead of having two body
segments like spiders, they have only one, and
they have only two eyes. Harvestmen do not
produce silk, nor do they produce venom—in

PY
fact, they don’t even have fangs or venom glands.

O
So, the answer to the question “Are daddy-long-

C
legs spiders?” is YES if we’re talking about a true

W
Cellar spiders in the family Pholcidae are sometimes mistaken
daddy-longlegs cellar spider in the family Pholcidae,

IE
for harvestmen (Opiliones) because of their long legs.
Photo by Rick Vetter.

EV
but the answer is NO if we’re talking about a
harvestman in the order Opiliones.
R
SE
R
U
O
C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN

Harvestmen, like this daddy-longlegs, are not spiders.

A cellar spider in the family Pholcidae, with two eyes in the They have only one body part and only two eyes. Photo by
LL

middle and three on each side. Photo by Stoy Hedges. David Cappaert, Michigan State University, Bugwood.org.
O
R

Hobo spiders (Eratigena agrestis, formerly known

as Tegenaria agrestis) are found principally in the
Pacific Northwest, from Washington and Oregon
to western Montana and western Wyoming, with
recent finds in Colorado and Ontario, Canada. They
are thought to have been introduced to the U.S. in
the 1930s through the port of Seattle, WA. These
large spiders are 1½–2 inches (4-5 cm) in diameter,
(including the legs), hairy, and mostly brown with
stripes on the abdomen that meet at an angle.
Their legs are brown without any dark bands, and
they have eight eyes that are arranged in two rows
of four.
A hobo spider (Eratigena agrestis). Photo by Rick Vetter.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Hobo spiders belong to the family Agelenidae, rocks, logs, and other things on the ground. Both
members of which are also known as funnel weavers. species are found in all or most of the U.S., and
These spiders create funnel-like webs in holes or they are known to bite people on occasion.
cracks in walls, firewood piles, stacks of bricks, and
other places. Hobo spiders do not climb, but are Sac spider venom is thought to be necrotic, like
fast runners. They are not aggressive, but will bite that of the brown recluse, although this has been
if provoked. Two other closely related funnel weaver questioned because necrosis is relatively rare.
spiders, the barn funnel weaver (Tegenaria domestica) Recent laboratory assays seem to confirm that sac
and the giant house spider (Eratigena atrica), are spider venom is destructive to human blood cells,
difficult to distinguish from the hobo spider and they a sign of a necrotic toxin. However, people that are
occur in the same geographical range. bitten tend to heal quickly. Bites are initially painful,
then they itch and become red within 30 minutes,
but most bites heal completely within two days.

PY
O
C
W
IE
EV
R
SE
R

A funnel weaver spider in the family Agelenidae.

U

Photo by Stoy Hedges.

O
C

Beginning in the 1990s, unconfirmed reports were

EP

made that hobo spiders possessed a necrotic venom

PR

The yellow sac spider (Cheiracanthium mildei) has eight eyes

that caused a moderate to severe, slow-healing
arranged in two rows of four. Photo courtesy of the National Pest
wound, with medically important side effects. This
E

Management Association.
AC

has since been disputed. There appear to be no

medically verified cases in the U.S. of hobo spider Wolf spiders in the family Lycosidae are common
S

bites causing necrotic damage, nor is there a backyard and field spiders. There are more than
IN

history of such damage in Europe where the spider 200 species in North America, some large (up to
LL

is native. Also, laboratory assays now support the 3 inches long, or 7.6 cm) and some small. Many
O

conclusion that hobo spider venom is not cytotoxic

R

species have distinctive dark stripes on the

to human blood cells. cephalothorax.

Sac spiders belong to the spider family Eutichuridae The eye pattern of wolf spiders sets them apart
(formerly, they were in Clubionidae and then from most other spiders. Instead of two rows of four
Miturgidae). Sac spiders do not build traditional eyes, their eyes are arranged in a 4-2-2 pattern:
webs, but instead spin flattened tubes that look four small eyes on the bottom, two very large eyes in
like sacs. The two most important structural pest the middle, and two more on the top of their heads.
species are the agrarian sac spider (Cheiracanthium Also, if a spider is seen carrying an egg sac at the
inclusum) and the yellow sac spider (Cheiracanthium tip of its abdomen using the spinnerets, it is a wolf
mildei). These small spiders are about 1/4–3/8 inch spider. Once hatched, the young spiderlings hitch a
(5-10 mm) long, pale-yellow, and have eight eyes ride on their mother’s back for a while.
that are arranged in two rows of four. In homes and
other structures, they spin their silk sacs in ceiling Due to their large size, fast running abilities, and
corners, and they can be seen running across fearsome appearance, wolf spiders are often
ceilings at night. Outdoors, they build retreats under thought to be dangerous. However, wolf spiders are

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

highly beneficial predators outdoors and are mostly

harmless to people.

Wolf spiders are active hunters. They do not spin

webs, but live instead in burrows in the ground,
under stones, in wood piles, under leaf litter, and
other places. If found indoors, they will likely be
seen at floor level. They will bite if threatened, but
the pain from a bite is more likely to come from their
powerful jaws than from the venom, of which they
inject very little. Herpyllus ecclesiasticus, a ground spider in the family
Gnaphosidae. Notice the long spinnerets at the tip of the
Tightly sealed door thresholds are the best control abdomen. Photo by Joseph Berger, Bugwood.org.
for wolf spiders. Because they are beneficial and
relatively harmless, they can be trapped in containers Jumping spiders are hunting spiders in the largest

PY
and set free outside. spider family, Salticidae, and there are more than
300 species in North America. As their name

O
C
implies, they are able to jump, which they do

W
when capturing prey. These spiders have two large

IE
forward eyes, along with six smaller eyes, and they

EV
may have better vision than all other spiders. They
feed on flies, ants, and nearly any other crawling
R
arthropod. They are commonly seen in brightly lit
SE

areas, such as windowsills and car dashboards.

R

Some are very small, but others may be as long as

U
O

7/8-inch (22 mm).

C
EP

Wolf spiders like this one have four small lower eyes, two big eyes
in the middle, and two more small or medium-sized eyes on top.
PR

Photo by Stoy Hedges.

E

Ground spiders are hunting spiders in the family

AC

Gnaphosidae. There are more than 250 species in

S

North America. They are generally small (1/16–7/16

IN

inch; 2-12 mm long) and their colors can be brown,

LL

gray, tan, or black. They can be recognized by an

O

unusual pair of enlongate spinnerets. They have

R

eight eyes that are the same size but different

shapes—some are elliptical and some are circular. Phidippus comatus, a jumping spider in the family Salticidae.
Like all jumping spiders, it has two large eyes that are front and
Ground spiders are mainly outdoor hunters, but center, plus six smaller eyes. Photo by Rick Vetter.
they can make their way indoors as well, usually in
low numbers. They are able to bite, but the resulting Jumping spiders’ excellent vision makes them highly
wounds are not serious and are self-healing. effective at hunting, which they mainly do outdoors.
If they do make their way indoors, they may be seen
hunting near windows and doors. They do not spin
webs, but they do create retreats out of silk, which
may be found behind curtains, under furniture, and
other places. Some of the larger ones are capable of
biting people, but their venom is mild.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

reptiles, humans, and other mammals. Some ticks

Is it Poisonous or Venomous? are pests simply because their bites cause irritation
or discomfort. Others are medically important pests
People sometimes talk about spiders, of humans, livestock, and pets because of their
snakes, or scorpions that are “poisonous.” ability to transmit pathogens that cause Lyme
disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularemia,
However, none of them are. Some mushrooms,
babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis, and
berries, and animals may be poisonous other diseases. When working in tick-infested areas,
when eaten or touched, but animals that long-sleeved shirts should be worn and tucked
deliver toxins through their fangs or stingers into pants, long pants should be tucked into boots
are said to be “venomous.” If a poison or or socks, and repellents such as DEET should be
venom has a negative effect on a target applied to clothing and/or skin.
organism, then it is said to be “toxic.”

PY
There are basically two different types of
venom used by spiders, bees, and other

O
C
biting or stinging arthropods, and each type

W
has its own mode of action. The first type is a

IE
neurotoxin that disrupts proper functioning of

EV
nerve cells. Black widow spiders and others
in the genus Latrodectus have neurotoxic
R
SE

venom, as do some scorpions and insects.

R

The second type is a cytotoxin, and it works

U
O

by destroying cell tissue, which can lead to

C

Ticks, such as this lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum),

tissue death (necrosis) in some cases. Brown require a bloodmeal at each instar stage, and females require a
EP

recluse spiders (Loxosceles reclusa) possess bloodmeal to produce eggs. Photo by Stoy Hedges.
PR

this type of venom. If bitten by a tick, the U.S. Centers for Disease
E

Control and Prevention recommend the following

AC

procedures:
S
IN

• Use fine-tipped tweezers to grasp the tick as

Ticks and Mites
LL

close to the skin’s surface as possible.

Ticks and mites belong to the arthropod group called
O

• Pull upwards with steady, even pressure. Don’t

R

Acari, a subclass of Arachnida (spiders, scorpions,

twist or jerk the tick—this can cause the
and other eight-legged arthropods). They are also
mouthparts to break off and remain in the
known as acarids. Like other arachnids, ticks and
skin. If this happens, remove the mouthparts
mites have two main body parts, the cephalothorax
with tweezers. If you are unable to remove the
and the abdomen, and they have no antennae.
mouth easily with clean tweezers, leave it alone
and let the skin heal.
TICKS
• After removing the tick, thoroughly clean the
Tick exoskeletons are generally tough and leathery. bite area and your hands with rubbing alcohol,
They do not go through metamorphosis, but do have an iodine scrub, or soap and water.
four life stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. The
larvae only have six legs, but nymphs and adults • Dispose of a live tick by submerging it in
have eight. alcohol, placing it in a sealed bag or container,
wrapping it tightly in tape, or flushing it down
Ticks must have a bloodmeal during each the toilet. Never crush a tick with your fingers.
developmental stage, and their hosts include birds,

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

• Ticks found on people should be removed Ticks are not difficult to identify to genus level with a
immediately in order to decrease the chances of microscope and a simple key, such as the CDC key
disease-pathogen transmission. If fine-tipped published in the NPMA Field Guide to Structural
tweezers are not available, the tick should be Pests and the Mallis Handbook of Pest Control.
removed by other means.
More than 90% of hard ticks are three-host ticks,
Ticks are generally organized into two different meaning they must feed on three separate hosts
groups: hard ticks in the family Ixodidae, and soft before reaching the adult stage. The potential of
ticks in the family Argasidae. Hard ticks get their three-host ticks to transmit disease-causing patho-
name from the hardened part of the dorsal (top) gens is high because each bloodmeal carries with it
portion of the exoskeleton, which is known as a a chance of transmitting a pathogen.
scutum. The scutum resembles a shield when the
tick is viewed from above, and the colors and Blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) and western
patterns of hard tick scuta vary from species to blacklegged ticks (Ixodes pacificus) are three-host
species. The bodies of hard ticks tend to be ticks that are capable of transmitting a bacterium

PY
tear-drop shaped. Soft ticks lack a scutum and called Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme
tend to be more ovoid in shape.

O
disease. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease

C
Control and Prevention, more than 300,000 Amer-
Soft Ticks

W
icans are diagnosed with Lyme disease each year,

IE
Soft ticks are generally considered to be livestock making it the most important tick-borne illness in

EV
pests because most do not feed on humans. the U.S. Most cases occur in New England (it was
However, two soft ticks, the relapsing fever tick R
first discovered in a town called Lyme, Connecticut),
SE
(Ornithodoros turicata) and a related species called but is found in other regions as well.
Ornithodoros hermsi, are medically important
R
U

because they can transmit pathogens that cause

O

tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) to humans.

C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN
LL
O
R

A blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis). Photo by Stoy Hedges.

Both adults and nymphs are able to transmit the

Lyme disease pathogen to humans, but nymphs are
the most likely to do so. This is due to the fact that
The bat tick (Carios kelleyi), a soft tick that may be found ticks must be attached to their hosts for at least 36
inside structures. Photo courtesy of the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention.
hours (in most cases) for the disease to be
transmitted. Adult ticks are large and are usually
Hard Ticks noticed earlier, but nymphs are smaller and are
more likely to go unnoticed for longer periods of
Hard ticks are more likely to be encountered by
time. For that reason, the risk of contracting
PMPs, are more likely to bite humans, and are more
Lyme disease is greatest from May to July, when
likely to transmit diseases. Important hard ticks in
blacklegged ticks are in the nymphal stage.
North America include the American dog tick, the
They can also transmit pathogens that cause
brown dog tick, the lone star tick, and the black-
anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and other diseases.
legged tick, which is also known as the deer tick.

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American dog ticks (Dermacentor variabilis) are

three-host ticks that are capable of transmitting a
bacterium called Rickettsia rickettsii, which causes
Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The larvae and
nymphs of this tick rarely bite humans, so the
disease is mainly transmitted by adults, which is
why it is most likely to occur in July when the ticks
reach the adult life stage. American dog ticks are
also capable of transmitting tularemia and canine
tick paralysis.

Ticks, like this female Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor

andersoni), find hosts through a behavior called “questing.” The
tick climbs to the top of a forb or blade of grass and waits for a
victim to pass by. Ticks do not drop on people, nor do they jump

PY
or fly. Photo courtesy of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.

