EMG 2303 SOLID AND STRUCTURAL MECHANICS I

Course aims
To give the students a basic understanding of the concept of stress and strain, to understand the
tensile test and the properties that can be derived from it, to understand and apply simple
concepts relating to design in simple tension and compression, to understand and apply the basic
equations governing stresses and deformations of thin walled pressure vessels, to understand and
apply the basic equations governing elastic torsion analysis and to construct shear force and
bending moment diagrams.
Expected outcomes
At the end of this course, students should be able to;
● Solve simple problems relating to elastic stress and strain
● Determine the mechanical properties of a material by performing a tensile test
● Design simple uni-axial loaded members such as those with uniform cross-sections,
variable cross-sections, non-uniform loads, thermal stresses and strains.
● Calculate stresses and change in dimensions of thin walled pressure vessels
● Design and analyse shafts subjected to simple elastic torsion
● Construct SF and BM diagrams for beams loaded with concentrated loads, udls and
couples

Course contents
Concepts of stress and strain
Definition of stress and strain, components of stress, direct strain, true stress and true strain.
Stress and strain in simple shear; elastic stress-strain relationships in simple shear.
Behaviour of materials under static loading

The tensile test; load extension diagram; the stress-strain diagram and Engineering properties of
materials, Linear elasticity and Hooke’s law, elastic limit, 0.2% proof stress, ultimate strength,
secant and tangent modulus, stress hysteresis, toughness, ductility, brittleness, upper and lower
yield points, allowable or working stress, safety factor. Tension instability. Elastic constants;
Young’s modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, relationships between elastic constants.
Volumetric strain.
Analysis of design in simple tension and compression

Deflection of axially loaded structures, members with variable cross-sections, composite

members, non-uniform stresses and strains, impact loading. Thermal stresses and strains.
Statically indeterminate axial members.
Analysis of thin-walled pressure vessels

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Hoop and longitudinal stresses and strains for cylinder and sphere, volumetric strain, bulk
modulus of contained fluid, and pressure effects.
Elastic torsion analysis

The torsion test, solid and hollow circular shafts, shear stresses, power transmission and design
of shafts, coupling design, shafts of varying cross-section, composite shafts. Torsion stiffness.
Pure shear. Analysis of statically indeterminate shafts. Application to close-coiled helical springs.
Bending of beams

Simply supported beams and cantilevers. Concentrated loads, distributed loads and couples.
Reactions at supports; shear force and bending moment and their importance for analysis and
design. Qualitative and quantitative sketching of shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Prerequisites

EMG 2203 Engineering Mechanics I (Statics)

Main text

1. Strength of Materials and Structures by John Case, Lord Chilver & Carl T. F. Ross

References

1. Mechanics of Materials by Gere & Timoshenko

2. Mechanics of Materials by Benham and Crawford
3. Mechanics of Materials part 1 by E. J. Hearn
4. Solving Problems in Solid and Structural Mechanics (Volume 1) by S P Ng’ang’a

Teaching organisation

2 hours lectures, 1 hour tutorials, 3 hours practical per week

Practicals

1. Tensile test
2. Torsion test

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 STRESS AND STRAIN

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Welcome to the first lesson on stress and strain. In this lesson, you will be introduced to the
basic concept of stress and strain. The tensile test and related terminology such as elastic limit,
lower and upper yield points, ultimate tensile strength, fracture stress, elastic modulus, stress
hysteresis, permanent set, initial tangent modulus, secant modulus and proof stress, will be
introduced. Other terminology to be covered include % elongation and % reduction of area. The
concept of safety factor, Poisson’s ratio and shear stress will be covered towards the end.
1.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1.2.1 Define and formulate concept of stress and strain including solving simple problems
relating to stress and strain
1.2.2 Define basic terminology relating to the stress strain curve.
1.2.3 Define and solve problems relating to safety factor.
1.2.4 Define and solve problems relating to Poisson’s ratio.
1.2.5 Define and solve simple problems relating to shear stress.
Definition: Solid and structural mechanics is the science dealing with the behaviour of solid
bodies subjected to forces/loads and is concerned with the stresses and deformations/strains
that are set up in such bodies.
Examples of solid bodies:
● Axially loaded members (Tension or Compression)
● Shafts (Torsion)
● Thin shells under internal/external pressure e.g. Gas cylinders or petroleum tanks
● Beams
● Columns
● Discs, plates and shells
● Thick cylinders; etc.
Of interest:

Stresses and strains/deformations produced by the loads.

The figure below shows bars subjected to tension and compression.
Tension examples: Towing rope, lifting hoist etc.
Compression examples: Legs of your chair as you sit, support pillars of buildings etc.

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Typical types of loads
● Static loads: Non fluctuating, caused by gravity.
● Live load: Vehicle crossing a bridge.
● Impact load: Caused by a sudden blow.
● Fatigue: Fluctuating or alternating load.

● Consider a bar of uniform cross-section (prismatic bar).

● Equal and opposite loads are applied at each end parallel to the longitudinal axis i.e. the
bar is uniformly stressed in tension.
● We make an imaginary cut at section C perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Note that
we need equal and opposite forces P to maintain equilibrium. Internal forces are
therefore set up to resist the applied load.
● If we pull bars of the same material, but different cross-sectional areas, breaking loads
are found to be approximately proportional to the respective cross-sectional areas.
● Therefore, tensile strength depends on intensity of force on the cross-section, not on the
total force.
● Intensity of force = STRESS
STRESS

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Therefore, Stress = resistance of a material per unit area to deformation when external forces
are applied.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) (𝑃)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
● The unit of force (P) is Newton (N) where 1 Kgf = 9.81 N.
● The typical unit of area (A) is m2 or mm2.
● Stress can therefore be expressed in the following units: (Pa); (MPa)

where 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1

● 1 KPa = 103 Pa, 1 MPa =106 Pa and 1 GPa = 109 Pa.

● If the original cross-section area (A0) is used to calculate stress, the value calculated is the
Nominal stress or Engineering Stress.
● To obtain True Stress, we need to divide load by the actual cross-sectional area.

In general, if δA is the elemental area on the cross-section of a bar, and

δP is the normal force acting on this element;
𝛿𝑃 𝑃
𝜎= =
𝛿𝐴 𝐴
STRAIN

Strain can be defined as the deformation per unit length and is represented by the symbol ε.
Therefore, if the original length is L, the change in length is δL, then;

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝛿𝐿)

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀) =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿)
● If original dimensions are used to determine the strain, the value obtained is the Engineering
strain.
Example 1
A prismatic bar of rectangular cross-section (20mm x 40mm) and length L=2.8 m is subjected to
an axial tensile force of 60 KN. The measured elongation of the bar is 1.1 mm. Calculate the tensile
stress and strain in the bar.
× 𝑴𝑵
Solution 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠() = = = 75 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (= 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟕𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂)
× 𝒎𝟐

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 𝑀𝑁 1 × 10 𝑁 1 × 10 𝑁 𝑁
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 1 = = =1
𝑚 1𝑚 × 1𝑚 1000𝑚𝑚 × 1000𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝐿 1.1 𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝜀) = = = 3.93 × 10
𝐿 2.8 × 10 𝑚𝑚
TENSILE TEST

● This is the most popular test for comparing strengths of various materials.
● A circular or rectangular prismatic bar is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load
until failure occurs.
● Select a gauge length (see sketch) and attach an extensometer.
● Record the change in length against the applied load.
● Plot a graph of Load versus Extension or Stress versus Strain.
A typical graph for mild steel is as shown below.

● Curve starts at the origin and is a straight line up to A.

● For small loads, the extension is  to the applied load.
()
● = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐸). The concept is otherwise known as the Hooke’s law.
( )
E is the Young’s modulus or Elastic modulus
● Let A0 = Initial cross-sectional area, and
● L0 = Initial gauge length
Since both are constant, the graph of load (P) versus Extension (δL) has the same characteristics
as that of stress (s) versus strain (e).
𝜎 𝑃 𝛿𝐿
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚: 𝐸 = ; 𝜎 = ; 𝜀 =
𝜀 𝐴 𝐿
𝑃 𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝐿 = :
𝐴 𝛿𝐿 𝐸𝐴

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𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑬𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦.
● Beyond point A, the graph is no longer linear.
A is the limit of proportionality (Hooke’s law only applies up to this point).
● For a short period beyond point A (up to point B), the material may still be elastic i.e.
deformations are completely recoverable when the load is removed (though Hooke’s law
is not applicable) up to some point B. B is the elastic limit. In practice however, A and B
are virtually coincident.
● Beyond B, we have point C (curve flattens or drops)
● C is the upper yield point of the material.
● The material elongates with little or no increase in load.
● Plastic (permanent) deformation begins at this point.
● The curve then drops up to point D (lower yield point)
● The curve then continues upwards up to a maximum point E and the drops up to point F.
● Stress at E is the Ultimate Tensile Strength (stress) (UTS)
● Stress at F is the fracture stress.
Why does the curve drop from point E to point F?
● After the UTS is reached, the specimen continues elongating and forms a neck where the
diameter decreases rapidly up to fracture (sketch).
● The stress is however calculated using the original cross-sectional area (A 0).
ELASTIC MODULUS: It’s a measure of the relative stiffness of a material. The steeper the slope
of the stress/strain curve, the higher the elastic modulus (relative stiffness) of the material.

Referring to the graph, if the bar is loaded up to any point before the proportional limit ‘a’ and
then unloaded, the unloading curve traces the original curve oa.
● If the bar is loaded up to some other point such as b, and the load removed, the unloading
traces a linear curve bc, parallel to the initial elastic line oa. oc represents the permanent

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 set or permanent strain which remains in the material. ce represents the elastic
deformation (recoverable).
● A second load cycle starting at c follows the curve cd and then continues along the
previous curve up to fracture, f i.e. the yield stress has increased from “a” to “b”
(work/strain hardening).
PROOF STRESS

For materials with a linear elastic region but without a well-defined yield point, e.g. high carbon
steels and non-ferrous metals, an arbitrary yield point must be defined.
● This is done by specifying a small amount of permanent strain (usually 0.2% i.e. a strain
equal to 0.002).
● Draw a line parallel to the initial straight part to cut the stress-strain curve (see sketch).
● Point of intersection represents the 0.2% proof stress.

● For materials without an initially linear elastic region such as copper and aluminium, the
elastic modulus is arbitrarily defined as follows:
● Initial tangent modulus: -Slope of the initial tangent to the curve at the origin.
● Secant modulus: -Slope of line joining the origin and some arbitrary value of stress e.g. the
design stress.

Homogeneous material – uniform structure throughout without any flaws or discontinuities

Isotropic material – Uniform properties throughout in all directions
Prismatic – Uniform cross-section throughout.

TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

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DUCTILITY MEASUREMENT

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 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝛿𝐿
% 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = × 100%
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿

𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

% 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100%
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
−
= 4 4 × 100% = 𝑑 − 𝑑 × 100%
𝜋𝑑 𝑑
4
● What is the effect of varying the gauge length (GL) or cross-sectional area of the
specimen on % elongation? (sketches)
(i) If Lo is reduced, % elongation increases (note neck length is independent of GL)
(ii) If area Ao is increased, % elongation increases (note neck length is dependent on x-
sectional area)
● To define % elongation accurately, we need to define a certain length and a certain area.
% Elongation is proportional to A0 and inversely proportional to Lo.
Most standards e.g. KS, BS, ISO, DIN etc. adopt the following formula:

𝜋𝑑
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿 = 5.65√𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 5.65 = 5 × 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
4

The larger the values of % elongation and % reduction of area, the more ductile a material is.
Example 2

A prismatic steel bar is 2.5m long and has a cross-sectional area of 3 x 10-4 m2. Determine the
extension when a tensile load of 80 kN is applied. Assume E=200 GPa.
Solution:

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 𝑃𝐿 80 × 10 𝑁 × 2.5𝑚
𝛿𝐿 = = = 3.3 × 10 𝑚 = 3.3𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐴 200 × 10 𝑁 × 3 × 10 𝑚
𝑚
Example 3
A load of 4 kN is to be raised using a steel wire. Find the minimum diameter of the wire if the
stress is not to exceed 100 MPa.
Solution:

𝑃 = 4𝑘𝑁 = 4 × 10 𝑁
σ = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2

● Let ‘d’ be the diameter of the wire (in mm)

𝜋𝑑
𝐴= 𝑚𝑚
4

𝑃 𝑃 4𝑃 4 × 4 × 10
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜎 = = 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑑 = = = 7.14 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝜎 𝜋 × 100
4
Example 4

A hollow cast iron tube has length L = 4 m, outer diameter D = 300 mm and wall thickness t = 50
mm. It is subjected to a central compressive load P. The resulting stress is 75 MPa. If Young’s
modulus for cast iron is 150 GPa, determine:
(i) The magnitude of the load
(ii) The longitudinal strain
(iii) The shortening of the tube

Solution:

Internal diameter of the cylinder d = D – 2t = 0.3 – 0.10 = 0.2 m

(i) To determine the load P;
𝑃 𝜋
𝜎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝜎 × 𝐴 = 75 × 10 × (𝐷 − 𝑑 )
𝐴 4

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 𝜋
= 75 × 10 × (0.3 − 0.2 ) = 2.945 × 10 𝑁
4
(ii) Longitudinal strain
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 75 × 10
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = = = 0.0005
𝐸 150 × 10
(iii) Shortening
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝐿 𝛿𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑖. 𝑒. 0.0005 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝐿 = 0.002𝑚 = 2𝑚𝑚
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿 4
SAFETY FACTOR

● Consider a structure loaded with tensile or compressive loads. Then;

Working stresses = stresses present in the component under normal working conditions.
● To avoid structural failure – The actual strength of the material used must exceed the
loads to be carried i.e. the loads applied must not exceed the yield stress σy. We define
the safety factor as follows:
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎 ) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑛) = =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎 ) 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
● Low ‘n’ – high likelihood of failure
● High ‘n’ – structure is wasteful of material e.g. too heavy or too expensive.