O
C
Lone star ticks (Amblyomma americanum) are

W
known as such because of a lone, light-colored spot

IE
appearing on the female’s scutum (although it is

EV
round, not star-shaped). Lone star ticks are capable
R
of transmitting pathogens that cause Rocky Mountain
SE
An American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis).
Photo by Stoy Hedges.
spotted fever, tularemia, tick paralysis, Heartland
R

virus, southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI),

U

Brown dog ticks (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) are and other diseases.

O
C

three-host ticks that are perhaps the most important

In backyards, playgrounds, and other areas, cultural
EP

structural tick pest because they are capable of

completing their entire life cycle indoors in the control measures such as mowing grass, trimming
PR

company of their canine hosts. Other tick species bushes and shrubs, and removing items that are
attractive to rodents can help prevent ticks by
E

live exclusively outdoors.

AC

denying them harborage and food sources. Ticks do

A single female brown dog tick can lay up to 5,000 not do well in low humidity and direct sunlight, so
S

eggs in her lifetime, and this reproductive potential removing sources of shade can also help.
IN

means that large indoor or backyard populations

LL

can develop quickly. Between bloodmeals, brown MITES

O
R

dog ticks typically hide in tiny vertical cracks, Mites are similar to ticks, but much smaller. Some
crevices, and other places off the ground. Resting cannot be seen with the naked eye. Most are
sites can include fences, tree trunks, and crevices soft-bodied, harmless predators of insects, or they
in walls and soffits. Indoors, these ticks frequently feed on decaying plant material. Some pest mites
rest on textured walls and ceilings. They are also feed on stored products like cheese and grain.
very adaptable—adults can live as long as 200 days Others are merely nuisance pests, accidentally
without a bloodmeal. As their name implies, these entering homes from their normal outdoor habitats.
ticks feed mainly on dogs, to which they are capable
of transmitting pathogens that cause ehrlichiosis Clover mites (Bryobia praetiosa) are sometimes
and babesiosis. They occasionally bite humans and found in homes and other structures. Although they
are capable of transferring Rickettsia rickettsii (the do not bite or transmit disease pathogens, clover
bacterium that causes Rocky Mountain spotted mites are considered nuisance pests because of
fever) to people in a relatively short amount of time their often-high numbers, and because crushing
(4-6 hours). Hence, it is very important to remove them may leave stains on curtains, carpets, or other
them as soon as they are found. surfaces. They can be identified by their long front
legs, which are longer than their bodies.

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House dust mites (Dermatophagoides spp.) are nest area should also be treated immediately with
among the tiniest (0.2-0.3 mm) of household pests. an approved pesticide in order to reduce the risk of
They do not bite, but are considered pests because live mites dispersing from the site and moving into
of their production of indoor allergens. High numbers other areas of the home.
of house dust mites can trigger allergies in people
and may serve as an asthma trigger. In recent years, the number of complaints about
biting mites in homes has increased, possibly due
to misinformation about them on some websites.
Biting mites are small, but they are visible (about
the size of a period). In most cases, a mite can
be seen while biting, and can be removed from
the skin with a piece of tape. If biting mites are
suspected to be in a structure, it is important to
confirm their presence by getting samples from the
customer or by using sticky cards or tape. The best

PY
samples are obtained by gently brushing mites into

O
a vial of alcohol with a wetted brush or tissue. They

C
A house dust mite (Dermatophagoides sp.) photographed using can also be collected for identification purposes by

W
an electron microscope. Notice the feces above and to the left. brushing them off of the victim’s skin and into vials

IE
These mites do not bite, but their feces contain allergens. containing alcohol.

EV
Photo by the USDA-ARS, Electron & Confocal Microscopy Unit,
Beltsville, MD by Dr. Gary Bauchan.
R
Although they will bite humans, neither bird nor
SE

The mites themselves do not float in the air. Instead, rodent mites are capable of reproduction without
their appropriate hosts, and removing bird or rodent
R

their microscopic fecal particles and shed exoskeleton

U

fragments become mixed with floating house dust. nests will ultimately eliminate mite infestations.
O

Most house dust mites live in mattresses and Some, such as the chicken mite (Dermanyssus
C

gallinae), can live for extended periods of time

EP

upholstered furniture. They are difficult to eradicate,

but they can be managed by physical control (possibly 5-12 months) without a host. However,
PR

methods that use heaters and/or dehumidifiers to most actively questing mites cannot survive more
than a week or two without sustenance from their
E

remove moisture from the air, since they do not fare

AC

well in low humidity. Dust mites cannot thrive when adaptive hosts.
relative humidity is less than 50%.
S

Chigger mites in the family Trombiculidae are

IN

Bird mites and rodent mites are occasional biting microscopic mites that live outdoors in grass, soil,
LL

pests of humans. Biting mite species include and weedy areas. Chigger mite larvae can bite
O

tropical rat mites (Ornithonyssus bacoti), house people. However, they do not burrow into the skin
R

mouse mites (Liponyssoides sanguineus), tropical as many believe. Instead, they pierce the skin with
fowl mites (Ornithonyssus bursa), and northern fowl their sharp mouthparts and inject a digestive
mites (Ornithonyssus sylviarum). enzyme that disintegrates the skin cells. The skin
then swells around the mite, making the pest
Biting mites may become household pests when difficult to see or remove. Itching may not occur
birds or rodents are allowed to nest in or on a for several hours after exposure, so people may
structure. Because they are so small (0.75-1.4 mistakenly believe that they are being bitten by
mm), they are often not detected until humans are mites that have infested their homes. Chigger bites
bitten. If mites are suspected to be present, the first can usually be diagnosed by their location. Bites
step is to conduct a thorough inspection for signs of tend to occur mostly on the ankles, groin, waist, or
bird or rodent activity. Birds and rodents should be legs, especially in areas of snug-fitting clothing.
eliminated, and any nests should be removed. The

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Scorpions are nocturnal, and during the day they

burrow into the ground or hide under rocks, wood,
or vegetation. Most scorpions live in dry, desert
areas, but some species are found in grasslands,
forests, and even inside caves. Scorpions are
predators of insects, spiders, lizards, and other
small animals, including other scorpions. They do
not make nests, and they hunt for their prey.

All scorpions possess neurotoxic venom and are

capable of stinging. However, they are usually not
aggressive and will hide when a perceived threat
A chigger mite larva (family: Trombiculidae) photographed appears. U.S. scorpion species typically deliver
using an electron microscope. Like most mite larvae, it has stings that are less painful than those of bees or
only six legs. Photo by the USDA-ARS, Electron & Confocal
wasps. Stings from most scorpions result in

PY
Microscopy Unit, Beltsville, MD by Dr. Gary Bauchan.
symptoms such as numbness, pain, cramps,

O
Scabies mites (Sarcoptes scabiei) are also muscle twitching, or burning. However, symptoms

C
microscopic (0.18-0.45 mm) and cannot be seen usually subside within 1-48 hours.

W
with the naked eye. Scabies mites are one of the

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very few true arthropod parasites of human skin.

EV
Females burrow through, and feed on, human skin.
Infestations occur on the wrists, hands, elbows, R
SE

buttocks, backs of knees, ankles, toes, breasts, and

R

male genitals. They do not feed on the face or head.

U

They are transmitted mostly by physical contact with

O

infected humans or bed linens that were recently

C
EP

used by an infected person. The presence of

scabies mites is considered a medical issue, not
PR

a pest management issue. Infected people should

E

be examined by a physician, and pesticides should

AC

not be applied to homes for this pest. Nevertheless,

knowledge about scabies mite is important so that
S

Scorpions, like this female Arizona bark scorpion (Centruroides

IN

proper referrals can be made.

sculpturatus), give birth to live young, which they carry on their
LL

backs until it is time for their first molt—usually after 7-30

O

Scorpions days, depending on the species. Photo by Dawn Gouge.

R

Scorpions are arachnids in the order Scorpiones. The Arizona bark scorpion (Centruroides
According to most experts, scorpion bodies consist sculpturatus) is the only scorpion in the U.S. that
of three different regions: (1) the prosoma or head is a serious concern for human health. Stings from
region, which bears the pedipalps (pincers or these scorpions can cause acute pain, numbness,
claws); (2) the mesosoma or abdominal region, and a burning sensation that may last for several
which bears the legs; and (3) the metasoma region, days. In severe (but extremely rare) cases, they can
which includes the tail and the stinger. However, cause anaphylactic shock, respiratory paralysis,
it is also correct (and simpler) to identify only two and even death. Centruroides sculpturatus is about
body regions, the same ones that are used to 2½ inches (6.3 cm) long and is found in southern
describe other arachnids: the cephalothorax (prosoma) Arizona, California, and New Mexico.
and the abdomen (mesosoma and metasoma
together—which is also called the opisthosoma).

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If stung by a scorpion, the U.S. Centers for Disease • Pest-exclusion measures, including caulks and
Control and Prevention recommend the following copper or stainless-steel metal meshes, placed
steps: as fillers in utility penetrations, cracks, and
crevices are effective against intrusive pests.
• Contact a qualified healthcare provider or
• Repellents are the best tools for personal
poison control center for advice and medical
protection against many biting pests, including
instructions if you live in the region where the
chiggers, ticks, mosquitoes, and biting flies.
Arizona bark scorpion occurs, or if you have any
DEET is highly effective and long-lasting against
concern about your symptoms, or experience
mosquitoes, and can work reasonably well
significant swelling, hives, or difficulty breathing.
against ticks and chiggers. Other repellents—
• A cold compress may be applied directly to the such as picaridin, oil of lemon eucalyptus, and
sting site, but never submerge the affected limb IR-3535—can also provide protection. The U.S.
in ice water. EPA provides a list of effective repellents and
• Remain relaxed and calm. their expected durations at http://www2.epa.

PY
gov/insect-repellents.
• Do not take any sedatives.

O
• Remember the Pest Triangle discussed in an
• Capture the scorpion for identification if it is

C
earlier chapter. Removing places of harborage
possible to do so safely.

W
and sources of food and water can go a long

IE
way in managing biting and stinging pests.

EV
Scorpions can be especially difficult to control
with insecticides. The best management actions R
SE
involve exclusion (sealing cracks and other possible
entrance holes) and managing food sources
R
U

(e.g., insects attracted to outdoor lighting). Outdoor

O

control efforts include moving or eliminating loose

C

stones, woodpiles, and other potential hiding places.

EP

Scorpions tend to glow under ultraviolet light due to

PR

fluorescent chemicals in their exoskeletons, so they

can be detected at night with a black light and
E

then carefully removed with tongs or other tools.

AC

Insecticides can be used to supplement exclusion

S

and cultural control tactics.

IN
LL

Control of Biting and Stinging Pests

O
R

Biting and stinging pests are a diverse group, making

it difficult to generalize about control, but here are
some IPM tips:

• A vacuum cleaner or microfiber or webster-type

duster can be invaluable for keeping homes
and offices relatively spider-free. Vacuums have
the capability of removing not only webs, but
also the spiders and their egg cases.
• Sticky cards are excellent tools for monitoring
many spiders, scorpions, and mites. They are
less effective at monitoring bed bugs and ants.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Occasional Invaders and General Household Pests

Occasional invaders are defined as principally them to jump (or spring) distances that are many
outdoor-dwelling organisms that enter structures times their body lengths—some can jump as far as
accidentally, or when seeking shelter on a temporary 3-4 inches (7.5-10 cm).
or seasonal basis. They may be foraging for food or
water, looking for a warm place to overwinter, or they Springtails are common in all areas and seasons.
may just accidentally wander into a home or other Outdoors, they breed in turf, mulch, soil, and other
structure. Sometimes they are simply seeking shelter organic materials, and in areas associated with
from drought, heat, cold, or rain. Many different excess moisture.
types of arthropods can become occasional invaders,
Springtails are common indoor invaders, usually
and they are less frequently encountered than
entering under doors, around windows, and through

PY
common structural pests, like ants or cockroaches,
small cracks. They are commonly seen in sinks,
so identification can sometimes be challenging.

O
though it is unlikely that they emerge from drains.

C
The best defense against many occasional invaders In fact, sinks and bathtubs act as traps for spring-

W
is exclusion, often combined with changes to the tails and many small insects that fall in and cannot

IE
environment to make structures less attractive. escape. Typically, springtails that enter from the

EV
Many are drawn to lights, so removing or manipulating outside do not live long. On occasion, they may be
outdoor lights (using yellow bulbs instead of white R
found living indoors in the soil of potted plants or in
SE

ones, for example) will make a structure less attractive. other moist locations that sustain mold or mildew.
R

Many occasional invaders develop in humid sites

Most springtails feed on algae, bacteria, fungi, and
U

and feed on decaying organic matter, such as

O

decaying organic matter, but a few are predators of

mulch, rotting leaves, firewood, or grass clippings,
C

nematodes. Their tiny mouthparts are entognathic,

so removing these things from a building’s perimeter
EP

meaning they exist within a buccal pocket (a cheek

will deny them a food source. Many of these
PR

pouch) and cannot be extended to bite or chew on

pests—crickets, millipedes, springtails, root weevils,
tissues. There is no reputable evidence that they
centipedes, and others—enter structures in search
E

bite people, and they are not considered a significant

AC

of moisture, so running a dehumidifier (physical

threat to human health.
control) may also deter them.
S
IN

Once inside, vacuum cleaners (mechanical control)

LL

can be used to remove them. If insecticides are

O

used indoors, special care should be taken to avoid

R

leaving dead insects in wall voids or other hard-to-

reach places because they could attract secondary
pests such as dermestid beetles or rodents.

Springtails
Springtails are minute hexapods in the order A springtail (Collembola) magnified 48× using a microscope.
Collembola that are ¼-inch (1-5 mm) or smaller. On The white appendage to the left is the furcula, a tail-like
the underside of the abdomen, they have a peg-like structure that allows it to jump. Photo by the USDA-ARS,
Electron & Confocal Microscopy Unit, Beltsville, MD by
structure called a collophore which is not found in Jaden Freeze.
any other orders. The collophore plays a role in
water uptake. Another distinguishing feature is
known as a furcula, a tail-like structure that allows

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Earwigs In some areas they have become a serious

agricultural pest, feeding on more than 100 different
Earwigs, in the order Dermaptera, are insects that
host plants, including corn, soybeans, fruits, and
are commonly found in yards and gardens. Most
vegetables. They are also a serious nuisance pest
feed on soft plant matter, such as young leaves and
when they overwinter in homes and other buildings,
flower petals; others are predators of other insects,
sometimes in very high numbers.
and some are omnivorous (feeding on plant and
animal matter). They are easily recognized by the Adult brown marmorated stink bugs are about
pair of cerci (pincers) at the tip of the abdomen, ½-inch long (11-14 mm). When viewed from above,
which is used to manipulate food and during mating. they are shield-shaped with brown, marbled markings
(marmorated means “streaked like marble”). They
Earwigs are active at night and hide during the
can also be identified by a white band at the joint
day, seeking tight, slightly moist crevices—a habit
between the third and fourth (last) antennal segments.
which often causes them to incidentally wander into
buildings. Mulch, piled leaves, firewood, and other Brown marmorated stink bugs do not bite, nor do

PY
materials located near building foundations can they transmit diseases to humans or pets. However,
contribute to the numbers of earwigs that may enter

O
they can be serious nuisance pests in the fall when

C
adjacent buildings. Some species fly and are attracted they seek shelter for the winter, and they can

W
to lights at night, although the most common number in the hundreds or even thousands. Typical

IE
structure-invading species in much of the United of other stink bugs, they can produce an unpleasant

EV
States—the European earwig (Forficula auricularia) odor when crushed or disturbed.
—is flightless. R
SE
R
U
O
C
EP
PR
E
AC
S
IN

An earwig on gravel. Photo by Mike Merchant.

LL

A brown marmorated stink bug (Halymorpha halys). These

O

insects are pests of many agricultural crops and are occasional

R

True Bugs home invaders. Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management
Several hemipterans are considered to be Association.
occasional invaders. While many are seasonal
Boxelder bugs (Boisea trivittata) are attracted to and
outdoor pests that are simply drawn to lights and
feed principally on boxelder and other maple trees.
windows at night, others are likely to be more
Adults are about ½-inch long (11-14 mm), and are
troublesome in the fall.
mostly black with red markings. Females lay eggs
Brown marmorated stink bugs (Halymorpha halys) on or near the host trees in the spring, and nymphs
are an invasive species from Asia, first detected in hatch about two weeks later. In the fall, boxelder
Allentown, Pennsylvania in 1998. Since then, this bugs may gather in large groups on the sunny sides
insect has been reported from at least 40 states in of buildings, after which they enter in search of a
the U.S. and parts of Canada, although problems sheltered location to spend the winter.
are most common along the Atlantic coast states.
They can sometimes become very abundant in
buildings that are located near their host plants, and
they are one of the most commonly encountered

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

of the occasional invaders in most of the U.S. However, during the fall in some areas they may
Fortunately, their habits are very innocuous and enter structures in high numbers. During extreme
they rarely bite people. They are considered a infestations, they have been known to cause allergic
nuisance pest indoors because their feces can stain reactions in some people. They may also be associated
curtains, clothing, and other fabrics. with objectionable odors while living and after they die.

Western conifer-seed bugs (Leptoglossus occidentalis) Adults are 1/4–3/8 inch (6-10 mm) long, oval like
are native to North America, originally present in other lady beetles, and come in many different
the western states but now commonly found across colors—red, orange, yellow, brown, or black—which
most of the eastern U.S. and Canada. They develop is why they are said to be multicolored. Some have
on the seeds of conifers and many other plants, but as many as 19 black spots, while others have none.
generally do not cause any noticeable injuries in All have a black W-shape mark on the pronotum
yards or gardens. However, they will enter buildings behind the head.
in the early fall. They are fairly large insects, with
long hind legs, and they can produce a “piney” Ground beetles in the family Carabidae are predatory

PY
odor that may attract attention and concern. They insects that live outside under logs, stones, and

O
are sometimes mistaken for conenose bugs (kissing other objects, but occasionally make their way

C
bugs) or other assassin bugs, although western into homes. Ground beetles periodically become

W
conifer-seed bugs will not bite and are harmless to abundant during mating flights in some areas, and

IE
humans. are attracted by lights to structures at night. When

EV
the sun rises, they seek shelter in dark crevices and
R
commonly enter buildings via gaps under doors and
Beetles
SE
around windows. Control usually includes turning
There are more species of beetles (Coleoptera) than off or minimizing the use of outdoor lights, together
R
U

of any other insect group, so it’s not surprising that with mechanical barriers or insecticidal treatments
O

some are occasional invaders. Some notable ones at doors and windows. Mating flights typically last
C

are multicolored Asian lady beetles, ground beetles, only 1-2 weeks, after which ground beetles usually
EP

and elm leaf beetles. disappear.

PR

Elm leaf beetles (Xanthogaleruca luteola) feed on

E

certain species of elm trees, and can be abundant

AC

in some areas. Adults are about ¼-inch (5-7) mm

S

long and range in color from yellow to olive-green.

IN

The pronotum has a black stripe down the middle,

LL

with a dark dot on each side. Females lay eggs in

O

the spring on the leaves of elm trees. Both larvae

R

and adults eat the leaves, and may cause significant

damage to their hosts. In the fall, elm leaf beetle
adults seek shelter and frequently invade structur-
al wall voids, attics, and chimneys. They may also
invade living areas of buildings, where they can
A multicolored Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis). become a nuisance and can cause stains.
Photo courtesy of the National Pest Management Association.
Root weevils (Otiorhynchus spp.) are incidental
Multicolored Asian lady beetles (Harmonia axyridis) invaders of buildings in summer and early fall.
became established in North America during the Larval stages feed on roots of various plants and
past few decades. Typical of other lady beetles, they some are important pests of nursery crops. Adult
feed on many insects, particularly aphids, and they root weevils are flightless, but do crawl extensively
can be highly beneficial in managing pests of many at night. Root weevils—like most weevils—can be
crops, including those on soybeans and on trees. identified by their long snouts.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Crickets Camel crickets in the genus Ceuthophilus get their

name from the arched appearance of their bodies,
Crickets are common pests in some parts of the
which resembles a camel’s hump. Unlike house
country. The three most common structural pests
and field crickets, adult camel crickets have no
are house crickets, field crickets, and camel
wings and they do not chirp. They are often found
crickets (also known as cave crickets).
in greenhouses, but prefer cooler locations such as
House crickets (Acheta domesticus) get their basements, garages, storage rooms, wells, sewers,
name from their ability to live and form permanent and crawl spaces. They are known to feed on many
infestations indoors. These are the same crickets animal products, plant matter, fabrics, and other
that are frequently sold in pet stores as food for insects—they’ve even been observed eating clothes
tarantulas and reptiles. House crickets may also hung on clotheslines outside.
live outdoors and are often attracted to buildings
by porch or window lights. Their ability to climb Sowbugs and Pillbugs
gives them access to entrance holes that are high
Sowbugs and pillbugs are terrestrial crustaceans—

PY
above ground. Once inside, they seek warmth and
relatives of crabs, shrimp, and lobsters. Both
moisture, and infestations often occur during the

O
sowbugs and pillbugs are in the the order Isopoda

C
winter when they move inside seeking shelter. They
and require high moisture levels in order to respire

W
prefer warm areas near fireplaces, water heaters, or
(they have gills that must be kept moist).

IE
furnaces, but they can be found in other areas as

EV
well. House crickets can be nuisance pests because Pillbugs, also known as roly-polies because of their
of their chirping and their ability to damage clothing R
ability to roll into a tight ball, are gray to brownish
and even carpeting.
SE
and have seven pairs of legs. They feed on decaying
organic matter and occasionally young plants.
R
U
O

Sowbugs are also grayish, have seven pairs of

C

legs, and superficially resemble pillbugs. Sowbugs,

EP

however, have two prominent tail-like appendages

PR

projecting from the tail-end of their bodies. They are

unable to roll into tight balls like pillbugs.
E
AC

Thrips
S
IN

Thrips are tiny insects (0.5-2 mm) in the order

LL

Thysanoptera. They are strange creatures in many

O

ways. Females of many species reproduce via

R

A field cricket (Gryllus sp.). Photo by Mike Merchant. parthenogenesis (without the need for male
fertilization), and some adults are wingless. Their
Field crickets in the genus Gryllus are generally mouthparts differ from those of most insects, and
bigger and more robust than house crickets. Their are often described as “rasping-sucking.”
front wings are always shorter than their hindwings,
and their antennae are longer than their bodies. Most thrips feed on plants, although some are
Like house crickets, they are attracted to lights, predators, especially on other thrips. They are not
especially during mating seasons in the summer commonly found indoors, but can be very common
and early fall. Numbers of crickets during this time outside and may enter structures through window
can be overwhelming, and they can become a major screens. They may also be brought indoors on
nuisance for store owners who must sweep and clothes from clotheslines. They are capable of
remove large numbers of dead and dying crickets causing a mild, but irritating bite on the skin.
from sidewalks and store fronts. Unlike the house Washing the affected area should eliminate the
cricket, they are unable to survive long-term in an irritation.
indoor environment.

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Aquatic Insects (3-50 mm) long, and are flat and soft-bodied,
with long antennae, long wings, and typically two
Aquatic insects spend their early life stages in water.
cerci extending from the abdomen. They have
Some well-known examples include mosquitoes and
chewing mouthparts, and they undergo gradual
dragonflies. Others that may be less well-known,
metamorphosis.
depending on your location, include mayflies,
stoneflies, and caddisflies. Nymphs of some aquatic Adults of some species live for only a few days, but
insects (mayflies, dragonflies, damselflies, and some live as long as five weeks. Some species feed
stoneflies) are called naiads. Normally considered on pollen or other plant matter, and some do not
harmless or even beneficial, aquatic insects can feed at all. Adults of some species are attracted to
become nuisance pests during major emergences. lights at night.
Mayflies are in the order Ephemeroptera, and more Caddisflies are in the order Trichoptera, with
than 600 species are found in North America. The more than 1,200 species in North America. Tricho
order name comes from their short adult life spans means “hairy,” a reference to the tiny hair-like

PY
(ephemero means “short lived”), which often last for scales that cover their wings. Adults range in size
only a day. Adults range in size from 1/8–1¼ inch

O
from 1.5-40 mm (up to 1.5 inches) in length. They

C
(3-30 mm) long, and they have short, bristle-like have sponging mouthparts and antennae that are

W
antennae, membranous wings, and two or three often as long or longer than their bodies. Caddisflies

IE
tail-like appendages that extend from the abdomen. undergo complete metamorphosis.

EV
Like the other aquatic insects, adult caddisflies
R
may emerge and swarm in great numbers, and are
SE

attracted to lights. However, they do not live long in

R

the adult life stage. Some people who are exposed

U
O

to caddisflies may have allergic reactions or asthma

C

attacks.
EP
PR
E
AC

An adult mayfly. Photo courtesy of the National Pest

Management Association.
S
IN

Adults that emerge from ponds, lakes, rivers, or

LL

streams often do so in large numbers. In some

O

midwestern states, especially, swarms can become

R

a major problem when they die, leaving billions of An adult caddisfly. Photo courtesy of the National Pest
corpses on roads, bridges, and streets. They have Management Association.
even been known to cause traffic accidents and
close down bridges and roadways. Mayfly exoskel-
etons may be allergenic to some people, triggering Other Occasional Invaders
asthma or other respiratory problems. Other pests that may be considered occasional
invaders are not included here because they have
Stoneflies are in the order Plecoptera, with more already been discussed. These include conenose
than 400 species in North America. The order name bugs, bat bugs, bird bugs, biting spiders, scorpions,
refers to their wings, which contain prominent veins centipedes, millipedes, and mites.
that form a twisting pattern when the insects are at
rest (pleco means “braided” or “twisted”). Stonefly
nymphs are often found under stones in rivers and
streams, which is probably how they got their
common name. Adults can be 1/8–2 inches

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Common Vertebrate Pests

Vertebrate pests—like rodents, bats, and birds— (Rattus rattus), and the Norway rat (Rattus
might not seem like suitable subjects to be included norvegicus), and proper identification is important
in an entomological text, but they do serve as hosts for management purposes (see table on facing page).
for certain insects and mites. The following is a brief
summary of information that references vertebrates Pesticides used for rodent control are known as
as hosts of arthropod parasites, and the pathogens rodenticides. Many rodenticides are anticoagulants
they are capable of transmitting. (blood thinners), which work by preventing blood
from clotting, so rodents die from internal bleeding
after ingesting them. Other rodenticides that are not
Rodents anticoagulants include zinc phosphide, bromethalin,
Commensal mice and rats are common pests and cholecalciferol. Since rodents are mammals—

PY
worldwide. In addition to being nuisances and like humans, dogs, and cats—rodenticides are toxic

O
spreading diseases, they pose serious threats to to us and our pets. For this reason, special care

C
property. For example, experts estimate that rodents must be taken when using rodenticides.