For structural steels, 𝑛 ≅ 1.67 e.g. if σy = 250 MPa, then σallow=150 MPa.

For brittle materials, σUTS is sometimes used instead of σy.

Example 5
A short hollow circular cast iron cylinder is to support an axial compressive load P = 580 kN. The
UTS of the cast iron in compression is 270 MPa. It is decided to design the cylinder with a wall
thickness t = 25 mm and a factor of safety of 3 wrt the UTS. Calculate the minimum required
outside diameter.
Solution

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From 𝑛 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝜎 270 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎 = = = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑛 3
Required cross-sectional area:
𝑃 𝑃 580 × 10 𝑁
𝜎 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = = = 6444.4 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 𝜎 𝑁
90
𝑚𝑚
● But x-sectional area is given by:
𝜋𝑑 𝜋
𝐴= − (𝑑 − 2𝑡) = 𝜋𝑡(𝑑 − 𝑡)
4 4
𝐴 6444.4
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑑 = +𝑡 = + 25 = 107.05 𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝑡 𝜋(25)
POISSON’S RATIO

● Consider a rectangular bar subjected to a tensile load P.

● Increase in length is δL i.e. the longitudinal strain is given by:
𝜀 =
● The bar also exhibits reduction in lateral dimensions i.e. the width and depth will both
reduce. Lateral strains are both equal and of opposite sense to the longitudinal strain i.e.

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 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑑
𝜀 =− =−
𝑏 𝑑
● Provided the material is within the elastic range, the ratio of lateral to longitudinal strains
is constant i.e.
𝛿𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 −
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝐿
𝐿
Ratio called Poisson’s ratio (μ). Negative sign is usually ignored.

● Note: A longitudinal strain induces a lateral strain of opposite sign i.e. a tensile
longitudinal strain induces a compressive lateral strain.

For most engineering materials, μ→0.25 – 0.35

𝜎 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎)
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀) =
𝜀 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐸)

∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇 × (𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛) = 𝜇 (This relationship to be revisited later).

Example 6
A steel bar length L = 2.7m and diameter D = 320mm carries a tensile load of P = 12,000 kN.
(i) Determine the resulting stress
(ii) Calculate the elongation due to the load
(iii) Determine the decrease in diameter

Assume Young’s modulus E=210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio μ = 0.32.

𝑃 12 × 10 𝑁 × 4 𝑁
𝜎= = = 149.2 = 149.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝜋 × 320 𝑚𝑚
𝑁
𝜎 149.2 × 10 𝑚
𝜀 = = = 7.105 × 10
𝐸 𝑁
210 × 10
𝑚
𝛿𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜀 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝐿 = 𝜀 × 𝐿 = 7.105 × 10 × 2.7 𝑥 10 = 1.918 𝑚𝑚
𝐿
● Decrease in diameter
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
𝜇= = 𝑜𝑟 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀

𝜀 = 0.32 × 7.105 × 10 = 2.274 𝑥 10

𝛿𝑑
𝜀 = = 2.274 × 10 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑑 = 2.274 × 10 × 320 = 0.073 𝑚𝑚
𝑑

14
SHEAR STRESS
● In the block system shown in part (a), the top portion of the block tends to slide wrt the
bottom portion.
● Shear forces that resist the applied load P act over area abcd (A) in a plane parallel to
the applied load.
● If failure is restricted, a shear stress, tangential to the area abcd is set up, where:
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑃)
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝐴)

● The block changes shape (strains) as shown (exaggerated) in (b).

● The angle of deformation γ is the shear strain.
● Within the elastic range, shear strain is proportional to shear stress i.e.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏)
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐺); 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝛾)

Figure (c) illustrates shearing on two faces (double shear). In this case,
𝑃
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟) =
2𝐴

15
Example 7
Three 19mm diameter bolts are used to connect two steel plates. The connection carries a load
of 51kN. Determine the shearing stress in the bolts.

Solution
● Assuming the line of action of the applied forces passes through the centroid of the bolt
pattern, each bolt supports an equal portion of the load.
51
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝑃= = 17 𝑘𝑁
3
𝑃 17 × 10
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝜏= = ≅ 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 19
𝜋×
4
Example 8
A single 19mm diameter bolt is used to connect three plates as shown in (a). Determine the
shearing stress in the bolt (see sketch).
Solution

● The bolt is subjected to failure along two planes as shown in (b).

● Assuming the stresses on the two planes are equal;
𝑃 15 × 10
𝜏= = ≅ 52.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 19
𝜋×
4

16
17
2.1 Introduction
Welcome to the second lesson on stress and strain. In this lesson, you will be introduced to the
concept of volumetric strain, leading to the generalised Hooke’s law. Bulk modulus will be
defined, including its relationship with Young’s modulus. Towards the end, the principle of shear
stresses will be derived leading to a relationship between Young’s modulus and shear modulus.
2.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

2.2.1 Define and solve problems relating to bulk modulus K.

2.2.2 Solve problems relating to change in volume of blocks subjected to stress/pressure.
2.2.3 Prove the principle of shear stresses and solve problems relating to all the three moduli.
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

● When a body is subjected to a single force (F) or a system of forces, it undergoes changes in
dimensions, including a slight change in volume.
𝛿𝑉 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
● For a cube subjected to uniform pressure on all faces,
𝐹
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐾) = = 𝐴 =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉
Important types of forces

(1) Rectangular bar subjected to an axial force

(2) Rectangular bar subjected to three mutually perpendicular forces
Case 1:

● Consider a bar of rectangular cross-section subjected to an axial tensile load P.

L → unstrained length; while b x a → cross-sectional area

● When strained longitudinally by amount εx, let corresponding lateral strains be εy and εz.

18
● Longitudinal extension → εxL
● Contraction in the y-direction → εyb
● Contraction in the z-direction → εza
● Initial volume of the bar V0 = abL
● After straining, the new volume: 𝑉 = (𝑎 − 𝜀 𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝜀 𝑏)(𝐿 + 𝜀 𝐿)

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑏𝐿(1 − 𝜀 ) 1 − 𝜀 (1 + 𝜀 ) = 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 )(1 + 𝜀 )

= 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 − 𝜀 𝜀 − 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 )

● If 𝜀 , 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 are small quantities compared to 1, squares and products of 𝜀 , 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀

can be neglected.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑉 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 )

𝛿𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉0 𝑉 0 1 + 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑧 − 𝑉 0
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑧
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙; 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇 𝑥 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀
𝑉 − 𝑉0
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜇𝜀𝑥 − 𝜇𝜀𝑥
𝑉0
𝛿𝑉
𝑖. 𝑒. = 𝜀 (1 − 2𝜇); 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉

Example 9
A bar of length ‘L’ = 2m, width ‘b’ = 0.02m and thickness ‘a’ = 0.015m is subjected to a tensile
load of P = 30 kN. Calculate the final volume of the bar. Assume μ = 0.25 and E = 200 GPa.

Solution

Initial volume 𝑉 = 2 × 0.02 × 0.015 = 6 × 10 𝑚

𝑃 30 × 10
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = = = 100𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑏 𝑥 𝑎 0.02 × 0.015
𝜎 100 × 10
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = = = 0.5 × 10
𝐸 200 × 10
𝛿𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀 (1 − 2𝜇) = 0.5 × 10 (1 − 0.5) = 2.5 × 10
𝑉

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝛿𝑉 = 2.5 × 10 × 6 𝑥 10 = 1.5 × 10 𝑚

19
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = (6 × 10 ) + (1.5 × 10 ) = 6.0015 × 10 𝑚
Case 2:
● Consider a cube subjected to hydraulic pressure applied on all faces.
● Let the pressure produce strains equal to εx, εy and εz in the x, y and z directions,
respectively.
● Since σ is compressive, strains are all negative.
● Let original dimensions be dx, 𝑑𝑦 and dz.
● Original volume 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧
● New dimensions are: (𝑑𝑥 − 𝜀 𝑑𝑥), 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜀 𝑑𝑦 (𝑑𝑧 − 𝜀 𝑑𝑧)

𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧(1 − 𝜀 )(1 − 𝜀 )(1 − 𝜀 )

= 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 )(1 − 𝜀 ) → neglect 2nd order terms

= 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 )

=𝑉 1− 𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀

𝛿𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉 𝑉 1− 𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 −𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = =− 𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
→ 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒.
Case (i):

20
Suppose the pressures (σ) are all equal.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −3𝜀

Case (ii):

● Suppose the pressures are all different i.e. σx, σy and σz (see sketch below). Since 𝐸 = ;
𝜎
⇛⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝜀 =−
𝐸
𝜎
⇛⇛ 𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝜎 𝑖𝑠: 𝜀 =−
𝐸
𝜎
⇛⇛ 𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝜎 𝑖𝑠: 𝜀 =−
𝐸
The resulting strains in the three directions are found using the principle of superposition i.e.
add algebraically the strains in each direction due to each individual stress.

Resultant strains
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝜇 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇 × (𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛) = 𝜇 = 𝜇𝜀
𝐸
(i) x-x direction:
𝜎
⇛⇛ 𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝜎 : 𝜀 =−
𝐸
𝜇𝜎
⇛⇛ 𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝜎 : 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀 = +
𝐸
𝜇𝜎
⇛⇛ 𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝜎 : 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀 = +
𝐸
Therefore, the resultant strain in the x-direction due to all the three stresses:
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎
𝜀 =− + +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

21
Similarly,
(ii) y-y direction:
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎
𝜀 =− + +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
(iii) z-z direction:
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎
𝜀 =− + +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
The 3 equations represent the generalised Hooke’s law.
● If 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎, the total strain in the x-direction is given by:
𝜎 𝜎
𝜀= (−1 + 𝜇 + 𝜇) = − (1 − 2𝜇)
𝐸 𝐸
𝛿𝑉 𝜎
𝐵𝑢𝑡 = −3𝜀 = 3 (1 − 2𝜇)
𝑉 𝐸
𝜎 𝜎 𝐸 𝐸
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐾 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐾 = = 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐾 =
𝛿𝑉 3𝜎
(1 − 2𝜇) 3(1 − 2𝜇) 3(1 − 2𝜇)
𝑉 𝐸
which gives us the relationship between elastic modulus E and bulk modulus K.

● Generally, if K is always positive, 1 − 2𝜇 > 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜇 <

For metallic materials, δV is very small and 𝜇 ≅ (𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0.25 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.35)

Example 10
A steel cube of 50mm side is subjected to forces as shown. Determine the change in volume of
the block. Assume E = 200 GPa and 𝜇 = 0.3.
Solution:
Initial volume 𝑉 = 50 = 125,000𝑚𝑚
𝑃 6 × 10 𝑁
𝜎 = = = 2.4
𝐴 50 × 50 𝑚𝑚 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝑃 8 × 10 𝑁
𝜎 = = = 3.2
𝐴 50 × 50 𝑚𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑃 4 × 10 𝑁
𝜎 = = = 1.6
𝐴 50 × 50 𝑚𝑚 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 2.4 3.2 × 3 3 × 1.6 2.88
𝜀 = + − = + − =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 10𝐸 10𝐸 𝐸

22
 𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 3.2 2.4 × 3 3 × 1.6 4.4
𝜀 =− − − =− − − =−
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 10𝐸 10𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 1.6 2.4 × 3 3.2 × 3 1.84
𝜀 = − + = − + =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 10𝐸 10𝐸 𝐸
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 2.88 4.4 1.84 0.32
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 𝑖. 𝑒. = − + =
𝑉 125000 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 200 × 10
0.32
𝛿𝑉 = 125000 × = 0.2𝑚𝑚
200 × 10
Example 11 A steel bar 0.25m x 0.1m x 0.05m is loaded as shown.

(a) Calculate the change in volume of the bar if E = 200 GPa and μ = 0.25.
(b) Calculate the change that should be made to the 4 MN load so that there is no change in
volume
Solution

Initial volume 𝑉 = 0.25 × 0.10 × 0.05 = 1.25 × 10 𝑚

𝑃 0.4 × 10
𝜎 = = = 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝐴 0.10 × 0.05
𝑃 2 × 10
𝜎 = = = 160 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝐴 0.25 × 0.05
𝑃 4 × 10
𝜎 = = = 160 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝐴 0.25 × 0.10

23
 𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 10 80 × 10
𝜀 = − + = [80 − 0.25(160) + 0.25(160)] =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 10 180 × 10
𝜀 = + − = [160 + 0.25(160) − 0.25(80)] =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 10 220 × 10
𝜀 =− − − = [−160 − 0.25(160) − 0.25(80)] = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝛿𝑉
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀
𝑉
10
= [80 + 180 + (−220)] = 2 × 10
200 × 10
𝛿𝑉 = 2 × 10 × 1.25 × 10 = 2.5 × 10 𝑚

Change in the 4 MN load for no change in volume:

Let P be the new compressive load (in MN) replacing the 4 MN load. Then

𝑃 𝑃 × 10 𝑁
𝜎 = =
0.25 × 0.1 0.025 𝑚
𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 are the same as before i.e. 𝜎 = 80 MPa (tensile) and 𝜎 = 160 MPa (tensile).

𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 10 0.25𝑃 40 × 10 10𝑃 × 10
𝜀 = − + = 80 − 0.25(160) + = +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 0.025 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 10 0.25𝑃 140 × 10 10𝑃 × 10
𝜀 = − + = 160 − 0.25(80) + = +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 0.025 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎 10 𝑃 𝑃 × 10 60 × 10
𝜀 =− − − = − − 0.25(80) − 0.25(160) = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 0.025 0.025𝐸 𝐸
𝛿𝑉
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒; = 𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 =0
𝑉
10 𝑃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 40 + 10𝑃 + 140 + 10𝑃 − − 60 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 6 𝑀𝑁
𝐸 0.025
We therefore need to add 2 MN to the 4MN load for no change in volume.

24
PRINCIPLE OF SHEAR STRESSES

A shear stress across a plane is always accompanied by a balancing shear stress across the
plane normal to it.
Proof:

● Consider a block ABCDEFGH of unit thickness subjected to a shear stress intensity τ on

face ADEF.
● For equilibrium in the y-direction, an equal and opposite shear stress τ must act on face
BCGH.
● Force acting on faces ADEF and BCGH are given by: 𝑃 = 𝜏. 𝐴𝐷. 1 = 𝜏. 𝐶𝐵. 1
● The forces form a couple whose moment is (M/ BCGH ): 𝑀 = (𝜏. 𝐴𝐷. 1). 𝐴𝐵
For equilibrium, we need a restoring couple whose moment must equal this couple (M):

● Let a shear stress τ’ be applied on faces ABEG and CDFH.

● Force acting on the faces ABEG and CDFH: 𝑃 = 𝜏 . 𝐴𝐵. 1 = 𝜏 . 𝐶𝐷. 1
● The forces form a couple whose moment is (M/CDFH): 𝑀 = 𝜏 . 𝐴𝐵. 1. 𝐴𝐷
● But M’ = M i.e.
● 𝜏 . 𝐴𝐵. 1. 𝐴𝐷 = (𝜏. 𝐴𝐷. 1). 𝐴𝐵 or 𝜏 = 𝜏

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTIC MODULUS (E) AND SHEAR MODULUS (G)

𝐸
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐾 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
3(1 − 2𝜇)
( )
● 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐺 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
( )

( ) ( )
● 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠/𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔’𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = ( ) ( )

● Consider a cube length L subjected to shear stresses. The Cube gets distorted.
● Diagonal BD gets elongated to BD1.
● Diagonal AC is shortened to AC1.

● Shear stress results in shear strain.

● Shear strain = tan γ ≅ γ (since γ is small).

25
● Linear tensile strain on diagonal BD
( )
● = ≅ ≅ = √
= = ( )
√ √
( )
√

● = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛾) ≅ (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛾) ≅ 𝛾 𝑖𝑓 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙).

● i.e. linear strain of diagonal BD is half the shear strain and is tensile.
We can similarly show that the linear strain of diagonal AC is half the shear strain but is
compressive.

● 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝐷 = = ∵𝐺= 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 =

● The effect of shear stress 𝜏 acting on AB, CD, CB and AD is to cause a tensile stress on
diagonal BD and a compressive stress on diagonal AC.

● Suppose then we apply a tensile stress 𝜏 on diagonal BD and a compressive stress τ on

diagonal AC.
● Tensile strain on diagonal BD due to a tensile stress 𝜏 on diagonal BD:
𝜏
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐸
● Tensile strain on diagonal BD due to a compressive stress 𝜏 on diagonal AC:
𝜏
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇
𝐸
● Combined tensile strain on BD:
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = + 𝜇 = (1 + 𝜇)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜏 𝜏
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; (1 + 𝜇) = 𝑜𝑟 𝑬 = 𝟐𝑮(𝟏 + 𝝁)
𝐸 2𝐺

26
3.1 Introduction
Welcome to the third lesson on stress and strain. In this lesson, the following sub-topics will
be covered; the principle of superposition, engineering members with variable cross-
section, composite members, and statically indeterminate axial members. Towards the end,
temperature stresses and strains and stresses in a bolt-sleeve assembly will be covered.
3.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
3.2.1 Solve problems relating to the principle of superposition as applied to mechanical
engineering components.
3.2.2 Solve problems relating to engineering members with variable cross-section.
3.2.3 Solve problems relating to composite members and statically indeterminate axial
members
3.2.4 Solve problems relating to temperature stresses and strains.
3.2.5 Solve problems relating to stresses in bolt-sleeve assembly and similar assemblies.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
𝑃𝐿
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑒 (𝑎) ; 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴

● For a prismatic bar loaded by one or more intermediate axial loads as in (b); we
apply the principle of superposition as follows:
→ Determine axial force experienced in each part of the bar (i.e. parts AB, BC and CD).
→ Calculate elongation of each part separately.
→ Finally add the changes in length algebraically to obtain total change in length.

𝑃𝐿
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙; 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴

1
 ● For a bar with varying sections loaded at the ends as in (c), calculate the elongation
of each part separately and add algebraically as in (b). Assuming different materials,
different lengths and different cross-sections:
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝛿=𝑃 + + +⋯
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴

𝑃𝐿
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙; 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴

Example 1

A member with a stepped cross-section as shown is subjected to various point loads P 1, P2,
P3 and P4 as shown. If P1 = 45 kN, P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130 kN, determine P2. Determine the
total elongation of the member if E = 210 GPa.
Solution:
For equilibrium: Forces towards the right = forces towards the left i.e.
𝑃 +𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 + 130 = 45 + 450
𝑃 = 365 𝑘𝑁
Determine the axial force in each part of the bar (see the free body diagram).

Note that the middle part is under compression while the other two parts are in tension.
1 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙
𝛿= + +
𝐸 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
1 45 × 10 × 1.2 320 × 10 × 0.6 130 × 10 × 0.9
= − +
210 × 10 6.25 × 10 25 × 10 12.5 × 10

= 0.49 𝑚𝑚
2
MEMBERS WITH VARIABLE CROSS-SECTION
⮚ Consider a circular bar length L of uniformly tapering cross-section subjected to an
axial tensile load P.
⮚ Consider a small element of length δx at a distance x from the bigger end.

⮚ Diameter of the bar at x:

𝑥 𝑑 −𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑 − (𝑑 − 𝑑 ) = 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 =
𝑙 𝑙
⮚ Cross-sectional area of the bar at x:
𝜋𝑑 𝜋
𝐴= = (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 )
4 4
⮚ Normal stress at x:
𝑃 𝑃 4𝑃
𝜎 = =𝜋 =
𝐴 (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 )
4
⮚ Normal strain at x:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎 ) 4𝑃
𝜀 = =
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐸) 𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝐸
⮚ Elongation of the elemental length, δx:
4𝑃(𝛿𝑥)
= 𝜀 × 𝛿𝑥 =
𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 ) 𝐸
⮚ Total elongation of the bar:
4𝑃(𝛿𝑥) 4𝑃 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑙 = =
𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 ) 𝐸 𝜋𝐸 (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 )
⮚ To perform the integration:
Let 𝑧 = 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥; = −𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝜕𝑥 =
When x = 0, z = d1 and when x = l, z = 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑙
⮚ Therefore:

3
 4𝑃 −𝜕𝑧 4𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = =
𝜋𝐸 𝑘𝑧 𝜋𝐸𝑑 𝑑

⮚ Note that if the bar had a uniform diameter d,

4𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = =𝜋 = 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝜋𝐸𝑑 𝑑 𝐸 𝐸𝐴
4

COMPOSITE MEMBERS

For a composite bar made of two rigidly connected materials 1 and 2, x-sectional areas A 1
and A2, and Young’s modulus E1 and E2:
⮚ For compatibility, longitudinal strains must be the same when the bar is stretched i.e.
𝜎 𝜎
𝜀= =
𝐸 𝐸
⮚ From equilibrium considerations:
𝑃 =𝜎 𝐴 +𝜎 𝐴
Combining the two equations:
𝜎𝐸
𝑃=𝜎 𝐴 + 𝐴
𝐸
⮚ Re-arranging in terms of 𝜎 :
𝑃
𝜎 =
𝐸
𝐴 + 𝐴
𝐸
𝑃𝐸 𝑃𝐸
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦; 𝜎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 =
𝐴 𝐸 +𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 +𝐴 𝐸
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIAL MEMBERS
⮚ The bar shown in (a) is rigidly fixed at both ends and carries an axial load P, at an
intermediate point C.
⮚ Consequently, reactions Ra and Rb develop at the supports (see (b)). The reactions
cannot be resolved by statics alone i.e. statically indeterminate.
⮚ From (b); 𝑅 +𝑅 =𝑃
Using the flexibility method:

4
⮚ We designate one of the unknown reactions such as Ra as a statical redundant i.e. the
force that is in excess of those that can be obtained by statics alone. This implies that
support A is unnecessary.

⮚ Ra is then removed from the structure resulting in the primary structure which is statically
determinate (see (c)). Support at (a) is really not needed and is a redundant.
We now consider the displacements.
𝑃𝑏
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 (𝑐), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
⮚ Now remove actual load P and place redundant Ra as a load on the structure (see (d)).
⮚ Referring to (d), the displacement of point A upwards due to the redundant load Ra is
given by:
𝑅 𝐿
𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
⮚ Since there is no displacement at A in the real structure,
𝑃𝑏 𝑅 𝐿
𝛿 − 𝛿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 =
𝐿 𝐿
TEMPERATURE STRESSES AND STRAINS

⮚ The bar in (i) is fixed at both ends and the temperature is raised uniformly by amount ∆T.
⮚ Reactions R develop at supports. Bar has a uniform compressive stress.
To calculate R:

5
⮚ Remove the support at one end and allow the temperature change ∆T to occur in the
released structure (see (ii)).

⮚ Suppose a is the coefficient of thermal expansion.

⮚ Strain due to temperature change ∆T is given by:
𝜀 = 𝛼(∆𝑇)
⮚ Displacement at end A is given by:
𝛿 = 𝛼(∆𝑇)𝐿
⮚ Suppose a force R acts on the released structure (see (iii)) and produces a displacement to
maintain the length L. Then
𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
⮚ Since no displacement occurs in the real structure,
𝑅𝐿
𝛿 = 𝛿 𝑜𝑟 𝛼(∆𝑇)𝐿 − =0
𝐸𝐴
⮚ Therefore,
𝑅 = 𝐸𝐴𝛼(∆𝑇)
⮚ Compressive stress
𝑅
𝜎 = = 𝐸𝛼 (∆𝑇)
𝐴
Note:
⮚ Temperature change results in stresses even when there are no loads.
⮚ In this example, there are no displacements i.e. no axial strains. We have axial stress but
no axial strain.

6
Example 2
A circular sleeve of length L is placed around a solid circular bar to form a simple composite
bar as shown. The sleeve and the bar have different coefficients of thermal expansion as
and ab, respectively. The ends of the bar and sleeve are attached rigidly to each other. If
the temperature of the entire assembly is raised by an amount ∆T, determine the stresses
developed in the bar (σb) and the sleeve (σs). Assume as > ab.

Solution:
⮚ The sleeve and the bar would elongate by different amounts if allowed to expand freely.
⮚ Since they are held together in the assembly (see (i)), thermal stresses develop.
⮚ Assume one end is cut off (see (ii)).
⮚ The temperature change ∆T would produce elongations δ1 (in the sleeve) and δ2 (in

the bar), where δ1 > δ2, assuming as > ab.

⮚ Note 𝛿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿
⮚ Since (in the real structure) the bar and sleeve are held together at the ends, forces
in the bar/sleeve assembly must be such that they shorten the sleeve and stretch
the bar until the final elongations are the same (see (iii)).
Let Ps = total compressive force in the sleeve
and Pb = tensile force in the bar
𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑒 =
𝐸𝐴

7
 𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 =
𝐸 𝐴
⮚ But the final elongation of the bar and the sleeve are the same i.e.
𝛿 =𝛿 −𝛿 =𝛿 +𝛿
⮚ Substituting,
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 − = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 + … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . . . . . . . . . … … … … . (𝑖)
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴
⮚ For static equilibrium, Ps = Pb. ………………………………………….………………………………………(ii)
⮚ Combining (i) and (ii) and writing in terms of P s,

(𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 (𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)
𝑃 = = (= 𝑷𝒃 )
𝐸 𝐴 +𝐸 𝐴 1 1
+
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴
𝑃 𝑃
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦, 𝜎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 =
𝐴 𝐴
⮚ We note that if both bars are made of the same material, as = ab; the forces and
stresses are equal to zero and
𝛿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿
An alternative way of solving the problem is as follows:
(𝑎 ) 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝛿 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝛿 )
= 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. (𝜹𝟏[= 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿] − 𝜹𝟐 [= 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿])
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝜎𝑙
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸 = = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛿𝑙 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝑙 𝐸
𝑙
𝜎 𝐿 𝜎𝐿
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝛿 ≈ +𝛿 ≈ = (𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)𝐿
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝐿 𝜎𝐿
𝑖. 𝑒. + = (𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)𝐿 … … … . . . . . . . . . . . . . … … … … … … … … … … … . … … . (1)
𝐸 𝐸
(b) The tensile force applied to the short member by the long member is equal in
magnitude to the compressive force applied to the long member by the short member.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (= 𝜎𝐴)
𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 𝐴 = 𝜎 𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . . . … … … … . (2)
Equations (1) and (2) are usually used to solve problems of this nature.

STRESSES IN A BOLT-SLEEVE ASSEMBLY

Example 3

8
A bolt is enclosed centrally by a hollow sleeve with washers at each end to form a
compound bar as shown. The bolt and the sleeve are made of different materials. Assuming
that the length of the bolt equals the length of the sleeve when just tight, determine the
stresses set up in the assembly when the nut is tightened by ‘n’ turns.