W
are responsible for nearly 25% of fires of unknown

IE
origin, due to their chewing on wiring. A relatively recent change to labels requires that

EV
baits be placed no farther than 100 feet (30 meters)
Rodents can harbor or transmit a number of R
from manmade structures in order to minimize the
SE

disease-causing pathogens. They are common impact on non-target organisms. A formerly

common practice of baiting fence lines is also no
R

hosts of ectoparasites like fleas, ticks, and mites,

U

which serve as vectors of disease-causing pathogens. longer allowed with most products. Be sure to read
O

The Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis), for the label of any bait product used to see if these
C

example, is infamous for its ability to transmit the restrictions apply. Rodent baits are most useful
EP

bacterium that causes bubonic plague from rodents against larger populations of rodents.
PR

to humans, and is the likely vector that caused the

death of millions of people in Europe and the Middle Both large and small infestations can often be
E

managed by using traps or other non-chemical

AC

East during the great plagues of the Middle Ages.

measures. Be sure to set traps properly. Rodents
S

Some rodent diseases can be transmitted directly learn from bad experiences and are not likely to get
IN

to humans without the assistance of arthropods. caught making the same mistake twice.
LL

The deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), for

O

example, is the primary carrier of hantavirus.

Bats
R

Humans can become infected with virus particles

through contact or inhalation of infected rodent Bats are mammals in the order Chiroptera. About
urine, saliva, or feces. In addition, food poisoning 40 different species of bats are found in the U.S.
caused by rodents is a great health threat. Some bat species are important predators of insects,
Salmonella and other bacteria may be spread to which is evident in their feces, which glisten with
food and food-preparation surfaces via rodent urine insect fragments. Some bats also contribute to
or droppings. Additionally, “MUPs” (major urinary pollination.
proteins) from rats and mice are potent allergens
Bats are capable of transmitting disease-causing
that are linked to asthma. MUPs can become
pathogens, such as the rabies virus, and fungal
airborne, so respiratory personal protective
pathogens such as Histoplasma capsulatum.
equipment may be needed when managing rodents.
H. capsulatum grows in bat feces in some parts of
The three most important rodent pests in the U.S. the U.S. and can become airborne and may cause
are the house mouse (Mus musculus), the roof rat a lung disease called histoplasmosis. Therefore,

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Important Identification Features of Rodents

House mouse Deer mouse Norway rat Roof rat

Brown rat, house rat, Black rat, fruit rat,
Other common names None None
wharf rat, sewer rat citrus rat
Tail has two-toned Shorter than Longer than
Tail Equal to head+body
color head+body head+body
Opening required for
adult animals to enter 1/4-inch (6 mm) 1/4-inch (6 mm) 1/2-inch (13 mm) 1/2-inch (13 mm)
a building
Usually 10-12 feet (3.5 me-
Larger area than
ters) from nest, but some- 100-450 feet (30-137 300 feet (91 meters)
Typical range house mouse;
times 20 feet (6 meters) or meters) from nest from nest
forages outdoors
more

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Seeks freestanding 1-2 ounces (3-6 cl) 1-2 ounces (3-6 cl)
Water requirements Requires very little water

O
water per day per day

C
Outdoors 6-8 inches
Usually above ground

W
Sheds and other (15-20 cm) below
in hollow trees, vines,

IE
Nesting preferences Appliances, wall voids structures in or ground; indoors in wall
attics, rafters, wall

EV
near wooded areas voids, under floors,
voids, etc.
etc.
R 1/2-inch long; pointed
SE
1/8–1/4 inch long;
Droppings 1/8–1/4 inch long; pointed 3/4-inch long; blunt or blunt, often with a
pointed
R

slight curve
U
O

Salmonellosis, Rickettsia spp., Rat-bite fever, Rat-bite fever,

C

Associated diseases leptospirosis, lymphocytic Primary transmitter salmonellosis, murine salmonellosis, murine
and pathogens choriomeningitis (LCM), of hantavirus typhus, listeriosis, typhus, listeriosis,
EP

others trichinosis, others trichinosis, others

PR
E

personal protective gear, including a respirator with Birds

AC

a particle filter, should be worn when inspecting a

Some birds, such as pigeons, European starlings,
S

bat-infested area.
IN

and house sparrows, can be structural pests.

LL

Bats can become nuisance pests if they are found Like rodents, they can spread diseases and may
O

colonizing structures, and they may also carry harbor ectoparasites (mites, insects, or ticks) that
R

parasites such as bat bugs (Cimex adjunctus or carry disease-causing pathogens. For example,
Cimex pilosellus), mites, ticks, and lice. However, starlings and house sparrows are associated with
because they are protected by federal and local histoplasmosis and other diseases, as well as mites
laws, control measures are mainly limited to that are capable of biting people.
exclusion and sanitation. Check your state and
European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), house
local regulations to see if there are restrictions on
sparrows (Passer domesticus), and pigeons
removing bats or blocking their roost sites during
(Columba livia) are the only birds that are not
specific times of the year.
protected by federal laws and may be killed or
removed without permits. However, state and local
laws may forbid these and other control methods.
Therefore, it is important to be familiar with state
and municipal regulations, and to be sure that
birds are identified correctly before control measures
are taken.

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CHAPTER 10: MAJOR STRUCTURAL PEST GROUPS

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome

Deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) are the Animals caught in snap traps may appear
primary transmitters of hantavirus to be dead, but will still bite if they can, so
pulmonary syndrome (HPS), a potentially PMPs should protect themselves accordingly
fatal disease. Deer mice are less common when collecting trapped rodents.
in urban areas, but may be frequently
encountered on farms and ranches and in It is important to wear the proper safety
rural communities and vacation homes. equipment when working in enclosed,
According to the U.S. Centers for Disease rodent-infested settings. PMPs who handle
Control and Prevention, HPS is also carried dead or live deer mice, or who clean or
by the cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), the remove their nests, should always wear
disposable gloves and an appropriate

PY
rice rat (Oryzomys palustris), the white-
respirator. According to the CDC, “The

O
footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus),

C
and possibly others that have not yet possibility of human exposure is greater in

W
been identified. indoor closed spaces, such as barns and

IE
sheds, that may be infested with rodents,”

EV
Hantavirus is a respiratory disease that and in such cases, respiratory protection
infects people who come into contact R
should be used.
SE

with the urine, feces, or saliva of infected

R

rodents, a common occupational risk for When work must be conducted in sites
U

thought to harbor deer mice, a 10% solution

O

PMPs. The principal means of contracting

C

hantavirus involves breathing in the virus of bleach (1 part chlorine bleach: 9 parts
EP

after it has become airborne from urine water) should first be used to thoroughly
PR

and dried feces. Hantavirus can also be settle dust and wet down the area. Afterwards,
transmitted by touching the eyes, nose, or the area can be cleaned with a shovel, mop,
E
AC

mouth after first touching droppings, urine, sponge, or towels. More detailed instructions
or nesting materials from infected rodents. from the CDC are available at http://www.cdc.
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gov/rodents/cleaning.
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People can also be infected if bitten.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 11

Problems Beyond the Realm of the PMP: Mystery

Bites, Medical Issues, and Delusional Infestations

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est management professionals provide a 3. The symptoms are real, but they are being caused
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valuable customer and societal service in by something else that is being blamed on insects
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face of some of the most unusual and difficult (illusional infestations). Possibilities include:
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pest-related cases. However, some pest control- a. Allergies

related calls go beyond the expertise and problem-
b. Dry skin
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solving skills of a PMP. Head lice infestations are

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a good example. Once an individual has been c. Diet deficiencies

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diagnosed with a head lice infestation, the problem d. Environmental irritants

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becomes one for a medical professional. Apart e. Drugs or alcohol

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from identifying the lice and advising the customer f. Side effects of medication
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to seek medical assistance, the role of the PMP is

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g. Disease (e.g., scabies, high blood pressure,

minor. The same would hold true for body lice and diabetes, bacterial or fungal infections,
scabies mites. anemia, liver disease, hypothyroidism,
“Mystery bites” or “invisible itches” provide another stress, and many others)
example. It is not uncommon for customers to insist 4. The pest problem is psychosomatic (delusional
that they or other family members are being bitten infestations).
or parasitized by insects or mites, even though a
thorough inspection fails to find any evidence of The most important role of the PMP is to absolutely
pests. These mystery bite cases can be a result of rule out the first possibility—that a pest problem
several possibilities, which include: has been overlooked—by conducting a thorough
inspection. A PMP may also have a role in the
1. A pest problem that has been overlooked. second possibility, and might try to assure a
2. A previous pest infestation that has left the customer that a prior infestation no longer exists.
customer unable to shake the feeling that pests However, possibilities 3 and 4 are problems that
are still around (phantom pests). can only be addressed by medical professionals.

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CHAPTER 11: PROBLEMS BEYOND THE REALM OF THE PMP: MYSTERY BITES, MEDICAL ISSUES, AND DELUSORY PARASITOSIS

To rule out pests as a possible explanation of • Bird and rodent mites. One of the most difficult
mystery bite complaints, a PMP needs to know pests to confirm because of their small size.
how to detect pests and must be familiar with pests Check for the presence of rodents, birds, or
that are difficult to diagnose. The use of monitors abandoned nests. Mites should be visible and
and conscientious documentation can confirm the relatively easy to pick up with a piece of tape
presence of pests or their absence. The most likely when the customer senses a bite. Sticky cards
pests, clues, and diagnostic techniques include: will also pick up biting mites. If no mites are
found on the sticky cards and the customer
• Lice and scabies. Should be diagnosed by cannot produce a mite, then they are probably
medical personnel. not present.
• Fleas. Identify with sticky traps, visual • Other mites may occasionally be found outdoors
inspection of premises, and pet inspection by or associated with certain agricultural or
the customer or a veterinarian. occupational settings (e.g., moldy straw, grain
• Chiggers. Identify by the pattern and location of storage facilities). These types of problems are

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bites, and whether or not the client has recently rare, and may require the assistance of an
experienced entomologist for confirmation.

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walked through tall grass or woods. The effects

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of chigger bites are delayed, typically not

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becoming noticeable until several hours after

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the encounter, and they do not persist for more

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than a few days to 1-2 weeks.
• Bed bugs. Can be difficult to find during low R
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levels of infestations. Use pitfall traps or CO2

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baited traps.
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• Bat bugs and bird bugs. The presence of the

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host animals (birds, bats) or their nests will

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be the source area of these insects. Their

appearance is very similar to bed bugs and
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expert identification may be necessary.

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• Conenosed (Triatoma) bugs. Large bugs that A straw itch mite (Pyemotes tritici) photographed using an
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bite exposed areas of skin while the victim is electron microscope. These mites attack insects that feed on
stored grain, and will also bite people. They are not considered
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sleeping.
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to be household pests, but under certain conditions, these and

• Mosquitoes. Flattened welts on skin, usually other rare mites may be the cause of “mystery bites.”
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Photo by the USDA-ARS, Electron & Confocal Microscopy

disappear within hours, but there can be great
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Unit, Beltsville, MD by Dr. Gary Bauchan.

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differences in individual responses to bites.

• Thrips. Effects of bites are mild and temporary, One of the most difficult situations a PMP can
and are easily soothed by washing. Most thrips face involves people who suffer from delusional
are encountered outdoors and their presence infestations (DI), also known as delusory parasitosis
on humans is transitory, but they will be present or Ekbom syndrome. People who suffer from
on the body when biting sensations occur, and delusional infestations believe that their skin and/
they can be picked up with a piece of sticky or bodies are infested by small parasites in the
tape. absence of any evidence. A delusion is a false belief
that is not consistent with a person’s intelligence,
• Spiders. Bites by spiders are very rare and
educational level, or cultural background, and that
involve only a few species among the dozens of
cannot be corrected by reasoning. Therefore, no
spiders that are common in and around homes.
amount of reasoning or assurance can persuade
If a spider is found on a sticky-trap monitoring
delusional people that a problem is “all in their
device, it should be identified to determine
head.”
whether or not it is one that may bite humans.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

Symptoms of delusional infestations include: dermatologist, or an allergist, and they and/or their
family members should be provided with educational
• Sensations that feel like something is crawling materials on mystery bites.
on or under the skin, or like tickling, stings, or
sharp bites. These situations are extremely sensitive because
• A high level of certainty that they know what is even though the individuals are delusional, they
going on. are still suffering due to their strong beliefs. In such
situations, a PMP can do the following:
• A high, sometimes unreasonable level of anxiety
about the problem. • Avoid referring to skin irritations as “bites”
• A logical and systematic approach to solving unless they have been confirmed. Instead,
the mystery that is consistent with a conviction acknowledge the “feelings” or the “biting
about the infestation. sensations.” The lesions themselves may be
called “wounds” or “sores.”
• Providing numerous samples from flooring,
• Place sticky cards around the home, especially

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bedding, skin, wash water, vacuum cleaner
bags, etc. in areas where the biting sensations are thought

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to occur. If possible, keep the cards in place

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• Describing the pest or its activities in great for at least one week to allow ample time to

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detail, sometimes including its daily habits, check for fleas, mites, or other crawling pests.

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life cycle, and ability to spread. However, the A stereoscope should be used to examine any

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descriptions usually make no biological sense, arthropods and debris stuck to the cards, and
and do not describe any real arthropod. R
results should be documented as accurately as
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• Inconsistent descriptions—for example, saying possible for future reference.

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the pest is too small to see and then describing • Check the premises for signs of rodent or
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its shape and color in great detail.

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bird infestations. Mites that feed on birds and

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• Significant monetary expenditures devoted to rodents can also bite people (although they
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solving the problem. will not hitchhike or live on humans). If bird or

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• Throwing out furniture, clothing, and vehicles; rodent nests are found, they should be removed
leaving home; burning personal belongings. and the nesting area should be treated with a
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dust or spray.
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• Repeated off-label and risky applications of

medication or insecticide to stop the “infestation.” • If bed bugs are suspected, use pitfall traps on
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the bed and around the home.

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• An actual pest infestation from the past that has

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triggered the delusions. • Keep an open mind and take complaints

seriously, but do not be pushed into applying
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• The ability to persuade others into sharing the

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pesticides without justification.

delusions.
• Explain that skin irritations are sometimes
Sufferers of delusional infestations often make the caused by other things (e.g., allergies,
situation worse by constant scratching, which can medication side effects) that may resemble
irritate the skin and cause rashes, wounds, sores, or insect bites. Include a family member or
other signs that may even look like insect bites. caregiver in the conversation if possible.
If an inspection reveals no actual pests but the • Do not imply that these clients are delusional.
customer insists on pesticide applications, it is Understand that mystery bite cases can be
usually best not to comply. Instead, the PMP should complex, and that mental-health diagnoses
explain that insecticides will not help the problem should be left to medical professionals. Do not
and may actually make symptoms worse if they laugh or make light of the situation. Remember,
are over-applied or used when not needed. These even if delusional, they are still suffering from
clients should be advised to visit a physician, a an illness they have no control over.

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• If no arthropod specimens can be found,

recommend that they see a physician or a
dermatologist. Let them know that the
physician can call you if there are questions
about the possibility of insect bites. However,
keep in mind that some medical professionals
may refer delusional patients to PMPs when
their conditions are misdiagnosed. Unfortunately,
not all physicians are familiar with delusional
infestation symptoms.

Delusional infestation should not be confused with

entomophobia, which is defined as an irrational fear
of insects, mites, spiders, or other arthropods. A

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person who screams at the sight of a cockroach, for
example, can be said to be entomophobic. A person

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who has delusory parasitosis, on the other hand,

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is one who strongly believes that his or her body is

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actually infested.

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Successful treatments for delusory parasitosis do R
exist. However, they must be prescribed and
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administered by a physician, dermatologist, or

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psychiatrist. If you can establish a relationship

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with a local medical professional who understands

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delusory parasitosis and its treatment, then you may

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be able to make good referrals for your customers.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

CHAPTER 12

Introduction to ACE Exam Preparation

By Chris Stelzig, ESA Director of Strategic Initiatives

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f you’re serious about preparing for the ACE exam, safety have been moved to an additional
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you might think about reading this chapter first. comprehensive exam that is required for ACE-I
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As Stephen Covey writes in his seminal book The certification. The country where you live and work
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7 Habits of Highly Effective People, always begin a will determine which ACE version you are eligible
day, task, or project (such as studying for your ACE for. Be sure to consult www.entocert.org for any
E

exam) with the end in mind as a way to develop a updates:

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clear vision of your desired direction and destination,

• ACE is for U.S. residents only. Apply for ACE if
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and then continue by flexing your proactive muscles

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to make things happen. you have at least five years of experience and
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hold an applicator’s license that allows you

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For you, as an ACE applicant, this means to start to apply pesticides without supervision (or you
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studying by knowing what to expect on the exam hold the highest level of license available in
and by deciding when you want to take it. The primary your state).
goal of this chapter is to ensure that applicants to • ACE-International is for non-U.S. residents with
the ACE program know (a) what to study, (b) what at least five years of experience. You do not
to expect on the exam, and more broadly, (c) what need to hold an applicator’s license. Instead,
to expect from the overall application and exam your pesticide knowledge will be assessed via
process. the second examination mentioned previously.

Two ACE Versions HOW MUCH SCIENCE IS ON THE EXAM?

The first thing to consider is which ACE version you One of the most common questions asked by
are eligible for. In October 2014 the ACE program applicants focuses on how detailed the exam is
went global when the ACE-International (ACE-I) (“Will I have to know scientific names and technical
exam was launched. The ACE-I is similar to the U.S. terms that I don’t use in day-to-day pest control?”).
version, but all of the questions regarding pesticide While the ACE exam is oriented towards practical

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CHAPTER 12: INTRODUCTION TO ACE EXAM PREPARATION

information, it will also test your knowledge and WHAT TO STUDY

understanding of the basic concepts of entomology.
Content Outline
You do not need to memorize scientific names The good news is that a thorough content outline
(genus and species) to pass the ACE exam, but you of material covered in the ACE exam is available on
are encouraged to learn some of the more important the ESA’s certification website (http://www.entocert.
ones anyway. Knowing some scientific names will org/studying-ace-exams). There you will find current
help you understand the difference between closely exam details, topic areas, a sample exam, and,
related insects, and it will give you the confidence to most importantly, the Content Outline (CO).
know exactly what kind of insect an exam question
refers to. It may surprise you to know that while the The CO is exactly what it sounds like—a detailed
ESA publishes a list of acceptable common names iteration of every topic that can be found on the ACE
for use by entomologists, your customers may use exam. (The ACE-I exams have their own outlines
completely different common names for the same found at www.entocert.org/ACEI_Study. The structure
pests. Also, many insects lack common names of the outlines is similar, but for the purposes of this

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entirely. Scientific names, on the other hand, are book, we’ll only review the ACE outline here.)

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universal and can be used to communicate

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effectively with professionals from all over the world. The CO was initially developed by a committee of

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pest management subject matter experts in 2004

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For purposes of clarity, the ACE exam will use the and was refined into its present format in 2013. The

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official ESA common name followed by the scientific ESA Certification Board may periodically update the
name when referring to a specific insect. As a R
outline, so you should always refer to the website
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prospective ACE, it is important to understand that to ensure that you are studying the most recent
there is one scientific name for each insect species, version.
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but you are not required to memorize them for the

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exam or for general usage. For example, the ACE Currently, the ACE exam CO contains four main
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candidate will not need to know that the scientific topical areas called Knowledge Domains. The
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name Musca domestica refers to the house fly. On Domains are then broken down into Skills, which
are broken down into Knowledge Needed to
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the exam, however, this pest would be listed as

“house fly (Musca domestica).” The scientific name Accomplish the Skill. The Knowledge Statements
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are the level to which the exam questions are

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brings clarity and helps the reader know that the

reference is not to any of the other indoor flies that written. There are hundreds of exam questions,
and each one relates back to a main Knowledge
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untrained people might refer to as house flies.

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Statement from the CO.

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As far as other terminology goes, this book discusses

The domains and the percentage of the exam that
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basic terminology used in insect biology and

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morphology (the external structure of insects). they cover are

Learning these terms will be helpful to you in your • Inspection and Identification (45%)
job and possibly on the exam. Pay special attention Questions that address this Domain will focus
to terms written in bold lettering or all caps, as some heavily on the actual daily work of a PMP—
questions may be looking for a negative answer identifying a problem. You will find questions
(e.g., “Which of the following insects is NOT likely about pest habitats, descriptions, identifying
to be found in a basement…”). There is also a insects indirectly (e.g., frass, exit holes, etc.),
glossary in the back of this study guide to assist you and conditions that may make a pest problem
with terms you may not have been taught before. more likely, such as branches that touch the
A larger entomological vocabulary will help you exterior of a house or a leaking sink drain.
observe and describe insects better to a degreed Questions from this Domain may also address
entomologist or pest control colleague. proper documentation of findings.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

• Selection and Implementation of Control

Who Decided What Went Into the Methods (28%)
ACE Content Outline? Questions from this Domain focus on performing
the work that was identified as required in the
Certification and professional credentialing is a business of first Domain. Once you’ve identified the pest,
consensus. That which becomes the industry standard brings you need to know what tools to use to treat the
great influence to decisions regarding the material which is problem in a safe and responsible manner.
included in the credentialing program.
Questions cover everything from label safety to
The ACE program was launched in 2004 with a content choosing the proper tool and knowing how to
outline originally drafted by the program creators. use it. You may also find questions on customer
communication.
As the program grew, the ESA invested in the ACE program
by hiring a professional certification consultant to oversee a • Evaluation (15%)
formalization of the exam’s content. Evaluating your work is an important part of the
In the spring of 2012, ESA convened a group of subject
IPM process. How effective was the treatment?

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matter experts (SME) to discuss the program. The SMEs Was there a reduction in pests? What are your
next steps? These are the types of questions

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developed a practice analysis—a list of overall skills required,

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knowledge needed, and pest expertise that is important for covered in this Domain. Once again, you may
a PMP to know. This analysis was then vetted by a survey of

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find questions that refer to types of information
industry professionals. While there is no certification industry

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standard for what dimensions must be examined in a you should communicate to the customer.

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practice analysis, frequency and importance are often cited. • Monitoring (12%)
In this case, both were examined, specifically: R
Another important aspect of IPM is realizing
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• How frequently a skill is performed and how that not every pest problem can be solved by
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important the skill is relative to proficiency as a using pesticides. Monitoring is often needed to
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pest management professional (considering safety determine the best course of action. Questions
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and results).
from this Domain address the selection and
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• How important a knowledge area is for accomplishing use of monitoring tools as well as documenting
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the skills listed.

the process.
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In addition, types of pests were also examined, specifically:

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PESTS FOUND ON THE EXAM

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• How frequently a pest is encountered.

• How important it is for a pest management professional The Content Outline also contains a list of pests of
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primary importance both in the U.S. and around

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to be able to inspect for, identify, monitor, and select

and implement control methods for the pest type. the world. The Content Outline will not cover every
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ESA invited more than 1,300 PMPs to participate in the pest you encounter, and you may find some that you
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survey, of which 430 replied (a 23.6% response rate, which don’t normally see on a daily basis. These are broken
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is deemed acceptable by industry standards). A further 120 down into eight topical areas, and the pests listed
responses were received from additional resources.
are found in decreasing order of likelihood to be
Based on the survey results, pests and skills that did not found on the exam. The pest areas are:
meet a minimum level of importance or impact based on
national findings were not included in the Content Outline • Biting and Stinging – Examples include bed
and thus are not tested on the ACE exam. and bat bugs (Cimex spp.), yellowjacket wasps
For the ACE-I exam Content Outlines, a similar (though less
(Vespula spp. and Dolichovespula maculata),
formal) process was followed. A new international panel of paper wasps (Polistes spp.), and mosquitoes
SMEs was convened which found that the vast majority of (family Culicidae).
global pests mirrored the ESA list, and the list of skills
required was virtually identical. Thus, with a few modifications • Flies (Order Diptera) – Examples include
that included conversion of exam questions to metric small fruit flies (Drosophila spp.), the house fly
measurements and removal of all U.S.-specific laws, the (Musca domestica) and lesser house fly (Fannia
Content Outlines for the ACE-I Core and ACE-I Pesticide canicularis), moth flies (family Psychodidae),
Safety exams were created.
and phorid flies (family Phoridae).

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CHAPTER 12: INTRODUCTION TO ACE EXAM PREPARATION

• Ants (Family Formicidae) – Examples include Knowledge Domains for ACE Exam
carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.), the odorous
house ant (Tapinoma sessile), the red imported
fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), and the pavement 15%
ant (Tetramorium caespitum). 45%
• Cockroaches (Order Blattodea) – Examples
include the German cockroach (Blattella 28%
germanica), the Asian cockroach (Blattella 12%
asahinai), the American cockroach (Periplaneta
americana), and the brownbanded cockroach
(Supella longipalpa).
• Stored-Product and Fabric Pests – Examples Inspections and Identification
include the Indian meal moth (Plodia Monitoring
interpunctella), the cigarette and drugstore Selection/Implementation of Control Methods

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beetle (Lasioderma serricorne and Stegobium Evaluation

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paniceum), carpet beetles (Anthrenus spp.

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and Attagenus spp.), and clothes moths

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(family Tineidae). The ACE brand is global. A customer should be able

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• Wood-Destroying Insects – Examples include to see the ACE logo on your uniform—whether you

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subterranean termites (Reticulitermes spp. are in Detroit, Dallas, Denver, Denmark, or Dubai
and Coptotermes spp.), carpenter ants
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—and know that you can treat a structural pest
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(Camponotus spp.), the Formosan subterranean problem using IPM techniques.

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termite (Coptotermes formosanus), and

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carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.). CODE OF ETHICS

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• Occasional Invaders and General Household All ACE applicants agree to the Code of Ethics
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Pests – Examples include springtails (order (COE). This document, along with your company
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Collembola), earwigs (order Dermaptera), policies and local/national laws, becomes a

and the brown marmorated stink bug guiding principle for how to manage expectations
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(Halymorpha halys). of performance and ethics. Specifically, the COE

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• Common Vertebrate Pests – Examples include addresses obligations to:

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the house mouse (Mus musculus), the Norway

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• Society
rat (Rattus norvegicus), roof rat (Rattus rattus),
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and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus). • The public

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• The profession
ACE applicants are strongly encouraged to consult • Employers and clients
the website for a current and complete list of all • Fellow professionals
pests that may be covered by the ACE exam and
to recall that they are listed in decreasing order of
likelihood of being found on the exam. There are questions on the ACE and ACE-I exams
that specifically relate to the COE, so an ACE
Again, looking at the list of pests, it is possible that aspirant should be well-versed in the Code. This is not
not all will be found in your area. However, according like the “terms and conditions” box that many people
to the panel of SMEs, these are the most important check without reading during online transactions.
structural pests found globally. PMPs who excel at The ACE COE, once signed, becomes a guiding
their jobs should be expected to know management principle for the ACE and sets his/her moral compass.
techniques for the most important worldwide pests. For the full text of the COE, see pages 10-11.