Solution:
⮚ When the nut is tightened, the bolt is in a state of tension and the sleeve is in
compression. As in the previous example:
Compressive force in sleeve (Ps) = Tensile force in bolt (Pb) i.e.
𝜎 𝐴 = 𝜎 𝐴 … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … . . (1)
⮚ Compression of sleeve + Extension of bolt = Difference in free lengths
=number of turns (n) x pitch (p)
where ‘p’ is the distance between the threads.
Note that the axial movement of the nut is taken up by the combined compression of the
tube and extension of the bolt.
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝜎𝐿 𝜎 𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; + = 𝑛𝑝 𝑜𝑟 + = 𝑛𝑝 … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐸
Equations (1) and (2) are used to solve problems of this nature.
Example 4
A bar made of brass, 25 mm diameter is enclosed inside a steel tube, 50 mm external
diameter and 25 mm internal diameter as shown in (a). The bar and tube are both initially 1
m long and are rigidly fastened together at both ends.

9
(i) Determine the stresses in the two materials when the temperature rises from 150C to
950C.
(ii) If the composite bar is then subjected to an axial tensile load of 50 kN, determine the
resulting stresses and
(iii) the increase in length from the initial state.
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝛼 = 11.6 × 10 𝑝𝑒𝑟℃, 𝐸 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝛼 = 18.7 × 10 𝑝𝑒𝑟℃, 𝐸 = 100𝐺𝑃𝑎

Stresses due to temperature change ∆T (see (b) and (c))

𝜎𝐿 𝜎 𝐿
+ = (𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)𝐿 … … … … … … … … … . . … . . … … … … … … … … … . … … . (1)
𝐸 𝐸
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑥 = (𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)𝐿
𝜎 𝐴 = 𝜎 𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … . … … … … … … … … . (2)
We only need these two equations.
𝜎 ×1 𝜎 ×1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1); + = 80 × 1(18.7 − 11.6) × 10 = 5.68 × 10
200 × 10 100 × 10
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝜎 + 2𝜎 = 1.136 × 10 = 113.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝜋 𝜋
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2); 𝜎 (0.05 − 0.025 ) = 𝜎 (0.025 ) 𝑖. 𝑒.
4 4

𝜎 = 3𝜎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … … … … … . . (4)
⮚ Combining (3) and (4);
𝜎 = 16.23 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 48.69 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
Stresses due to the 50 kN load (see (d)):

10
Let ‘e’ represent extension due to the 50 kN load. Then
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝜎𝐿 𝜎 𝐿
𝑒 =𝑒 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; = 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 = 2𝜎 … … … … … … . … … … … (5)
200 × 10 100 × 10
⮚ The applied load is shared by the brass and the steel. Therefore,
𝑃 +𝑃 =𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 𝐴 + 𝜎 𝐴𝜋 = 50 × 10 𝑁

⮚ Substitute for As and Ab:

𝜋 𝜋
𝜎 (0.05 − 0.025 ) + 𝜎 (0.025 ) = 50 × 10 𝑁 … … … … . . … … … … … … . (6)
4 4

⮚ Solve equations (5) and (6) simultaneously:

𝜎 = 29.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 14.55 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (both tensile)
Resultant combined stresses due to both temperature and 50 kN load:
𝜎 = 16.23 + 29.1 = 45.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝜎 = −48.69 + 14.55 = −34.14 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
Extensions due to load P and due to temperature change ΔT:
Extension due to load P:
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴 = × 0.025 = 4.9087 × 10 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = (0.05 − 0.025 ) = 1.4726 × 10 𝑚
4 4
Let extension due to load P be e1.
𝑃𝐿 𝐸𝐴𝑒 𝐸𝐴 𝑒 𝐸 𝐴 𝑒
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃 + 𝑃 = 𝑃 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = ; + =𝑃
𝐸𝐴 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑒
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; [(2 × 10 × 1.4726 × 10 ) + (1 × 10 × 4.9087 × 10 )] = 50 × 10
1
𝑒 = 1.4552 × 10 𝑚 = 0.00014552 𝑚
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 1.0001455 𝑚
Extension due to temperature change T (refer to Figure b above)
𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝜎𝐿
𝑒 =  𝐿(𝑇) + 𝑥 =  𝐿(𝑇) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 = =
𝐸 𝐸𝐴 𝐸
16.23 × 10 × 1.0001455
= (11.6 × 10 × 1.0001455 × 80) +
200 × 10
𝑒 = 1.0093 × 10
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 = 1.4552 × 10 + 1.0093 × 10 = 1.1548 × 10 𝑚

11
Example 5
(a) A steel rod, 12 mm diameter, threaded at both ends, is enclosed centrally by a brass
tube of outer diameter 40 mm and inner diameter 32 mm and a length of 2.4 m (see
Figure below). The assembly is closed at each end by a combination of washers and
nuts. The nuts are then tightened until the brass tube is reduced in length by 0.6 mm.
Determine the stresses in the rod and the tube.
(b) The assembly is now heated through 800C. Determine the resultant stresses in the rod
and the tube. You may ignore the thickness of the washers.
Assume Esteel = 200 GPa; Ebrass = 100 GPa; αsteel = 12 x 10-6 per 0C; αbrass = 18 x 10-6 per 0C.

Solution
(i) Stresses due to tightening of the nuts
When the nuts are tightened;

⮚ Steel rod has a tensile stress (s)

⮚ Brass tube has a compressive stress (b)
Compressive force in brass tube = Tensile force in the steel rod i.e.
𝜋 𝜋
𝜎 𝐴 =𝜎𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 (0.04 − 0.032 ) = 𝜎 (0.012 ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜎 = 4𝜎
4 4
Since the brass tube is reduced in length by 0.6 mm;
0.6
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝜀 = = 0.00025
2.4 × 10
∴ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝜎 = 𝜀 𝐸 = 0.00025 × 100 × 10 = 25𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝜎 = 4𝜎 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)

(ii) Stresses due to temperature change of 800C

● If the two members were to expand freely;
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇)

12
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇)

● Note that b > s i.e. free expansion of brass > free expansion of steel
Let final expansion = δ

❖ Due to temperature alone, the steel rod is under tensile stress;

while the brass tube is under compressive stress.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 brass
Tensile force in steel = Compressive force in brass i.e.
𝜎 𝐴 =𝜎 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 = 4𝜎
Final expansion of the steel = final expansion of the brass i.e.
𝜎𝐿 𝜎 𝐿
𝛿 = 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇) + = 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇) − (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑔 10)
𝐸 𝐸
4𝜎 (2.4) 𝜎 (2.4)
∴ 12 × 10 (2.4)(80) + = 18 × 10 (2.4)(80) −
200 × 10 100 × 10
𝜎 = 16 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝜎 = 4𝜎 = 64 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
Resultant stresses
𝜎 = 25 + 16 = 41 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 )
𝜎 = 100 + 64 = 164 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 )

STRAIN ENERGY IN TENSION

● When a tensile test bar extends under load, forces applied move through small distances
i.e. work is done in stretching the bar.
● Suppose at load P, the bar is stretched by an additional amount δe (see Figure).
● Work done  P.δe
● Total work done in extending the bar to some extension ‘e’:
𝑊= 𝑃. 𝑑𝑒 (= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑒)

● Suppose the proportional limit is not exceeded. Then the work done is stored as strain
energy which is recoverable on removal of the load.

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑈) = 𝑊 = 𝑃. 𝑑𝑒

𝑃𝐿 𝐸𝐴𝑒
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐿
13
 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑈 = 𝑒. 𝑑𝑒 = 𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒
𝐿 2𝐿 2

𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝑃 𝐿 𝐿𝑃 𝐴 𝐿𝐴 𝑃 𝐴𝐿 𝜎
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃; 𝑈 = 𝑒 = = = =𝜎 = × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐸 𝐴 2𝐸𝐴 𝐴 2𝐸𝐴 𝐴 2𝐸 2𝐸
𝜎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑈 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) =
2𝐸

SUDDENLY APPLIED LOADS

1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑈 = 𝑃𝑒;
2
Suppose a load P’ is applied suddenly (instantaneous) to produce the same extension ‘e’.
(see Figure below). The graph is now a horizontal straight line i.e.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃 𝑒.

In both cases, the bar is strained by amount ‘e’ and the energy stored must be equal i.e.

14
 1 𝑃
𝑃𝑒= 𝑃𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 =
2 2
∴ A suddenly applied load which produces a certain value of instantaneous strain is ½
the equivalent static load to perform the same i.e.
A load ‘P’ which is applied suddenly will produce twice the effect of the same load applied
statically.
Design: When we design for static loads, we must avoid suddenly applied loads.

Impact loads – Axial application

Consider a bar with a rigid collar firmly attached at the end (see Figure). A load ‘P’ is
suspended at height ‘h’ above the collar. When the load is released, let the maximum
instantaneous extension of the bar be . Neglecting the mass of the bar and collar;
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃(ℎ + )

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑈) = 𝐴𝐿; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒  𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝.
2𝐸
 𝐴𝐿
= 𝑃 (ℎ + ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … (𝑖)
2𝐸

2𝐸𝑃ℎ 2𝑃𝐸ℎ
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒  𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 ℎ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛  = 𝑜𝑟  = … . . … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝐿

  𝜎𝐿
𝐼𝑓  𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 ℎ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸 = = 𝑜𝑟  =
  𝐸
𝐿
 𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝜎𝐿 𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖); = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝛿 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 −𝜎 − 𝑃ℎ = 0
2𝐸 𝐸 2𝐸 𝐸
2𝑃 2𝑃𝐸ℎ
𝜎 − 𝜎− =0
𝐴 𝐴𝐿

15
Solving using the quadratic formula and neglecting the negative value;

1 2𝑃 2𝑃 2𝑃𝐸ℎ
𝜎= + +4
2 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴𝐿

𝑃 𝑃 2𝑃𝐸ℎ
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜎 = + + … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .. (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴𝐿

𝜎𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛  =
𝐸
If the load was suddenly applied (i.e. from zero height), h = 0; equation (iii) then becomes
𝑃 𝑃 2𝑃
𝜎= + = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
Therefore, stresses resulting from suddenly applied loads are 2 times those from statically
applied loads of the same magnitude i.e. Safety Factor (SF) should be > than 2 if sudden
loads are expected.
Stresses from impact loads of similar magnitude are even higher than those from suddenly
applied loads (eqn (iii)). Therefore, if impact loads are expected, SF must be >>2.

16
18 CHAPTER 1. STRESS AND STRAIN

1.3 Exercises
Exercise 1.1. A mild steel column is hollow and circular in cross section
with an outside diameter of 380 mm and an inside diameter of 320 mm.
It carries a compressive axial load of 1800 kN . Determine the direct stress
in the column and the shortening of the column if its initial height is 4 m.
Assume E = 200 GP a.

Answer. σ = −54.6 N/mm2 , δL = 1.09 mm

Exercise 1.2. A bar ABC has two different cross–sectional areas and is
loaded by an axial force P as shown in Fig. 1.12. Parts AB and BC are
circular in cross-section with diameters 40 mm and 30 mm, respectively. If
the normal stress in AB is 36 M P a, what is the normal stress in BC?

Figure 1.12: Stepped bar loaded with axial force

Answer. σ = 64 M P a

Exercise 1.3. A prismatic bar is loaded in tension by axial forces. The ratio
of unit volume change to the unit change in cross sectional area is found to
be − 45 . Determine the Poisson’s ratio υ for the material.

Answer. 5/18

Exercise 1.4. A column 4 m high has a solid circular x–section and carries
an axial compressive load of 8, 000 kN . The direct stress in the column is
limited to 160 N/mm2 , Young’s modulus E = 200 GP a and Poisson’s ratio
υ = 0.3.

(a) Determine the minimum allowable diameter

(b) Calculate the shortening of the column due to this load

(c) Determine the increase in its diameter

Answer. d = 252.3 mm, δL = 3.2 mm, δd = 0.061 mm

1.3. EXERCISES 19

Exercise 1.5. The steel bar ABC shown in Fig. 1.13 is of circular cross-
section and transmits an axial tensile force P such that the total change in
length is 0.5 mm. The total length of the bar is 1.5 m, AB being 900 mm
long and 20 mm diameter and BC being 600 mm long and 15 mm diameter.
Assuming Young’s modulus E = 210 GP a and Poisson’s ratio υ = 0.3,
determine for parts AB and BC;
(a) the change in length

(b) the change in diameter

Figure 1.13: Stepped bar subjected to an axial tensile load

Answer. δLAB = 2.288 × 10−4 m, δLBC = 2.712 × 10−4 m, δdAB =

1.525 × 10−6 m, δdBC = 2.034 × 10−6 m
Exercise 1.6. A steel bar, 330 mm long and 20 mm diameter, is turned
down at one end up to 16 mm diameter for a length of 100 mm and then
placed between two stops as shown in Fig. 1.14. Determine the stresses in
the two parts of the rod, when the distance between the stops is reduced by
0.15 mm. Assume Esteel = 200 GP a.

Figure 1.14: Stepped bar held between two stops

Answer. σAB = −77.67 M P a, σBC = −121.36 M P a

20 CHAPTER 1. STRESS AND STRAIN

Exercise 1.7. The bar ABCD shown in Fig. 1.15 consists of three sections:
AB is 25 mm square and 50 mm long, BC is 20 mm diameter and 40 mm
long, and CD is 12 mm diameter and 50 mm long. Determine the stresses
set up in each section of the bar when it is subjected to an axial tensile load
of 20 kN . Determine also the total extension of the bar under this load. For
the bar material, assume E = 210 GP a.