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 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

OTHER RESOURCES the Outline. The U.S. version of the exam has only
When the ACE exam first debuted, no fewer than 150 questions (slightly shorter for ACE-I), but there
seven study books were recommended. This are hundreds of questions loaded into the software.
eventually grew to 11 different items as recently The exam software is programmed to find a certain
as the summer of 2015. One of the purposes of number of questions to address each Knowledge
this book is to reduce the number of books that a Statement, and it randomly pulls from those in the
person needs to read in order to take and pass the database (see graphic).
ACE exam.
How to Study
As it is noted in the Introduction to this book, this
ACE Study Guide is meant to be used in conjunction For most people, the ACE Exam is not something
with the NPMA Field Guide to Structural Pests. that you can easily prepare for by fueling up for
Further, NPMA has also developed a webinar series a week on caffeine and late-night cram sessions.
that may be helpful for some applicants. Rather, this test is a “body of knowledge” exam that
takes diligent preparation to adequately get ready

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for an attempt. The Certification Board recommends
Types of Questions

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that applicants spend a minimum of 40 hours of

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The vast majority of the exam questions will be self-study to prepare for an exam attempt, regardless

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either true-false or multiple choice. Occasionally, the of the length of time that the applicant has been in

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exam will reference a graphic and ask the applicant the industry.

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to make a choice that has something to do with the
image on the screen.
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Everyone learns differently, and a good study tip
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for one person may not work for another, but these
suggestions have proven to be helpful to some prior
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All exam questions reference a specific Knowledge

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Statement from the Content Outline. These are applicants:

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broken down into three categories (easier, medium,

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and harder), and applicants can expect to find a 1. Start with the Content Outline: Like Covey wrote,
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range of these on any Knowledge Statement from begin with the end in mind. You know what will
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be on the exam, so start studying there.

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CHAPTER 12: INTRODUCTION TO ACE EXAM PREPARATION

2. Spend 15 Minutes a Day: We’re all busy and it The Exam

can be hard to imagine where to find the time
Both the ACE and the ACE-I exams are delivered
to study for 40 hours leading up to an exam
online in a proctored setting. Proctored means that
attempt. If you tried to do it all in a week, you
a supervisor is present with you for the duration of
probably couldn’t. But if you start prepping for
the exam, from when you first sit down at the
your exam well in advance of it, then you’ll likely
computer until you submit your final answer.
lower your stress levels and also learn more.
As the old saying goes, “The best time to plant Generally, the exam proctor is there with you in
a tree is 20 years ago. The second best time person, though ESA has partnered with an online
is right now.” In other words, start studying as proctoring service whereby a trained professional
soon as you can in order to prepare as well as proctor can supervise the exam via your computer’s
possible. web camera (see box on next page).
3. Form a Study Group: Some certification
applicants have found that they prepare best A week or so prior to the exam, ESA headquarters

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when they study as a group. Whether you will send your exam instructions to the proctor. At
meet weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, or otherwise the agreed-upon time, the applicant and proctor

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will meet and the test will be delivered. At the

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for breakfast, coffee, or just to study, a study
conclusion of the exam when you hit the final

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group provides a good opportunity to dig more

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deeply into some confusing topic areas, hone “submit” button, a preliminary score will be

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your knowledge, develop a sounding board for displayed and also sent to you as an email. The
questions and ideas, and develop a really good score will be reviewed by the exam administrators,
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and your official result should follow via email within
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peer set besides!
several days of completing the exam. Once the
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4. Consider a Review Course: Some state and exam browser window is closed, the exam process
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national pest management associations offer a is completed.

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review course. These typically will be a lecture

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on topics covered by the exam, followed by the

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THE ROLE OF THE PROCTOR

exam itself (if one wants to take it at that time).
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However, while a review course can be a great The proctor serves as a supervisor, not as an
way to hone your knowledge immediately prior instructor. As such, they do not need any pest
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management or entomological knowledge in order

AC

to an exam, it should not be considered as a

substitute for self-study and preparation. to proctor the exam. A proctor would never help you
S

to answer technical details of a question, but they

IN

5. Read, Read, Read: Stop playing solitaire on

can help if the exam is not functioning as expected.
LL

your phone when you have 15 minutes between

Some examples:
O

appointments and pick up a study source

R

instead. Proctor Proctor

Activity can assist cannot assist
6. Start Studying Early: Once an ACE application
is received, current rules for the ACE program Set up applicant to take the
X
exam on the computer
are that the applicant will need to take the exam
within one year of the approval, and must Answer questions about
X
Internet connections
ultimately pass it within three years of receiving
the approval. If applicants do not pass the Explain the meaning of a
X
question on the exam
exam, they need to wait at least three but no
Provide a definition of a
more than 12 months before taking the exam word found on the exam
X
again. One strategy to consider would be to
Contact ESA HQ if the exam
start studying prior to even applying for the fails to perform as expected
X
ACE exam in order to maximize the amount
Discuss the exam after it
of time you have as an applicant to earn a X
concludes
passing score.

198
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

The norm is for the applicant and the proctor to

Taking an Exam in Your Pajamas — arrange a mutually beneficial time to meet at the
The Benefit of Remote Proctors proctor’s office.

ESA contracts with a vendor to offer a proctoring Generally, the proctor will provide the computer for
option for those who do not work or live in areas the applicant, but again, there are no restrictions
with easy access to a traditional proctor (or on this. Applicants may bring their own computer,
choose not to use one for personal reasons). use a hotel computer, or use the proctor’s computer.
The exam may be taken on a laptop, desktop, or
A remote proctor (RP) is ideal for these instances. tablet (there is an app for iPads). It should not be
If this option is selected, the applicant pays a taken on a cell phone or similarly-sized device.
small fee to the proctor when scheduling the
exam. At the agreed-upon time, he or she will Applicants are not permitted to bring study books or
log into the computer via instructions provided notes to the exam. This is a closed-book examination.
by the RP. However, applicants are permitted to bring a blank

PY
sheet of paper for notes and a simple calculator (no

O
The RP will lead the applicant through a series cell phone calculator apps or graphing calculators

C
of security checks to ensure that the testing are permitted). The sheet of paper must be either

W
environment is secure and then assist as the remitted to the proctor or visibly destroyed at the

IE
exam is accessed. Throughout the exam, the conclusion of the exam.

EV
RP will monitor the applicant to ensure that no
outside resources are used to take the exam. R
Sample Questions
SE

For those who have extreme test-taking anxiety Code of Ethics

R

or are located in more remote areas, an RP

U

solution may be the best way to approach the 1. (True or False?) The Code of Ethics requires an
O

ACE to follow IPM guidelines.

C

ACE exam.
EP

2. (T/F) It is considered to be unethical for an ACE

to accept money from more than one source for
PR

The proctor may or may not have a prior relationship

with the applicant. If a conflict of interest between the same service provided, without the consent
E

the applicant and the proctor exists, ESA will seek of all interested parties.
AC

a different proctor (e.g., the proctor should not be 3. (T/F) An ACE is an entomologist.
S

an immediate family member or have a close and 4. (T/F) It is ethical for an ACE to review the
IN

personal relationship with the applicant). work of a former PMP without that person’s
LL

knowledge.
O

Generally speaking, ESA prefers the proctor to be

R

a Board Certified Entomologist (BCE). While ACEs

are permitted to proctor ACE exams for the U.S. Domain 1: Inspection and Identification
version, at this time they are not allowed to proctor 5. Which of the following statements is true
for ACE-International exams. Consult the website for regarding the odorous house ant (Tapinoma
more information on choosing a proctor. sessile) and the ghost ant (Tapinoma
melanocephalum)?
CHOOSING A TEST LOCATION
a. They are similar in appearance, but the
ESA places no restrictions on where a person ghost ant has a much lighter color to the
should test, but the applicant should give this some thorax.
consideration. You will want to find a test location
b. They are similar in appearance, but the
that is free of distractions, such as personal
ghost ant is larger and overall darker in
interruptions, barking dogs, phone calls, and
color.
ambient noise. However, ACE exams have been
taken everywhere, from private homes to classrooms c. They are different enough in appearance
to offices and even in a coffee shop. that there should be no confusion.

199
CHAPTER 12: INTRODUCTION TO ACE EXAM PREPARATION

d. They are similar in appearance, but the b. A means of chemical communication

ghost ant is smaller and has a lighter color whereby a substance produced by one
to the gaster. species benefits both itself and a different
species.
6. (T/F) The hobo spider (Eratigenta agrestis) is c. A means of audio communication whereby
a venomous spider that causes a slow-healing a noise produced by one species repels a
wound. different species.
d. A means of chemical communication
7. What type of metamorphosis does a bed bug go whereby a substance produced by one
through? species benefits a different species but
harms the emitter.
a. Complete
e. A means of chemical communication
b. Gradual
whereby a substance produced by one
c. Indirect species repels a different species.

PY
d. No metamorphosis

O
12. Which of the following is NOT a basic

C
8. Boxelder bugs (Boisea trivittata) have what type component of a monitoring program:

W
of mouthparts?
a. Visual inspection of an account

IE
a. Chewing

EV
b. Using traps to obtain samples of pests
b. Piercing-sucking and damage
R
c. Rasping-sucking
SE
c. Interviewing people familiar with the
d. Siphoning problem area
R
U

d. Recordkeeping
O

9. To what phylum do insects, spiders, and mites e. Treatment of the pest problem
C

all belong?
EP

a. Hexapoda 13. (T/F) When monitoring an account, it is

PR

b. Chelicerata advisable to periodically switch between active

E

c. Arthropoda and passive trap types.

AC

d. Arachnida
S

Domain 3: Selection and Implementation of

IN

10. Which of the following ant species has two Control Methods
LL

petioles (nodes)?
O

14. Which of the following steps are NOT part of the

R

a. Odorous house ant (Tapinoma sessile) IPM process?

b. Pharaoh ant (Monomorium pharaonis) a. Inspection
c. Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) b. Treatment
d. Ghost ant (Tapinoma melanocephalum) c. Pest identification
d. Pesticide application
Domain 2: Monitoring e. All of the above can be a part of the
11. Which of the following is the best definition of a IPM process
kairomone?
a. A means of audio communication whereby 15. Electrocution-type light traps are not allowed in
a noise preferred by one species benefits most food-handling areas because of problems
both itself and a different species. with (choose the BEST response):
a. The effect of UV light on some foods

200
 IPM FOR THE URBAN PROFESSIONAL

b. The potential of attracting flies to food-

handling areas Answers
c. Hazards of UV light to workers 1. True. IPM is an essential element of the ACE
d. Contamination of food-preparation areas program.
2. True. Customers must be treated fairly and
16. (T/F) The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and honestly at all times.
Rodenticide Act requires certain information to 3. False. It requires an advanced degree to
be printed on each pesticide label. become an entomologist.
4. True. If the other PMP’s connection with the
17. What type of insecticide formulation consists of work has been terminated, then this would
an active ingredient sprayed onto or mixed with be ethical.
an edible substrate?
5. D
a. Emulsifiable concentrate
6. False. There are no medically verified cases

PY
b. Bait
in the U.S. of hobo spider bites causing

O
c. Granular necrotic damage.

C
d. Paste

W
7. B

IE
18. Which of the following insecticides is NOT 8. B

EV
considered to be a fumigant? 9. C
R
a. Methyl bromide 10. B
SE

b. Sulfuryl fluoride 11. D

R
U

c. Phosphine 12. E
O

d. Methyl parathion
C

13. False. When used as monitoring tools over a

EP

period of time, it is best to consistently use

Domain 4: Evaluation
PR

the same type of trap.

19. The insecticide imidacloprid works through 14. E
E
AC

what mode of action?

15. D
a. It affects the nervous system
S

16. True
IN

b. It affects metabolism
17. B
LL

c. It mimics juvenile hormones

O

18. D
d. It’s a physical poison
R

19. A
20. What federal regulatory agency that oversees 20. A
activities of the pest control industry was
established by President Nixon in 1970?
CONTACT INFORMATION FOR THE ACE PROGRAM:
a. Environmental Protection Agency
b. Department of Transportation Entomological Society of America Certification
c. Department of Homeland Security Corporation
3 Park Place, Suite 307
d. Food and Drug Administration
Annapolis, MD 21401-3722

Phone: 301-731-4535
Fax: 301-731-4538
Email: [email protected]

For more information, visit http://www.entocert.org.

201
Glossary of Terms
The following terms and definitions were originally published in the Entomological Society of America’s
Handbook of Household and Structural Insect Pests, edited by Susan C. Jones and Roger E. Gold.

abdomen. The third or most posterior of the three major body brachypterous. Having short wings that do not cover the
divisions of an insect. abdomen.

active ingredient. The substance in a pesticide that is brood. A group of offspring produced by a parent or parent
responsible for the pesticidal effect. Also known as toxicant. population that usually hatch and mature at about the same
time. In social Hymenoptera, the immature members of
aerosol insecticide. A pesticide formulation comprised of fine a colony collectively, including eggs, larvae, nymphs, and
airborne particles that may be solid or liquid. pupae.

PY
aestivate. To spend the summer (or a warm or dry period) in a budding. In social insects, the multiplication of colonies by

O
dormant condition; opposed to hibernate. the departure from the parental nest of one or more

C
reproductive forms, accompanied by groups of workers,

W
alate. The winged form of an insect, especially the winged, leaving behind comparable individuals to perpetuate the
reproductive forms of ants and termites.

IE
parental nest. The same as colony fission.

EV
anaphylaxis. Protein sensitization caused by a prior introduction callow. Recently molted adult that is not entirely hardened or
of the same protein into the body.
R
fully colored.
SE
anemic. Affected with anemia, a condition in which the red carapace. In Crustacea, the hard covering of the thorax.
corpuscles of the blood are reduced in number or deficient
R

in hemoglobin, causing paleness, shortness of breath, and carina (pl., carinae). An elevated ridge or keel.
U

heart palpitations.
O

caste. Any set of individuals in a colony that is morphologically

C

antennae. In larval and adult stages of an insect, the paired distinct and specialized in behavior.
EP

segmented appendages located on each side of the head

that function as sense organs. caterpillar. The larva of a moth, butterfly, skipper, or sawfly.
PR

antennal club. The enlarged distal segments of a clubbed cephalothorax. In spiders and other arachnids, the body region
E

antenna. consisting of head and thoracic segments.

AC

anterior. Toward the front, as opposed to posterior; in front of. cerci. A pair of appendages at the tip of the abdomen, usually
S

slender and segmented.

IN

apex (pl., apices). That part of any joint or segment opposite

the base or point of attachment to the body. chelicerae. A major element in the mouthparts of spiders and
LL

related arthropods; in the form of fangs, pincers, or piercing

O

apical. At, near, or pertaining to the end, tip, or outermost part. organs.
R

arthropods. Invertebrate animals with jointed appendages; chitin. A colorless nitrogenous polysaccharide occurring in the
members of the phylum Arthropoda. cuticle of arthropods.

bait. A pesticide formulation in which the active ingredient is chorion. The outer shell or covering of an insect egg.
mixed with food or an attractant carrier.
class. A subdivision of a phylum or subphylum, containing a
basal. At or near the point of attachment to the main body. group of related orders.

basis capituli. In ticks, the basal part of the false head. clavate. Thickening gradually toward the tip.

beak. The protruding mouthpart structures of a sucking insect; cloaca. The common chamber into which the anus and the
proboscis. gonopore open; rectum.

beneficial. A useful insect, often one that is a predator or clypeus. The part of the insect head that attaches posteriorly to
parasitoid of a harmful insect. the upper lip (labrum).

biological control. Using any biological agent (often an insect) cocoon. The silken or fibrous covering constructed by the larva
to control a pest. for protection during its pupal period.

bivoltine. Two generations per year.

202
colony. A group of individuals that cooperatively constructs eclosion. Emergence of the adult from the pupa; hatching of
nests or rears offspring. the larva from the egg.

comb. A row of hairs or bristles on the head of fleas. ecosystem. A living community and its nonliving environment.

complete metamorphosis. Having a complete transformation, ectoparasite. A parasite that lives on the outside of its host.
with egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages distinctly separated.
elytra (sing., elytron). The two thickened, hardened, or leathery
compound eye. An eye composed of many individual elements forewings of beetles and earwigs.
or ommatidia, each of which is represented externally by a
facet. emergence. The act of the adult insect leaving the pupal case
or the last nymphal skin.
copularium. The chamber initially excavated by termite
reproductives in which copulation occurs. emulsifiable concentrate. A type of formulation for spray ap-
plication consisting of a concentrated solution of a pesticide
costa (pl., costae). The thickened front vein or margin of an and an emulsifier in an organic solvent, which forms an

PY
insect’s wing. emulsion when added to water and agitated.

O
coxa (pl., coxae). The basal segment of the insect’s leg, by emulsifier. A surface-active chemical that reduces interfacial

C
which it is articulated to the body. tension and facilitates formation of an emulsion in which one

W
liquid is suspended as small droplets in another liquid.

IE
crochets. Curved spines or hooks on the underside of the
prolegs of caterpillars. emulsion. A mixture in which very small droplets of one liquid

EV
are suspended in another liquid.
cuticle. The outer covering of an insect formed by a layer of R
chitin. endoparasite. A parasitic organism that lives inside its host.
SE

cyst. A sac, vesicle, or bladderlike structure. entomophagous. Insect-eating.

R
U

cysticercoid. Second stage larva of the tapeworm Dipylidium exoskeleton. The skeleton or supporting structure on the
O

which is infective to the dog or cat upon ingestion. outside of the body.
C
EP

cytolytic. Causing the disintegration of cells. exotic. Introduced from a foreign country.
PR

dealate. An individual that has shed its wings. exuvium (pl., exuviae). The cast skin of larvae or nymphs at
metamorphosis.
E

dermatitis. An inflammation of the skin.

AC

family. A subdivision of an order, suborder, or superfamily, and

developmental threshold. The minimum temperature required containing a group of related genera, tribes, or subfamilies.
S

for development. Family names end in idae.

IN

diapause. At any stage in the life cycle, a physiological state of femur (pl., femora). The upper part or “thigh” of the insect leg;
LL

arrested development and reduced metabolic rate, during usually the largest segment of the leg, located between the
O

which growth and differentiation cease; a period of trochanter and the tibia.
R

dormancy.
feral. Wild, including having escaped from domestication and
disc. The central upper surface of any part; the central area of become wild.
a wing.
filiform. Threadlike; slender and of equal diameter.
distal. That part of a segment or appendage farthest from the
body. fission. In social insects, the multiplication of colonies by
the departure from the parental nest of one or more
diurnal. Active during the daytime. reproductive forms, accompanied by groups of workers,
leaving behind comparable individuals to perpetuate the
dormancy. A state of reduced physiological activity. parental nest. The same as colony budding.
dorsal. Pertaining to the upper surface, back, or top side. fontanelle. In termites, the opening of the frontal pore on the
surface of the head.
dorsum. The upper surface, back, or top side.
forewing. The anterior or front pair of wings.
dust. A ready-to-use pesticide formulation, usually consisting of
an active ingredient and an inert carrier. formulation. A preparation containing a pesticide in a form
suitable for practical use.
ecdysis. Molting; the process of shedding the exoskeleton.
frass. Solid excrement and/or wood fibers.

203
fumigant. A chemical which, at a required temperature and hemimetabolous. Undergoing development that is gradual and
pressure, can exist in the gaseous state in sufficient lacks a sharp separation into larval, pupal, and adult stages
concentration to be lethal to a given pest organism. (larval stages [nymphs] are often similar to adults in
appearance and feeding behavior). Undergoing simple,
fumigation. The use of a toxic gas to control pests. incomplete metamorphosis.

gallery. A long, narrow passage in wood chewed by a tunneling hemolytic. Causing the dissolution of red blood corpuscles with
insect. liberation of their hemoglobin.

gaster. In ants and wasps, the rounded part of the abdomen herbivorous. Feeding on plants.
that is rear of the nodelike segment(s).
hibernate. To pass the winter in a dormant state.
gena. The cheek; the part of the head on each side below the
eyes, extending to the gular suture. hindgut. The posterior region of the digestive tract, between the
midgut and anus.
genal comb. In fleas, a row of strong spines borne on the

PY
lateroventral border of the head. holometabolous. Having a complete transformation, with
egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages distinctly separated.

O
generation. A group of offspring of the same species that Undergoing complete metamorphosis.

C
develop in approximately the same time frame.

W
honey. The thickened and partly digested nectar of flowers

IE
genitalia. Sexual organs and associated structures. produced by various bees and used as food for the larvae.

EV
genu. The joint between femur and tibia; the knee. honeydew. A sweetish excretion produced by some Homoptera.

genus (pl., genera). A group of closely related species; the first

R
hyaline. Transparent or partly so.
SE
name in a binomial or trinomial scientific name. The genus
name is Latinized, capitalized and, when printed, italicized. hypostome. In ticks, a dartlike structure arising from the
R

median ventral surface of the false head (basis capituli).

U

gland. A cellular organ or structure that secretes certain

O

characteristic products (e.g., hormones, saliva, silk, wax). incomplete metamorphosis. Undergoing development that
C

is gradual and lacks a sharp separation into larval, pupal,

EP

gonopore. The external opening of the reproductive organs. and adult stages (larval stages [nymphs] are often similar to
adults in appearance and feeding behavior).
PR

granule. A type of formulation for dry application consisting of

granules that serve as a carrier for the pesticide. indigenous. Native to an area.
E
AC

gregarious. Occurring in aggregations or groups. inert ingredient. Any material in a pesticide formulation having
no pesticidal action itself.
S

grub. An insect larva, usually with specific reference to

IN

Coleoptera and some Hymenoptera. insect growth regulator (IGR). A chemical substance that
LL

disrupts the action of insect hormones controlling molting

gyne. The female or queen ant or wasp. and development.
O
R

habitat. The natural abode of a plant or animal, especially the insectivorous. Feeding on insects.
particular location where it normally lives.
instar. The period or stage between successive molts or
hemorrhagic. Causing discharge of blood from a ruptured shedding of the exoskeleton, usually numbered.
vessel.
integrated pest management (IPM). A system of economically
halter (pl., halteres). A small knobbed structure, representing and environmentally sound practices to reduce the deleterious
the hind wing, on each side of the metathorax of true flies impact of pest activities; frequently associated with the use
(Diptera). of multiple management tactics (e.g., pesticides, cultural
control, mechanical control, biological control).
head. The anterior body region, which bears the eyes, antennae,
and mouthparts. king. In termites, a fully sexually developed male.
head capsule. The combined sclerites of the head that form a larva (pl., larvae). An immature stage that is radically different
hard, compact case. in form from the adult insect (often called a caterpillar, slug,
maggot, or grub, depending on the kind of insect). In
heartwood. The nonliving inner core of wood, usually darker termites, an early instar, nonreproductive individual that
than sapwood. lacks any external trace of wing buds or soldier characteristics.
hemielytron (pl., hemielytra). The front wing of Hemiptera, lateral. Of or pertaining to the side.
the basal half of which is thickened and the rear is
membranous.

204
life cycle. The period between egg deposition and attainment ocellus (pl., ocelli). A simple eye, consisting of a single
of sexual maturity as indicated by egg laying. beadlike lens, occurring singly or in small groups.

macropterous. Long- or large-winged. omnivorous. Feeding on a variety of substances of both animal

and vegetable origin.
maggot. The legless larva of a true fly (Diptera).
ootheca (pl., oothecae). The covering or case containing the
mandibles. The first pair of jaws of insects, usually stout and egg mass as a whole.
toothlike.
order. A subdivision of a class or subclass, containing a group
masticatory. Mouthparts formed for chewing and grinding. of related families.

maxilla. The hind or second set of jaws behind the mandibles. ornamental. A plant grown of its aesthetic qualities.

median. In the middle; along the midline of the body. overwinter. To survive the winter.

PY
mesophyll. The leaf substance lying between the upper and oviposition. Egg laying.
lower epidermis.

O
ovipositor. A tubular structure at the rear end of a female

C
mesopleuron. The sclerites along the side of the mesothorax. insect, used to deposit eggs.

W
mesothorax. The middle or second segment of the thorax. palp (palpus) (pl., palpi). A jointed sensory appendage of the

IE
mouth.

EV
metamorphosis. The process of changes that an insect passes
through during its growth from egg to adult. parasite. Any animal that obtains nourishment by living in or on
R
another living organism, which is injured or killed.
SE
metathorax. The third or posterior segment of the thorax.
parasitoid. An arthropod that parasitizes and kills an arthropod
R

microencapsuled insecticides. A pesticide formulation con- host; parasitic in the immature stages but free-living as an
U

taining suspended particles or droplets of the chemical in adult.

O

plastic polymers of various types. Also known as capsule

C

suspensions. parthenogenesis. Reproduction by direct growth of egg cells

EP

without fertilization by the male.

molt. To cast off or shed the outer skin (exoskeleton) at certain
PR

intervals to accommodate growth of the body. pathogen. A disease-causing organism.

E

monomorphic. Having only one form. pedicel. In ants, the “waist”, which is made up of either one
AC

segment (the petiole) or two segments (the petiole and the

morphological. Relating to form and structure as opposed to postpetiole).
function.
S
IN

pedipalps. In Chelicerata, the second pair of appendages in the

morphology. The science of form or structure. cephalothorax, used in crushing prey.
LL
O

moth. An adult insect (Lepidoptera) with two pairs of scale- penultimate. Next to the last.
R

covered wings and variously shaped (but never clubbed)

antennae. peridomestic. Pertaining to cockroach species that commonly
occur around the periphery of structures and in disturbed
multivoltine. Having more than one generation in a year or outdoor sites.
season.
peripheral. Relating to the outer margin.
myiasis. Disease or injury caused by the invasion of fly (Diptera)
larvae. petiole. In ants, the first segment of the “waist” (pedicel).

neotenic. In termites, a reproductive that retains some juvenile phenology, phenological. Temporal and seasonal pattern of
characteristics. life-history events in plants and animals.

nocturnal. Active at night. pheromone. A chemical substance secreted by an animal that

influences the behavior of other individuals of the same
node. A knoblike swelling. species.
nuptial flight. In social insects, the mating or pairing flight of phloem. Inner bark; food-conducting tissue.
the winged males and females.
phragmosis. The habit exhibited by insects of closing the
nymph. An immature stage in insects with incomplete entrances to nests or burrows with portions of the head.
metamorphosis. In termites, immature individuals that
possess external wing buds.