Figure 1.15: Stepped bar held between two stops

Answer. σAB = 32 M P a, σBC = 63.7 M P a, σCD = 176.8 M P a, δL =

0.0618 mm

Exercise 1.8. The test data shown in Table 1.1 was obtained from a tensile
test of a high strength steel. The initial specimen diameter was 13 mm and
the gauge length was 50 mm. The elongation between the gauge marks at
fracture was 10.7 mm, and the minimum diameter at fracture was 9.4 mm.
Plot the nominal (Engineering) stress-strain curve for the steel and deter-
mine:

(a) Proportional limit

(b) Modulus of elasticity

(c) 0.1 percent proof stress

(d) Ultimate tensile strength

(e) Percent elongation

(f ) Percent reduction of area

(Adopted from Reference 2)

Answer. 485 M P a, 220 GP a, 520 M P a, 955 M P a, 21 percent, 48 percent.

1.3. EXERCISES 21

Table 1.1: Load-extension data from a tensile test

Load (kN) Elongation (mm)

5 0.005
10 0.015
30 0.048
50 0.084
60 0.102
64.5 0.109
67.0 0.119
68.0 0.137
69.0 0.160
70.0 0.229
72.0 0.300
76.0 0.424
84.0 0.668
92.0 0.965
100.0 1.288
112.0 2.814
127.0 Fracture

Exercise 1.9. A cylinder with a sealed cover plate fastened with steel bolts
contains a gas under pressure P as shown in Fig. 1.16. The diameter of the
bolts db = 10 mm and the allowable tensile stress in the bolts is 80 M P a.
If the inside diameter D of the cylinder is 240 mm and the pressure P =
2 M P a, establish the number of bolts needed to fasten the cover.

Answer. n = 15
Exercise 1.10. A punch of diameter 22 mm is used to punch a hole in a
9 mm steel plate as shown in Fig. 1.17. A force of P = 130 kN is required.
Calculate the average shear stress in the plate and the average compressive
stress in the punch.

Answer. τaver = 209 M P a, σaver = 342 M P a

Exercise 1.11. A flat bar 50 mm wide and 6 mm thick is subjected to a load
P as shown in Fig. 1.18. A hole of diameter d is drilled through the bar to
provide for a pin support. The allowable tensile stress on the net cross section
of the bar is 145 M P a and the allowable shear stress in the pin is 85 M P a.
Determine the pin diameter d for which the load P will be a maximum.
22 CHAPTER 1. STRESS AND STRAIN

Figure 1.16: Cylinder with sealed cover plate

Figure 1.17: Punch and steel plate

Figure 1.18: Flat bar subjected to a load P

Answer. d = 15.1 mm
1.3. EXERCISES 23

Exercise 1.12. The block of aluminium shown in Fig. 1.19 has dimensions
as follows: a = 125 mm, b = 100 mm and c = 75 mm. It is subjected to
triaxial stresses σx = 75 M P a, σy = −35 M P a and σz = −10 M P a acting
on the x, y and z faces/directions, respectively. Assuming Poisson’s ratio
υ = 1/3 and elastic modulus E = 70 GP a, calculate:

(a) The changes in the dimensions of the block (δa, δb and δc)

(b) The change in volume δV .

Figure 1.19: Aluminium block subjected to tri-axial stresses

Answer. δa = 0.1607 mm, δb = −0.08095 mm, δc = −0.0250 mm, δV =

133.93 mm3

Exercise 1.13. A rectangular bar shown in Fig. 1.20 of 50 mm × 25 mm

cross–section and 125 mm long carries a tensile load of 100 kN along its
length, a compressive load of 1 M N on its 50 mm × 125 mm faces and a
tensile load of 400 kN on its 25 mm × 125 mm faces. The bar is made of
steel where E = 210 GP a and υ = 0.3. Determine:

(a) The strains εx , εy and εz in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

(b) The change in volume of the bar.

(c) The increase required in the 1 M N load to produce no change in volume

(work from first principles)
24 CHAPTER 1. STRESS AND STRAIN

Figure 1.20: Rectangular steel bar subjected to tri-axial stresses

Answer. εx = 4.27×10−4 , εy = −10.59×10−4 , εz = 7.24×10−4 , δV =

+14.3 mm3 , δP = 0.3 M N

Exercise 1.14. (a) A rectangular block of dimensions dx, dy and dz is

subjected to axial compressive stresses σx , σy and σz in the x, y and z
directions, respectively. Assuming that Young’s modulus for the mate-
rial is E, Poisson’s ratio is υ, the original volume is Vo and the change
in volume is δV , show that the volumetric strain is given by the Equa-
tion:

δV (1 − 2υ)
= (σx + σy + σz )
Vo E

(b) A cube of material is subjected to a compressive stress on each of its

faces. If υ = 0.3, E = 200 GP a and the volume of the cube is reduced
by 0.15 percent;

(i) Calculate the value of the stress σ

(ii) Calculate the percentage reduction in length of one of the sides

Answer. 250 M P a, 0.05 percent

Exercise 1.15. A rubber cylinder A, diameter d, is compressed inside a steel

cylinder B by a force F as shown in Fig. 1.21.
1.3. EXERCISES 25

(a) Obtain a formula for the lateral pressure p between the rubber and the
steel in terms of F , d, and Poisson’s ratio υ for the rubber. Neglect any
friction between the rubber and the steel and assume the steel cylinder
is rigid.

(b) Calculate the pressure P if F = 5 kN , d = 60 mm and υ = 0.48

Answer.
4υF
P = , 1.63 M P a
(1 − υ)πd2

Figure 1.21: Rectangular steel bar subjected to tri-axial stresses

Exercise 1.16. A steel column is 2.5 m high and has a hollow circular
cross–section. The external diameter is 320 mm and it carries an axial load
of 4800 kN . If the stress in the column is limited to 180 M P a and the
shortening of the column under load must not exceed 1.5 mm, calculate the
maximum allowable internal diameter. Assume E = 200 GP a.

Answer. 226.9 mm

Further Reading
1. Case, J. et al. Strength of materials and structures, 4th ed., Arnold,
London, 1999.

2. Gere, J. M. and Timoshenko, S. P. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd ed.,

Chapman & Hall, London, 1993.

3. Rajput, R. K. Strength of Materials [Mechanics of Solids], Multicolour

illustrative revised Edition, S Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2004.
26 CHAPTER 1. STRESS AND STRAIN

4. Beer, F. P. and Johnson,Jr. E. R. Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill

Book Co., Singapore, 1985.
4.1 Introduction
Welcome to the fourth lesson on thin walled pressure vessels. In this lesson, the following sub-
topics will be covered; definition of thin walled pressure vessel, circumferential/hoop stresses,
longitudinal/axial stress, change in length, diameter and volume; spherical shells under
internal pressure, vessels subjected to fluid pressure, cylinder with hemispherical ends and
effect of end plates/joints.
4.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
4.2.1 Define a thin walled pressure vessel and solve problems relating to hoop and longitudinal
stresses
4.2.2 Determine change in length, diameter and volume of thin walled pressure vessels
4.2.3 Solve problems relating to vessels subjected to fluid pressure
4.2.4 Analyze cylinders with hemispherical ends
4.2.5 Design thin walled cylinders including the effect of end plates/joints.
THIN WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

Such vessels include: Water storage tanks (metallic and plastic), gas cylinders (cylindrical and
spherical), compressed air tanks, petroleum tanks, inflated balloons, etc.
Thin cylinders:

1
● For thin walled cylinders subjected to internal pressure P, possible stresses include:
(i) Circumferential/hoop stress (σH)
(ii) Longitudinal/axial stress (σL)
(iii) Radial stress (σR)
𝑟 𝑑
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 << 𝑑; 𝑖. 𝑒. > 10 (𝑜𝑟 > 20)
𝑡 𝑡
It is then reasonably accurate to assume:

● σH and σL are constant across the wall thickness.

● σR is very small compared to σH and σL and can be neglected.
Hoop/circumferential stress

● Referring to the half cylinder above, total force on half cylinder owing to internal
pressure = 𝑃 × 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃. 2𝑟. 𝐿
● Total resisting force due to the hoop stress σH set up in the cylinder walls = 𝜎 . 𝐿. 𝑡. 2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑃. 2𝑟. 𝐿 = 𝜎 . 𝐿. 𝑡. 2 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑷𝒓 𝑷𝒅
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝝈𝑯 = =
𝒕 𝟐𝒕
Longitudinal stress

● Referring to the figure below, total force on the end of the cylinder due to internal pressure
𝜋𝑑
= 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃 × = 𝑃𝜋𝑟
4

Resultant (resisting) force in the longitudinal direction = 𝜎 (𝜋𝑑𝑡) = 𝜎 (2𝜋𝑟𝑡)

𝑷𝒓 𝑷𝒅
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝜎 (2𝜋𝑟𝑡) = 𝑃𝜋𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝝈𝑳 = =
𝟐𝒕 𝟒𝒕
Change in length (neglect σR)

2
 𝜎 𝜎 1
𝜀 = −𝜇 = (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 )
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

Change in length = εL G original length = (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 )𝐿

1 𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑𝐿
= −𝜇 𝐿= (1 − 2𝜇)
𝐸 4𝑡 2𝑡 4𝑡𝐸
Change in diameter
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

● But change in diameter can be found from circumferential change.

● Original circumference = d
● Suppose σH gives rise to circumferential strain εH.
⇛ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜀 × 𝜋𝑑
⇛ 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜋𝑑 + 𝜋𝑑𝜀 = 𝜋𝑑(1 + 𝜀 )
But this is the circumference of a circle of diameter 𝑑(1 + 𝜀 )
Therefore, new diameter = 𝑑(1 + 𝜀 ) = 𝑑 + 𝑑𝜀

⇛𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∆𝑑 = 𝑑𝜀
𝑑𝜀
⇛ 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =𝜀
𝑑
Therefore, diametral strain = Hoop/circumferential strain
𝑑 𝑑 𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑
⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑑𝜀 = (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 ) = −𝜇 = (2 − 𝜇)
𝐸 𝐸 2𝑡 4𝑡 4𝑡𝐸
Change in internal volume
Change in volume = volumetric strain x initial volume
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 = 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 = 𝜀 + 2𝜀
1 2
= (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 )
𝐸 𝐸
1
= (𝜎 + 2𝜎 − 𝜇(𝜎 + 2𝜎 ))
𝐸
𝑃𝑑
= (1 + 4 − 𝜇(2 + 2))
4𝑡𝐸

3
 𝑃𝑑
= (5 − 4𝜇)
4𝑡𝐸
𝑃𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (5 − 4𝜇)𝑉
4𝑡𝐸
Spherical shell under internal pressure

Due to symmetry of the sphere:

● Stresses due internal pressure are two mutually perpendicular circumferential/hoop

stresses of equal value.
𝑑
𝐼𝑓 > 20, 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.
𝑡
Consider equilibrium of half sphere:
Due to internal pressure:

𝜋𝑑
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃 × (= 𝑃 × 𝜋𝑟 )
4
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) = 𝜎 (𝜋𝑑𝑡)
𝜋𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑃 × = 𝜎 (𝜋𝑑𝑡)
4
𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑟
𝑜𝑟 𝜎 = =
4𝑡 2𝑡
We note that the spherical shape is the most ideal for resisting internal pressure
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟, 𝜎 =

Why are pressure vessels not all spherical?

4
Change in internal volume:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀
3 3𝑃𝑑
= 3𝜀 = 3𝜀 = (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 ) = (1 − 𝜇)
𝐸 4𝑡𝐸
3𝑃𝑑
∆𝑉 = (1 − 𝜇)𝑉
4𝑡𝐸

Vessels subjected to fluid pressure:

If fluid is used as pressurizing medium, there are two volume changes:

● The fluid changes in volume as pressure is increased.

● There is an increase in internal volume of the cylinder.
Assuming the cylinder is initially full at atmospheric pressure, to raise the pressure by a
specified amount, both volume changes must be taken into account.
(i) Change in volume of the fluid:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐾=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝛿𝑉)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)
𝑃 𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝐾 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑉 =
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝐾
𝑉
𝑃𝑉
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐾
Change in volume of the cylinder itself:
𝑃𝑑
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = (5 − 4𝜇)𝑉
4𝑡𝐸
𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑉
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑃 = (5 − 4𝜇)𝑉 +
4𝑡𝐸 𝐾
3𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑉
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠: (1 − 𝜇)𝑉 +
4𝑡𝐸 𝐾

5
Cylinder vessel with hemispherical ends:

For a vessel with hemispherical ends, the wall thickness of the cylindrical and hemispherical
portions may be different. This is because
𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑
𝜎 , = =2×𝜎 , =
2𝑡 4𝑡
i.e. cylinder should be thicker (𝑡 = 2𝑡 ) for same stress.
Assume the internal diameter ‘d’ is the same for both portions.
Cylindrical portion:
𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑
𝜎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 =
2𝑡 4𝑡
1 1 𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝜀 = (𝜎 −𝜇𝜎 )= −𝜇 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝐸 𝐸 2𝑡 4𝑡
𝑃𝑑
𝜀 = (2 − 𝜇)
4𝑡 𝐸
Hemispherical portion:
𝑃𝑑
𝜎 =
4𝑡
1
𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = (𝜎 − 𝜇 𝜎 ) 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝐸
𝑃𝑑
𝜀 = (1 − 𝜇)
4𝑡 𝐸

● For no distortion at the junction/boundary, the two strains should be equal.

𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; (2 − 𝜇) = (1 − 𝜇)
4𝑡 𝐸 4𝑡 𝐸

6
 𝑡 1−𝜇
𝑖. 𝑒. =
𝑡 2−𝜇
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝜇 = 0.3 (𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙)
𝑡 0.7
= 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡 = 2.4𝑡 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛).
𝑡 1.7

● The maximum stress is in the sphere in this case since the cylinder is thicker (𝑡 = 2.4𝑡 )
than when 𝑡 = 2𝑡

● For equal σmax in the two portions, 𝑡 = 2𝑡 (but some distortion will occur)

Effect of end plates /joints

● We have assumed uniform material properties in all the derivations and neglected end
plates/joints necessary in the production of a cylinder. Such joints could be welded or
bolted.

● The strength is reduced by the presence of such joints.

● To account for this, we introduce the joint efficiency factor η in the equations.
Thin cylinders:
Since hoop stress acts on longitudinal joints, then
𝑃𝑑
𝜎 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜂 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
2𝑡𝜂
Since longitudinal stress acts on circumferential joints, then
𝑃𝑑
𝜎 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜂 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
4𝑡𝜂
Thin spheres:
𝑃𝑑
𝜎 =
4𝑡𝜂
η is substituted in decimal form into the equations.

Example 1
A pressure vessel made of steel is 2m long. The external diameter is 450mm and the thickness
10mm. The vessel is subjected to an internal air pressure of 1 MPa. Determine the increase in
external diameter and the increase in length. Assume E = 200GPa and μ = 0.3.

7
Solution:
Mean radius of the vessel r = 0.225m.

𝑃𝑟 1 × 10 (0.225)
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = = = 22.5𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑡 0.01
𝑃𝑟
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = = 11.25𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡
1 𝜎 𝜇 22.5 × 10 × 0.85
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 ) = 1− = = 0.956 × 10
𝐸 𝐸 2 200 × 10
1 𝜎 1 22.5 × 10 × 0.2
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = (𝜎 − 𝜇𝜎 ) = −𝜇 = = 0.225 × 10
𝐸 𝐸 2 200 × 10
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.956 × 10 × 0.45 = 0.043𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 0.225 × 10 × 2000 = 0.045𝑚𝑚
Example 2
A thin cylinder has an internal diameter of 200mm, wall thickness 5mm and is 1.2m long. The
internal volume of the cylinder is found to change by 12 x 10 -6m3 when filled with a liquid at
pressure ‘p’. Assuming the cylinder is made of mild steel with E = 200GPa and μ = 0.25, and
assuming rigid end plates, determine:

(i) The hoop and longitudinal stresses.

(ii) The modifications to these values if joint efficiencies of 50% (hoop) and 80% (longitudinal)
are assumed.
(iii) The necessary change in pressure ‘p’ to produce a further increase in internal volume of
15% assuming the liquid is incompressible.
Solution:
𝑃𝑑
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑉 = (5 − 4𝜇)𝑉
4𝑡𝐸
𝜋
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = × 200 × 10 × 1.2 = 3.7699 × 10 𝑚
4
𝑝 × 200 × 10 × 3.7699 × 10 × (5 − 1)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑉(= 12 × 10 ) =
4 × 5 × 10 × 200 × 10
𝑃 = 1.5916𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑑 1.5916 × 10 × 200 × 10
𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = = = 31.832𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡 2 × 5 × 10
𝑃𝑑 31.832 × 10
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = = = 15.916𝑀𝑃𝑎
4𝑡 2

8
Joint efficiencies

● Hoop stress acting on longitudinal joints:

𝑃𝑑 1.5916 × 10 × 200 × 10
𝜎 = = = 39.79𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡𝜂 2 × 5 × 10 × 0.8

● Longitudinal stress acting on the circumferential joints:

𝑃𝑑 1.5916 × 10 × 200 × 10
𝜎 = = = 31.83𝑀𝑃𝑎
4𝑡𝜂 4 × 5 × 10 × 0.5
Necessary change in pressure

Since change in volume is directly proportional to change in pressure (𝐾 = ) the pressure

must also change by 15% i.e.
Increase in pressure 𝑝 = 0.15 × 1.5916 × 10 = 0.239𝑀𝑃𝑎
Example 3

A spherical pressure vessel (E = 200GPa and μ = 0.3) is 1.2m internal diameter and 5mm wall
thickness. The sphere is initially filled with water at atmospheric pressure and is to be pressure
tested for safety purposes with the water as the pressure medium. Assuming bulk modulus for
water K = 2.1GPa:

(i) Determine the extra volume of water required to be pumped in to produce a pressure of
3MPa.
(ii) If the sphere is now placed in service and filled with gas until there is a volume change of 50
x 10-6m3, determine the pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of the sphere.
Solution:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑝) 𝑃𝑉
𝐾= =
∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉
4
𝑃𝑉 3 × 10 × 3 (𝜋 × 0.6 )
Change in volume of the water ∆𝑉 = = = 1.2925 × 10 𝑚
𝐾 2.1 × 10
3𝑃𝑑
Change in internal volume ∆𝑉 = (1 − 𝜇)𝑉 𝑖. 𝑒
4𝑡𝐸
3𝑃 4
50 × 10 = × 1.2 × (1 − 0.3) × 𝜋(0.6 )
4 × 5 × 10 × 200 × 10 3
𝑃 = 87.72𝑘𝑁/𝑚

9
5.1 Introduction
Welcome to the fifth lesson on torsion. In this lesson, the following sub-topics will be covered;
derivation of the characteristic torsion formula, application of the torsion formula, section
modulus, and design of a shaft.
5.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
5.2.1 Derive the characteristic torsion formula.
5.2.2 Define section modulus and torsional rigidity.
5.2.3 Design a solid and hollow shaft based on maximum shear stress and angle of twist
5.2.4 Solve problems relating to torque, power transmission, shear stress, angle of twist
Torque = twisting moment (force x arm).

● Examples of engineering components subjected to torque: screw driver, drill rods,

steering rod, axles, various shafts such as drive shafts, crank shaft, cam shaft, propeller
shaft etc.
● Consider a bar of circular x-section, length L subjected to equal and opposite torques T at
each end. Assume the torque T is constant along the length.

Basic assumptions:

1
 (i) Material is homogeneous i.e. uniform elastic properties throughout.
(ii) Material is elastic (obeys Hooke’s law) i.e. shear stresses are proportional to shear strains.
(iii) Stresses do not exceed the elastic limit.
(iv) Plane x-sections remain plane after twisting (not true for non-circular cross-sections)
(v) Radial lines remain radial after twisting.

● Consider line BA on the surface of the bar and parallel to the longitudinal axis (let B be the
reference point).
● After twisting, end A is displaced to A’ wrt B.
● Radius OA rotates through a small angle θ to OA’.
● Shear strain on surface of the bar = ABA’ = γs
𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 ≅ 𝛾 = =
𝐴𝐵 𝐿

● Shear strain ‘γ’ at any radius ‘r’ = DCD’ i.e.

𝐷𝐷′ 𝑟𝜃
𝛾= =
𝐿 𝐿

● But shear stress τ at any radius is related to shear strain γ by the equation:
𝜏 𝜏 𝑟𝜃
𝐺= 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛾 = =
𝛾 𝐺 𝐿
𝜏 𝐺𝜃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … . (𝑖)
𝑟 𝐿

● Consider any cross-section of the bar. Shear stress ‘τ’ on annulus of radius ‘r’ width ‘δr’ is:
(i) Tangential to annulus.
(ii) In the plane of the cross-section.
(iii) Constant round the annulus.

Shear force on small element ‘δs’ of annulus is given by 𝜏. 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑟

2
Moment of shear force about the center of circle is given by 𝜏. 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑟. 𝑟

● Elemental torque on annulus:

𝛿𝑇 = 𝜏. 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑟. 𝑟 = 𝜏. 𝛿𝑟. 𝑟. 𝑠| = 2𝜋𝑟 . 𝜏. 𝛿𝑟

● Total torque = sum of the torques from each annulus in the cross-section.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟 . 𝜏. 𝛿𝑟

● But ‘τ’ is a function of ‘r’ from (i). Therefore,

𝐺𝜃𝑟 𝐺𝜃 2𝜋𝐺𝜃 𝑟 𝜋𝑅 𝐺𝜃 𝐺𝜃
𝑇= 2𝜋𝑟 . . 𝛿𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 . 𝛿𝑟 = = =𝐽
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 4 2 𝐿 𝐿

𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝐷
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝐽 = = = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 2 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
2 32
𝐽𝐺𝜃 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑇 = 𝑜𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐿 𝐽 𝐿
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖); = = (𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟
T → Torque (Nm)
J → Polar second moment of area (m4)

τ→ Shear stress at radius r (N/m2)

G → Shear modulus (N/m2)

Θ → Angle of twist of length L (radians)

● Note that for a given torque ‘T’ acting on a bar, shear stress is maximum on the outer
surface.

3
Solid x-section (a) and (b)

𝑱 = 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝒓𝟐

2𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝐷
= 2. 𝜋. 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑟 = = =
4 2 32

(= 2nd moment of area about an axis through the center

into the surface)

I = 2nd moment of area about the x-x axis (or y-y axis)

= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴

𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝐷
𝐼 = 𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝑟 (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ) = =
4 64

Hollow section radii Ri and Ro (c)

Area of annulus = 2πr.dr

𝐽= 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟

𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑅 − 𝑅 ) = (𝐷 − 𝐷 )
2 32

Thin circular section (d)

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑡

𝐽 = (2𝜋𝑟𝑡)𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑡

Example 1 Compare the torque that can be transmitted by a hollow shaft with that of a
solid shaft of the same material, weight, length and allowable stress.

4
Let Ro = the outer radius of hollow shaft
Ri = inner radius of hollow shaft
R = radius of solid shaft
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟
(i) Maximum shear stress is the same for both i.e.
𝜏𝐽 𝜏 𝜋𝑅 𝜏 𝜋
𝑇 = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
𝑅 𝑅 2 𝑅 2
𝑇 𝜏 𝜋 2𝑅 𝑅 −𝑅 (𝑅 − 𝑅 )(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = (𝑅 − 𝑅 ) × = = … … . (𝑎)
𝑇 𝑅 2 𝜏𝜋𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
(ii) For shafts to be of the same weight:

𝜋𝑅 𝐿 = 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑅 )𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑅(𝑅 − 𝑅 ) … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑏)

● Substitute for R3 in (a):

1
𝑇 (𝑅 − 𝑅 )(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) × 𝑅
= =
𝑇 𝑅 𝑅(𝑅 − 𝑅 ) 1
𝑅 𝑅×
𝑅
1
𝑅 𝑇 1+
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑛 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑛 = 1+ 1 𝑅 … … … … … . … … … … … . … … … … (𝑐)
𝑅 𝑇 𝑅 𝑛 𝑅
𝑅

● To write Ro/R in terms of n:

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … . … … … . (𝑑)
𝑅 𝑅 𝑛

● From (b) and (d):

5
 𝑅
𝑅 =𝑅 −𝑅 =𝑅 −
𝑛
𝑛 𝑅 −𝑅 𝑛 −1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = =𝑅
𝑛 𝑛

● Re-arranging;
𝑅 𝑛 𝑅 𝑛
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅 𝑛 −1 𝑅 √𝑛 − 1
𝑇 1 𝑅 1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑐); = 1+ = 1+ = =
𝑇 𝑛 𝑅 𝑛 √𝑛 − 1 √𝑛 − 1 𝑛 𝑛√𝑛 − 1
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑛 = 2 (𝑎 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
𝑇 5
= = 1.44
𝑇 2√3
What does the 1.44 mean?

● A hollow shaft can carry 44% more torque than a solid shaft for the same weight, stress, etc.
Therefore, the core of a solid shaft carries very low stress/loads.
But hollow shafts are not widely used in practice. Why?

Hollow shafts only used when:

● Weight must be saved

● We need to pass services through the center of the shaft.
SECTION MODULUS
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝜏= 𝑟=
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽 𝐽
𝑟

● For a shaft of radius R (diameter D):

𝑇𝑅 𝑇
𝜏 = =
𝐽 𝐽
𝑅

● For a given shaft, J and R are constant.

6
𝐽
= 𝑍 (𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠)
𝑅
𝜋𝐷 1 𝜋𝐷
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡: 𝑍= × =
32 𝐷 16
2

● For a hollow shaft outside diameter D and inside diameter d:

𝜋 2 𝜋 𝐷 −𝑑
𝑍= (𝐷 − 𝑑 ) × =
32 𝐷 16 𝐷

● For a hollow shaft to carry the same torque as a solid shaft, the section modulus of both
must be the same.
TORSIONAL RIGIDITY
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜃 𝑇
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝐽 𝐿 𝐿 𝐺𝐽
𝑇
𝐺𝐽 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜃
𝐿
POWER OUTPUT FROM A SHAFT

● Use of shafts: To transmit mechanical power from one device/machine to another.

● Transmission: Through a rotary motion of the shaft.

Of interest: (i) Magnitude of the torque
(ii) Speed of rotation
Design of a shaft: We are interested in the required shaft size (diameter) to transmit a
specified amount of power at a specified rotational speed without exceeding the allowable
stresses for the material.

● Consider a motor driven shaft rotating at an angular speed ω (rad/s).

● Shaft transmits a torque T to a machine.
7
● Work done by the torque T =Torque x angle through which it rotates i.e.
𝑊 = 𝑇𝜙 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)
𝑑𝑊 𝑑(𝑇𝜙 ) 𝑑𝜙
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃 = = =𝑇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙
𝐵𝑢𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠) 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑑𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 (= 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡)

● Units: P → Wa s; T → Nm; ω → rad/s

1𝑁𝑚 1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = (= )
𝑠 𝑠

● 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐻𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 1 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐼𝑓 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑁 = 60𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 =
60
where power is in watts, N is in rev per min and T is in Nm.