205
phylum. One of the dozen or so major divisions of the animal residual insecticide. An insecticide that remains capable of
kingdom. killing insects that contact treated surfaces long after the
application.
phytophagous. Feeding upon plants.
resistance. The ability of pests to avoid or mitigate the toxic
phytotoxic. Toxic to some plants. effects of pesticides, whether by physical, physiological, or
behavioral means.
pilose. Covered with hair.
respiration. The process of breathing; oxygenation of tissues
polymorphic. Having many different forms or sizes. and elimination of gaseous or vaporized waste products from
the blood.
polyphagous. Eating many kinds of foods.
retractile. Capable of being produced and drawn back or
postclypeus. The posterior or upper part of the clypeus when retracted.
any line of demarcation exists.
riparian. Pertaining to the banks of a river, lake, or other body

PY
posterior. Toward the rear, as opposed to anterior. of water.

O
predator. An animal that attacks and feeds on other animals rostrum. A beak or snout.

C
(its prey).

W
sapwood. The softer part of the wood between the bark and the
prepupa. A transitional quiescent stage between the end of the

IE
central heartwood.
larval period and the pupal period.

EV
scale. A flat, unicellular outgrowth of the insect body wall, of
presoldier. In termites, an unpigmented, unsclerotized
individual with a soldierlike head and morphology. The R
various shapes.
SE
presoldier stage is a separate instar, from which individuals scape. The basal segment of an antenna.
molt into soldiers.
R

sclerite. A hardened body wall plate bounded by sutures or

U

primary reproductive. In termites, the colony founding male or membranous areas.

O

female derived from the winged adult.

C

sclerotized. Hardened. Pertaining to portions of the insect

EP

proboscis. Any extended, beaklike mouth structure. integument that are hardened in definite areas by formation
of substances other than chitin.
PR

proctodeal. Pertaining to the hindgut (proctodaeum).

serrate. Toothed along the edge like a saw.
E

profile. An outline as seen from a side view.

AC

sessile. Attached or fastened; not free to move about.

proleg. Fleshy, unsegmented abdominal walking appendage of
some insect larvae.
S

seta (pl., setae). A bristle; a slender, hairlike appendage.

IN

pronotum. The upper or dorsal surface of the prothorax. simple eyes. The ocelli.
LL
O

prothorax. The first, or anterior, of the three segments of the snout. The prolongation of the head of weevils at the end of
R

thorax that bears the first pair of legs, but no wings. which the mouthparts are located.
pseudergate. In termites, a nonreproductive, nonsoldier social insect. An insect that belongs to a eusocial (true social)
individual that diverges from the imaginal (adult) line at a species, including the ants, the termites, honey bees, and
relatively late instar through a regressive or a stationary molt. some other species of bees and wasps. Eusocial species
display all of the following three traits: cooperation in caring
pubescense. Short, fine, soft hairs or setae. for the young; reproductive division of labor, with more or
less sterile individuals working on behalf of reproductive
punctate. Set with small puncturelike impressions. individuals; and overlap of at least two generations of life
stages capable of contributing to colony labor.
pupa. The resting, inactive stage between the larva and the
adult in insects that undergo complete metamorphosis. society. A group of individuals of the same species that are
organized in a cooperative manner.
puparium (pl., puparia). In higher Diptera, the thickened,
hardened, barrel-like larval skin, in which the pupa is softwood. Living outer layers of wood, usually light in color.
formed.
soldier. In termites, an individual with large mandibles and a
queen. A fertile female member of the reproductive caste in distinctly modified, heavily sclerotized head capsule.
social bees and wasps, ants, and termites.
species. The smallest taxonomic group; a population that has a
defined range and can exchange genes.

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spermatheca. The saclike structure in the arthropod female in tibia. In insects, the fourth division of the leg articulated at the
which sperm from the male are received and often stored. proximal end nearest the body to the femur and at the distal
end to the tarsus.
spine. A thornlike outgrowth of the cuticle.
toxicant. The substance in a pesticide that is responsible for
spiracle. A breathing pore located along the side of the insect the pesticidal effect.
body.
toxin. A poisonous substance.
spur. A movable spine.
trachea (pl., tracheae). An internal air tube of the respiratory
stage. An insect’s developmental status (e.g., the egg stage). system, ending externally at a spiracle and terminating
internally in the tracheoles.
sternite. The ventral plate of an abdominal segment.
transverse. Across; at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
sternum. The entire ventral division of any segment; the
underside of the insect thorax. trophallaxis. The mutual exchange of nourishment, one insect

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with another.
stigma (pl., stigmata). A spiracle or breathing pore.

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trumpet. The respiratory horn or tube of the mosquito pupa.

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stomatodeal. Pertaining to the foregut.

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truncate. Cut off squarely at the tip.
stria (pl., striae). A groove or depressed line.

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univoltine. Having one generation in a year or season.

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stylet. One of the piercing structures in piercing–sucking
mouthparts. urogomphi. Fixed or mobile processes on the last segment of
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certain beetle larvae.
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subterranean. Existing under the surface of the earth.
vector. A carrier of a disease-producing organism.
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surfactant. A substance that reduces the interfacial tension of

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two boundaries. venter. The underside of the abdomen.

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suspension concentrate. A formulation in which particles or ventral. The underside.

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microcapsules of a pesticide are suspended in liquid.

vestigial. Small or degenerate; the remains of a previously
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swarming. In ants and termites, the mass exodus of functional part.

reproductive forms from the nest at the beginning of the
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nuptial flight. In honey bees, the departure from the parental viviparous. Bearing living young.
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nest of the queen and a large number of workers, which fly

to an exposed site and cluster there while scouts search for wettable powder. A type of formulation for spray application in
which a pesticide is mixed with an inert carrier, the product
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a suitable new nest cavity.

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finely ground, and a surface-active agent added so that it

tarsal claw. The claw, usually paired, found on the end of the forms a suspension when agitated with water.
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last tarsal segment.

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wing pads. The underdeveloped wings of nymphs of

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tarsus (pl., tarsi). The insect foot; the outermost jointed division hemimetabolous insects (e.g., Hemiptera), which show
of the insect’s leg that consists of from one to five segments. behind the thorax as two lateral, flat structures.

taxon (pl., taxa). A taxonomic category, such as phylum, class, worker. Among social bees, ants, and wasps, a female
order, family, genus, species. member of the laboring caste, which either is incapable
of reproduction or capable of laying only unfertilized eggs
taxonomic species. Forms deemed to be discrete because of a from which males emerge. In termites, a nonreproductive,
consensus of structural (morphological) characters. nonsoldier individual in the third, fourth, or later instar
that has diverged early and irreversibly from the imaginal
taxonomy. The science of classification into categories of (adult) line.
varying rank, based on similarities and differences, and the
describing and naming of these categories. xeric. Adapted to an extremely dry habitat.
tegmen (pl., tegmina). In cockroaches, the thickened or xylem. The principal strengthening and water-conducting tissue
leathery front wing. of branches, stems, and roots.

tergite. The upper (dorsal) part of a body segment.

thorax. The second or intermediate region of the insect’s body,

bearing six legs and the wings and composed of three
sections, the pro-, meso-, and metathorax.

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Suggestions for Further Reading
General Household Pest Control Applicator Training Manual, 2nd Edition
(University of Florida IFAS Extension, 2008) by Philip G. Koehler,
William H. Kern, and Roberto M. Pereira

Handbook of Household and Structural Insect Pests

(Entomological Society of America, 2000), edited by Roger E. Gold and
Susan C. Jones

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Handbook of Pest Control: The Behavior, Life History, and Control of Household Pests, 10th Edition

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(The Mallis Handbook Company, 2011) by Arnold Mallis

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National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual, 2nd Edition

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(National Association of State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation, 2014)

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NPMA Field Guide to Structural Pests, 2nd Edition
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(National Pest Management Association, 2008) by Eric H. Smith and Richard C. Whitman
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The Pesticide Book, 6th Edition

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(Thomson Publications, 2004) by George W. Ware and David M. Whitacre

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PCT Field Guide for the Management of Structure-Infesting Ants, 3rd Edition
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(GIE Media, 2010) by Stoy A. Hedges

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PCT Field Guide for the Management of Structure-Infesting Beetles, Volume I: Hide and
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Carpet Beetles/Wood-Boring Beetles

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(GIE Media, 2002) by Stoy A. Hedges and Mark S. Lacey

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PCT Field Guide for the Management of Structure-Infesting Flies

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(GIE Media, 1998) by Stoy A. Hedges

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PCT Field Guide for the Management of Urban Spiders, 2nd Edition
(GIE Media, 2012) by Stoy A. Hedges and Richard S. Vetter

PCT Technicians Handbook: A Guide to Pest Identification and Management, 4th Edition
(GIE Media, 2012) by Richard Kramer and Joshua Kramer

Truman’s Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 7th Edition

(Questex Media Group LLC, 2010) by Gary W. Bennett, John M. Owens, and Robert M. Corrigan

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About the Authors
Mike Merchant, PhD, BCE, serves Richard Levine holds a bachelor’s
as extension urban entomologist for degree in English and a master’s
the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension degree in American Studies from
Service in Dallas, Texas. As a Board the University of Maryland. He
Certified Entomologist and a former began working at the Entomological
director of the ESA Certification Society of America (ESA) in 2006
Board, he helped establish the ACE as newsletter editor, publications
certification program and the

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assistant, and communications
original exam. He was awarded the Photo by manager. He has published articles

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ESA Distinguished Service to the Certification Program Matthew Chism. in American Entomologist, and

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Award in 2003 and the ESA Distinguished Achievement since 2013 he has been the head

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Award in Extension in 2005. He continues to serve on the writer and editor of ESA’s Entomology Today blog

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ACE advisory committee and provides ACE prep classes (www.entomologytoday.org). Other responsibilities include

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for pest management professionals in Texas and other managing ESA’s media relations, producing videos, and
parts of the country. R
handling social media websites.
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Dr. Merchant is a frequent provider of training classes

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Prior to ESA, he worked as a communications consultant

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for pesticide applicators for both structural and on agricultural issues for government agencies, non-profit
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turf-and-ornamental integrated pest management (IPM) organizations, and private companies. As such, he designed
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in Texas. He serves as director of the IPM Experience websites, provided strategic intelligence, and gave
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House in Dallas and is especially interested in design presentations on risk communications to scientists in
PR

of IPM programs for schools, municipalities, and other Kenya, Nigeria, and Panama.
institutions. He writes a regular blog for pest management
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professionals at http://insectsinthecity.blogspot.com.
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ABOUT THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA

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The Entomological Society of America (ESA) is the largest organization in the world serving the professional and
scientific needs of entomologists and individuals in related disciplines. Founded in 1889, ESA has nearly 7,000
members affiliated with educational institutions, health agencies, private industry, and government. Members
are researchers, teachers, extension service personnel, administrators, marketing representatives, research
technicians, consultants, students, pest management professionals, and hobbyists. For more information, visit
www.entsoc.org.

ABOUT THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA CERTIFICATION CORPORATION

The Entomological Society of America’s Certification Corporation offers two certification programs, the Associate
Certified Entomologist (ACE) and the Board Certified Entomologist (BCE). BCE is geared toward those with
degrees in entomology or a related field, and ACE is focused on those with hands-on training and professional
development in the field of urban or structural pest management.

Officially, entomological certification was born in 1970 as the American Registry of Certified Entomologists, which
later became the American Registry of Professional Entomologists (ARPE). In 1992, ARPE was fully integrated
into ESA with an elected Certification Board. In 2004, ESA and the Certification Board launched the ACE program as another option
for the professional who sought additional credentials in entomology. For more information, visit www.entocert.org.
Pest management professionals studying for the
Associated Certified Entomologist (ACE) exam
now have a new tool to take them to the next
level of learning: IPM for the Urban Professional:
A Study Guide for the Associate Certified
Entomologist.

Written and carefully reviewed by experts,

including Board Certified Entomologists (BCEs)
and ACEs, IPM for the Urban Professional
provides pest management professionals an
overview of integrated pest management, insect
classification and key identification points, the
biology of pests, important safety and regulatory
issues, and pesticide concepts.

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Prepare for the ACE exam or strengthen your

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knowledge of core concepts with IPM for the

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Urban Professional—a resource designed

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specifically for the men and women who

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improve lives every day with their work in
pest management. R
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“A thorough review of this guide will serve

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everyone who works in urban pest management.

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This is a must-read for anyone in this industry,

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whether they are going for their ACE or not.”

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• AUSTIN M. FRISHMAN, PHD, BCE-EMERITUS

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PRESIDENT, AMF PEST MANAGEMENT SERVICES INC.

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“IPM for the Urban Professional: A Study

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Guide for the Associate Certified Entomologist

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is an excellent resource for the pest management

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professional preparing to become an ACE. This

practical guide covers all of the basics in an
easy-to-read yet comprehensive fashion. It’s a
must-have for every aspiring ACE’s bookshelf and
valuable reference material for PMPs everywhere.”
• JIM FREDERICKS, PHD, BCE, VICE PRESIDENT, TECHNICAL AND
REGULATORY AFFAIRS, NATIONAL PEST MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION

Entomological Society of America

ISBN 978-0-9966674-0-1
www.entocert.org