● Old units of power:

Power was measured in Horsepower (hp) where 1hp = 550 ft_lb per s
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐻= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡_𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑝
60(550)
1 hp ≅ 746 watts
Example 2:
A shaft is required to transmit 40kW at 2rev/s. The shear stress is to be limited to 50MPa and
the angle of twist of the shaft is not to exceed 1 0 for each 2m length of shaft. The shear
modulus is 77GPa. Determine the acceptable diameter of the shaft.
Solution:

● Convert power to a torque

𝑃 40 × 10
𝑇= = = 3183 𝑁𝑚
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 × 2

8
Based on the maximum shear stress
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇𝑅
= 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 =
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽
𝑇𝑅 2𝑇
𝜏 = =
𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑅
2

2𝑇 2 × 3183 × 10
𝑅= = = 34.3𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜏 𝜋 × 50

Based on the angle of twist

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝐺𝜃 2𝑇
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐽 𝐿 𝐿 𝜋𝑅

2𝑇𝐿 2 × 3183 × 2
𝑅= = 𝜋 = 41.7𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝐺𝜃 𝜋 × 77 × 10 ×
180
Note if R = 34.3 mm, θ = 0.038 rad (= 2.18 0) which violates the 10 limitation.
If R = 41.7 mm, τmax = 27.9 MPa which meets the shear stress limit of 50 MPa.
Therefore, a radius of 41.7mm meets both conditions specified i.e. D = 83.4mm.
Example 3
The steel shaft shown has a diameter of 50mm and is driven at ‘A’ by a motor that transmits
55kW to the shaft at 10Hz. The gears at ‘B’ and ‘C’ drive machinery requiring power of 30kW
and 25kW, respectively. Calculate the maximum shear stress in the shaft and the angle of twist
between the motor at ‘A’ and the gear at ‘C’. Assume G = 80GPa.
Solution:

● The torque supplied by the motor and the reactive torques at ‘B’ and ‘C’ are as shown.
𝑃 55 × 10
⇛⇛ 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = = = 875.35𝑁𝑚
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 × 10
25 × 10
⇛⇛ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 "𝐶" 𝑇 = = 397.89𝑁𝑚
2𝜋 × 10
30 × 10
⇛⇛ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 "𝐵" 𝑇 = = 477.46𝑁𝑚 (= 𝑇 − 𝑇 )
2𝜋 × 10

9
● Considering part AB:
𝑑
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇 16𝑇 16 × 875.35 × 10
= 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = 2 = = = 35.665 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 𝑟 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 𝜋 × 50
32
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿 32𝑇𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜑 = = =
𝐺𝐽 𝜋𝑑 𝐺𝜋𝑑
𝐺
32
32 × 875.35 × 10 × 1 × 10
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜑 = = 1.7832 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜋 × 80 × 10 × 50

● Considering part BC:

16𝑇 16 × 397.89 × 10
𝜏 = = = 16.211 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 𝜋 × 50
32𝑇𝐿 32 × 397.89 × 10 × 1.2 × 10
𝜑 = = = 9.7269 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐺𝜋𝑑 𝜋 × 80 × 10 × 50
Therefore, the maximum shear stress in the shaft is τAB = 35.665 MPa.

● The total angle of twist

𝟐
𝜑=𝜑 +𝜑 = 1.7832 × 10 + 9.7269 × 10 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓𝟓𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔

10
6.1 Introduction
Welcome to the sixth lesson on torsion. In this lesson, the following sub-topics will be covered;
combined shafts, taper shafts, strain energy in torsion, application of torsion to close coiled
helical springs, statically indeterminate torsional members.
6.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
6.2.1 Solve torsion problems involving combined/stepped shafts.
6.2.2 Derive equations and solve problems involving taper shafts.
6.2.3 Derive and solve problems relating to strain energy.
6.2.4 Derive deflection equation of close coiled helical spring including solving related
problems e.g. springs in series and springs in parallel.
6.2.5 Solve problems involving statically indeterminate torsional members.
COMBINED SHAFTS

Case 1: Continuous shaft with different diameters (stepped shafts)

Torque is the same for both portions of the shaft i.e. 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇
Total angle of twist (deformation) 𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝜃 where
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 =
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽

● For different materials, use G1, G2

𝐿
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑠; 𝜃 = 𝑇
𝐺𝐽

11
Case (II) Concentric shafts (ends rigidly connected)

● Since ends are rigidly connected, angle of twist is the same for both i.e.
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝜃 =𝜃 = =
𝐺 𝐽 𝐺 𝐽

● Total torque = Torque carried by the solid shaft + Torque carried by the hollow shaft i.e.
𝑇 =𝑇 +𝑇
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝐺 𝐽𝜃 𝐺 𝐽𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 = +
𝐽 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
Case (III)

This case works as though the shafts are connected in series i.e.
𝜃 =𝜃 +𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇

12
Example 4
The solid bar of circular cross-section shown is subjected to a torque of 1 kNm at the free end
and a torque of 3 kNm at its change of section. Calculate the maximum shear stress in the bar
and the angle of twist at the free end. Assume shear modulus G = 70 GPa.

Solution:

● For part AB,

𝑇 = 𝑇 + 𝑇 = 4 𝑘𝑁𝑚 = 4 × 10 𝑁𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑅 𝑇𝐷 16𝑇 16 × 4 × 10 𝑁𝑚𝑚 𝑁
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜏 = = = = = 20.372
𝐽 𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 100 𝑚𝑚
2×
32
𝑇𝐿 4 × 10 × 200 × 32
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝜃 = = = 1.1641 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐺𝐽 70 × 10 × 𝜋 × 100

● For part BC,

𝑇 = 𝑇 = 1 𝑘𝑁𝑚
16𝑇 16 × 1 × 10 𝑁𝑚𝑚 𝑁
𝜏 = = = 40.744
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 50 𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝐿 1 × 10 × 400 × 32
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝜃 = = = 9.3128 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐺𝐽 70 × 10 × 𝜋 × 50

● Therefore, the maximum shear stress is on part BC and is equal to 40.74 N/mm 2.
● Angle of twist θ at the free end is given by:
𝟐
𝜃=𝜃 +𝜃 = 1.1641 × 10 + 9.3128 × 10 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔

Example 5

13
A solid steel shaft of diameter d = 254 mm and length L = 3048 mm is twisted to a total angle of
20 over its length. If the shear modulus of the steel G = 103 GPa, and the shaft rotates at 150
rpm, determine:

(a) The power transmitted by the shaft

(b) The maximum shear stress in the shaft
(c) If the yield stress of the steel equals 690 MPa, determine the slowest speed of the shaft
permitted for the same power and a safety factor of 2.
Solution:

● From the general torsion formula,

𝜋×2
𝐺𝜃𝐽 103 × 10 × 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝜋 × 0.254
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑇 = = = 4.8193 × 10 𝑁𝑚
𝐿 3.048 × 32
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇 =
60
2𝜋 × 150 × 4.8193 × 10
= = 7.5701 × 10 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 ≅ 7570 𝑘𝑊
60

𝑇𝑅
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 =
𝐽
0.254 32 𝑁
= 4.8193 × 10 × × = 1.4978 × 10 ≅ 150 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 𝜋 × 0.254 𝑚

● For a safety factor of 2, the maximum allowed stress is 345 MPa. Therefore
𝜏𝐽 345 × 10 𝜋 × 0.254
𝑇= = × = 1.1101 × 10 𝑁𝑚
𝑅 0.254 32
2
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃 =
60
60𝑃 60 × 7.5701 × 10
𝑁= = = 65.119 𝑟𝑝𝑚 ≅ 65 𝑟𝑝𝑚
2𝜋 × 𝑇 2𝜋 × 1.1101 × 10

14
TORSION OF A TAPER SHAFT

𝐷−𝑑 𝐷 𝑑 𝐷 𝑥 𝐷−𝑑
𝑑( ) =𝑑+ 𝑥 =𝑑+ 𝑥− 𝑥 =𝑑 1+ 𝑥− =𝑑 1+𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝑑 𝐿 𝐿𝑑

𝐷−𝑑
= 𝑑(1 + 𝑘𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 =
𝐿𝑑
𝜋𝑑( ) 𝜋
⇛⇛ 𝐽( ) = = 𝑑 (1 + 𝑘𝑥) = 𝐽( ) (1 + 𝑘𝑥)
32 32
𝑇𝐿
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦:
𝐺𝐽
𝑇 𝛿𝑥
⇛⇛ 𝑑𝜃( ) =
𝐽( ) 𝐺

𝑇 𝛿𝑥
⇛⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃( ) =
𝐺 𝐽( ) (1 + 𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
⇛⇛ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = (1 + 𝑘𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑘𝐿
𝑇 𝑑𝑧 𝑇 1 1
⇛⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝜃 = = −
𝐺𝑘𝐽( ) 𝑧 𝐺𝑘𝐽( ) 3 3(1 + 𝑘𝐿)

𝑇𝐿 𝛽 + 𝛽 + 1
⇛⇛ 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒; 𝜃 = … … … … … … … … . . (𝑦)
𝐺𝐽 3𝛽

𝐷 𝜋𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽( ) =
𝑑 32
𝑇𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛽 = 1 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟), 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑦) 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 =
𝐺𝐽( )

15
STRAIN ENERGY IN TORSION
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏 𝐺𝐽
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝜃
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟 𝐿
𝐺𝐽
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝐺), 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅; = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿
Therefore, the angle of twist (θ) ≅ applied torque (T)
The graph of torque versus angle of twist is linear for a gradually applied torque.
Work done by the torque T = area under the torque/angle of twist graph = ½Tθ
Corresponding strain energy (assuming no dissipation of energy) U = ½Tθ

In terms of τmax:

𝜏𝐽 𝜏𝐿
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑅 𝐺𝑅
1𝜏 𝐽 𝜏 𝐿
𝑈= ×
2 𝑅 𝐺𝑅
1 1 𝜋𝑅 1𝜏
𝑈= 𝜏 . 𝐿. . = . 𝜋𝑅 𝐿
2 𝐺𝑅 2 4 𝐺
𝜏
= . (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟)
4𝐺
𝜏
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
4𝐺
1 1 𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑇; 𝑈 = 𝑇𝜃 = 𝑇. = (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 4𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟)
2 2 𝐺𝐽 2𝐺𝐽

16
 APPLICATION TO CLOSE-COILED HELICAL SPRING

Spring → absorbs energy, stores it and releases it when necessary.

Need to know:

→ Capacity to absorb energy

→ deforma on for a given load.

Stiffness → load required to produce unit deflec on (𝑘 = )

Flexibility → reciprocal of s ffness i.e. elonga on produced by unit load

Consider a close-coiled helical spring carrying a load P.

R (=D/2) = mean coil radius
d = wire diameter
n = number of coils
L = Length of wire ( 2πRn)
δ = axial deflection due to load P
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑃 × 𝑅

Work done by load P = 𝑃𝛿

17
Strain energy stored in the spring 𝑈 = 𝑇𝜃

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏 𝑇𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅)
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟 𝐺𝐽
1 1 1𝑇 𝐿
∴ 𝑃𝛿 = 𝑇𝜃 = 𝑖. 𝑒.
2 2 2 𝐺𝐽
1 1 (𝑃𝑅) (2𝜋𝑅𝑛)
𝑃𝛿 =
2 2 𝜋𝑑
𝐺
32
64𝑃𝑅 𝑛 8𝑃𝐷 𝑛
𝛿= =
𝐺𝑑 𝐺𝑑
1 1 64𝑃𝑅 𝑛 32𝑃 𝑅 𝑛
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈 = 𝑃𝛿 = 𝑃 = … … … … … . … … … … … (𝑖)
2 2 𝐺𝑑 𝐺𝑑
𝑑
𝑇𝑟 𝑇 16𝑇 16𝑃𝑅
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜏 = = 2 = = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅)
𝐽 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
32
32𝑃 𝑅 𝑛 16𝑃𝑅 𝜋 (2𝑅)𝑛𝑑
⇛⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖); 𝑈 = = ×
𝐺𝑑 𝜋𝑑 16𝐺
16𝑃𝑅 𝜋𝑑 1
= × 2𝜋𝑅𝑛. ×
𝜋𝑑 4 4𝐺

= × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Example 6
A close-coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of 1 kN/m of compression, a maximum load of
50 N and a maximum shearing stress of 120 MPa. The solid length of the spring (when the coils
are touching) is to be 45 mm. Determine the diameter of the wire, mean diameter of the coils
and the number of coils required. Assume G = 50 GPa.
Solution
8𝑃𝐷 𝑛
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝛿=
𝐺𝑑
𝑃 𝐺𝑑 𝑑 8𝑘
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝑘= = 𝑖. 𝑒. =
𝛿 8𝐷 𝑛 𝐷 𝑛 𝐺
𝑑 8 × 1000
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: = = 1.6 × 10 … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … (𝑎)
𝐷 𝑛 50 × 10

18
 16𝑇 16𝑃𝑅 8𝑃𝐷
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝜏 = = = 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
𝐷 𝜋𝜏
=
𝑑 8𝑃
𝐷 𝜋 × 120 × 10
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: = = 9.4248 × 10 … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … (𝑏)
𝑑 8 × 50
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑛𝑑 = 0.045 𝑚 … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … (𝑐)
Solve (a), (b) and (c) simultaneously:
𝑫 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑 𝒎𝒎, 𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝒎𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓

SPRINGS IN SERIES

For two springs connected in series:

Let W = applied load

k1 = stiffness of spring 1 k2 = stiffness of spring 2

1 = extn of spring 1 2 = extn of spring 2

k = stiffness of composite spring

Each spring will be subjected to load ‘W’ and the total extension is the sum of the extensions of
the two springs i.e.
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 1 1 1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿 = 𝛿 + 𝛿 𝑜𝑟 = + 𝑜𝑟 = +
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

19
SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
For springs connected in parallel and subjected to a load ‘W’, they will extend equally by some
amount . The load will be shared such that:
𝑊 =𝑊 +𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑘 = 𝛿. 𝑘 + 𝛿. 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 𝑘 + 𝑘

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TORSIONAL MEMBERS:

● These are members with more supports than those required to hold the member in
equilibrium.

● Consider shaft AB fixed at both ends loaded with torque TC at C.

We want to determine:
(i) Reactive torques TA and TB.
(ii) The maximum shear stress.
(iii) Angle of rotation ϕC where TC is applied.

Reactive Torques
Set B as a redundant support. Remove it from the structure to obtain the released structure.

Let TC and TB act as loads on the structure. Suppose they produce an angle of twist ϕB at B.

𝑇𝐿 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝜑 +𝜑 = −
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽

● From compatibility considerations, angle of rotation at B = 0.

20
𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
− − =0
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽

● Solve for TB:

𝐿 𝐽 𝐿 𝐽
𝑇 =𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦; 𝑇 =𝑇 … … … … … … . . … … … … (𝑖)
𝐿 𝐽 +𝐿 𝐽 𝐿 𝐽 +𝐿 𝐽

● We note that for a bar of uniform cross-section:

𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝐽 = 𝐽 = 𝐽 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 ) … … … … . … . . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝐿 𝐿
Shear stress
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜏 =
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽2
𝑇𝑑 𝑇 𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 =
2𝐽 2𝐽

● Substituting for TA and TB from (i):

𝐿 𝑑 𝐿 𝑑
𝜏 =𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 =𝑇
2(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 ) 2(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 )

● To determine the part with the larger stress, we only need to compare Lbda and Ladb.
Angle of rotation ϕC at C

The angle of rotation ϕC at C is the same for both parts of the bar. Therefore,
𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝜑 = = =𝑇 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖) . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽 𝐺(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 )
𝐿
𝑊𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽 = 𝐽 = 𝐽, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
2
𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿 𝑇
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖), 𝑇 = = =
𝐿 𝐿 2 2
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝑇𝐿 𝑇
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝜑 = = 2 = 2 2=𝑇 𝐿
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽 4𝐺𝐽
Example 7
A bar of circular cross-section is fixed at both ends with dimensions as shown. It is subjected to
a torque of 50 kNm at its change of section. Assuming G = 80 GPa:

21
(i) The maximum stress in the bar
(ii) The angle of twist at point of application of the torque.
Solution:
𝐿 𝑑 = 0.5 × 0.2 = 0.1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑑 = 2 × 0.1 = 0.2

● Therefore, the maximum stress is τCB.

𝐿 𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝜏 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜏 (= 𝜏 ) = 𝑇
2(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 )
50 × 10 × 2 × 0.1
=
𝜋(0.1) 𝜋(0.2)
2 2× + 0.5 ×
32 32
= 𝟓𝟎. 𝟗 𝑴𝑷𝒂
To determine φc (see eqn (iii))
𝑇𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 2 × 0.5 × 50 × 10
𝜑 = =𝑇 =
𝐺𝐽 𝐺(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 ) 𝜋(0.1) 𝜋(0.2)
2× + 0.5 × × 80 × 10
32 32
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟒 𝒓𝒂𝒅 (= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟎 )

22
42 CHAPTER 2. SIMPLE TENSION AND COMPRESSION

2.3 Exercises
Exercise 2.1. For the bar shown in Fig. 2.11, AB is of length 3 m and diam-
eter 120 mm, while BC has a length of 3 m and a diameter of 70 mm. The
bar is loaded as shown. Assuming E = 200 GPa, determine the displacement
at point C due to the applied loads.
Answer. δ = 3.5 mm

Figure 2.11: Stepped bar with intermediate loads

Exercise 2.2. A prismatic bar ABCD is subjected to loads P1 , P2 and P3

acting at points B, C and D, respectively (see Fig. 2.12). The bar is made of
steel of Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa and a diameter of 25 mm. Determine
the displacement at D due to the loads P1 , P2 and P3 . Does the bar elongate
or shorten?
Answer. δ = 1.06 mm (extension)

Figure 2.12: Uniform bar with intermediate loads

Exercise 2.3. A 5.4 m long steel bar is loaded as shown in Fig. 2.13. The
diameter of the bar is 50 mm and the steel has a Young’s modulus E =
200 GPa.
(a) Calculate the displacement at the free end
2.3. EXERCISES 43

(b) Find the distance x from the left hand support to the point at which the
displacement is zero

Answer. δ = −0.031 mm, x = 4200 mm

Figure 2.13: Uniform bar with intermediate loads

Exercise 2.4. A horizontal cylindrical bar is fixed at one end and loaded
as shown in Fig. 2.14. The bar is made of mild steel of Young’s modulus
200 GP a. Calculate the displacement at the free end.

Answer. 5.95 × 10−4 mm

Figure 2.14: Stepped bar with intermediate loads

Exercise 2.5. A stepped bar ABCD is fixed at A and D and is subjected to

axial forces at B and C as shown in Fig. 2.15. The bar is initially stress
free. The diameters of each of the three parts and the corresponding lengths
are also shown.

(a) Determine the stresses set up in each of the three parts.

(b) Determine the displacements of points B and C.

44 CHAPTER 2. SIMPLE TENSION AND COMPRESSION

Figure 2.15: Stepped bar held between two stops carrying intermediate loads

Assume Young’s modulus 200 GP a.

Answer. −66.3 M P a; −5.47 M P a; 37.25 M P a; δb = 0.1326 mm δc =
0.1490 mm

Exercise 2.6. A flat steel plate has a uniform thickness of 10 mm and tapers
uniformly from 100 mm to 50 mm over a length of 400 mm as shown in Fig.
2.16. Determine from first principles the elongation of the plate when an
axial tensile force of 50 kN acts on it. Assume E = 200 GP a.
Answer. 0.14 mm

Figure 2.16: Tapering plate of uniform thickness

Exercise 2.7. A flat steel plate AB has a uniform thickness 0 a0 and tapers
uniformly from width b1 to width b2 over a length L. Show, from first princi-
ples, that the shortening of the plate, when subjected to an axial compressive
2.3. EXERCISES 45

load P, is given by the equation:

PL b1
δL = loge
Ea(b1 − b2 ) b2

where E is the elastic modulus of the plate.

Exercise 2.8. The piston of a hydraulic ram is 500 mm diameter, and

the piston rod is 60 mm diameter (see Fig. 2.17). The water pressure is
1.2 M N/m2 . Estimate the stress in the piston rod and the elongation of a
length of 1 m of the rod when the piston is under pressure from the piston-rod
side. Assume Young’s modulus E = 200 GP a.

Figure 2.17: Hydraulic ram and piston assembly

Answer. σ = 82.1 M P a, e = 0.41 mm

Exercise 2.9. A rectangular steel plate of uniform thickness has a strain

gauge rosette bonded to one surface at the center as shown in Fig. 2.18. The
plate is placed in a test rig which can apply a biaxial force system along the
edges of the plate. The measured strains are +0.00048 and +0.00076 in the
x− and y−directions, respectively. Determine

(a) The stresses set up in the plate.

(b) The strain through the thickness.

Assume Young’s modulus E=200 GP a and Poisson’s ratio υ = 0.3.

Answer. σx = 155.6 M P a, σy = 198.7 M P a, εz = −0.00053

46 CHAPTER 2. SIMPLE TENSION AND COMPRESSION

Figure 2.18: Biaxial force system

Exercise 2.10. A round steel bar, 30 mm diameter and 420 mm long is

placed concentrically within a brass tube which has an outside diameter of
45 mm and an inside diameter of 32 mm (see Fig. 2.19). The length of
the tube exceeds that of the bar by 0.15 mm. Rigid plates are placed on the
ends of the tube through which an axial compressive force is applied to the
compound bar. Determine the compressive stresses in the bar and tube due
to a force of 50 kN . Assume Esteel = 200 GP a and Ebrass = 100 GP a.

Answer. σs = 20.0 M P a, σb = 45.7 M P a

Figure 2.19: Concentric bar-tube system

Exercise 2.11. A round steel bar, of cross–sectional area 300 mm2 is placed
concentrically within a copper tube of cross–sectional area 750 mm2 and both
2.3. EXERCISES 47

are then rigidly bonded together at their ends. An axial compressive load of
36 kN is applied to the composite bar, and the temperature is then raised
by 100 deg C. Determine the stresses then existing in both steel and copper.
Assume Young’s modulus Esteel = 200 GP a, Ecopper = 100 GP a, and the
coefficients of linear expansion αsteel = 12 × 10−6 / deg C and αcopper = 16 ×
10−6 / deg C. Indicate whether the stresses are tensile or compressive.

Answer. σsteel = −8.89 M P a (compressive),

σcopper = −44.45 M P a (compressive)

Exercise 2.12. A steel rod, 35 mm diameter is enclosed in a co-axial copper

tube, 50 mm external diameter and 40 mm internal diameter and rigidly
bonded together at their ends.

(a) Determine the thermal stresses in the steel and copper when the tem-
perature of the bar is raised by 120 deg C.

(b) If the composite bar is then subjected to an axial compressive load of

40 kN , find the resulting stresses in both the steel and the copper.
Assume Young’s modulus Esteel = 200 GP a, Ecopper = 100 GP a,
and the coefficients of linear expansion αsteel = 12 × 10−6 / deg C and
αcopper = 16 × 10−6 deg C.

Answer. σsteel = 25.8 M P a, σcopper = −35.1 M P a

σsteel = −4.6 M P a, σcopper = −50.3 M P a

Exercise 2.13. A steel bolt, 38 mm diameter is enclosed centrally by a copper

tube of 45 mm external diameter and 3 mm thick. The length of the bolt is
80 mm and the pitch of the thread is 0.25 mm. Assuming that the length of
the bolt equals the length of the tube, determine:
1
(a) The stresses developed in the steel bolt and copper tube by 4
turn of the
nut on the given length.

Answer. σs = 23.38 M P a, σc = −67 M P a

(b) The resultant stresses produced if in addition to (a), a tensile force

P = 20 kN is applied to the ends of the bolt. Assume Esteel = 210 GP a
and Ecopper = 100 GP a.

Answer. σs = 38.5 M P a, σc = −59.8 M P a

48 CHAPTER 2. SIMPLE TENSION AND COMPRESSION

Exercise 2.14. A steel rod 25 mm diameter passes through a brass tube

of 25 mm internal diameter and 35 mm external diameter. The nut on
the rod is tightened until a stress of 100 M P a is developed in the rod at a
temperature of 25 deg C. The temperature of the assembly is then raised to
85 deg C. Calculate the final stresses in the rod and in the tube. Assume
Esteel = 210 GP a, Ebrass = 80 GP a, and the coefficients of linear expansion
αsteel = 11.7 × 10−6 / deg C and αbrass = 19 × 10−6 / deg C.
Answer. σsteel = 124.6 M P a, σbrass = −130 M P a
Exercise 2.15. A bar of mild steel of diameter 75 mm is placed inside a
hollow aluminium cylinder of internal diameter 75 mm and external diameter
100 mm; both the bar and the cylinder being of the same length. The resulting
composite bar is subjected to an axial compressive load of 106 N .
(a) If the bar and the cylinder contract by the same amount, calculate the
stress in each.
Answer. σsteel = −172.6 M P a, σAlum = −69.1 M P a

(b) The temperature of the compressed composite bar is the reduced by

150 deg C. Assuming the bar and the cylinder are rigidly fastened to-
gether at both ends, calculate the resultant stresses in each.
Answer. σsteel = −122.7 M P a, σAlum = −133.1 M P a

(c) If the reduction in temperature of 150 deg C above was made such that
no change in length was permitted, calculate the resultant stresses in
the bar and the cylinder.

Assume Young’s modulus Esteel = 200 GP a, Ealuminium = 80 GP a,

and the coefficients of linear expansion αsteel = 12 × 10−6 / deg C and
αaluminium = 5 × 10−6 deg C.
Answer. σsteel = 187.4 M P a, σAlum = −9.1 M P a

Exercise 2.16. (a) Derive an expression for the strain energy U per unit
volume that is stored in a material subjected to a tensile force P within
the elastic region. The initial length is Lo , Young’s modulus is E and
the cross–sectional area is A.
(b) A compressive load P is transmitted through a rigid plate to three iden-
tical bars, except that the central bar is slightly shorter than the other
two bars (see Fig. 2.20). The initial length of the assembly L = 1 m,
the cross–sectional area of each bar A = 2700 mm2 and E = 54 GP a.
The gap 0 s0 is 1.2 mm.
2.3. EXERCISES 49

(i) Calculate the load P required to close the gap

(ii) Calculate the total downward displacement of the rigid plate when P =
420 kN .

(iii) Determine the total strain energy U stored in the three bars when P =
420 kN .
P2
Answer. 2A2 E
, 350 kN, 1.36 mm, 271.5 Joules

Figure 2.20: Load transmitted through a rigid plate

Further Reading
1. Case, J. et al. Strength of materials and structures, 4th ed., Arnold,
London, 1999.

2. Gere, J. M. and Timoshenko, S. P. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd ed.,

Chapman & Hall, London, 1993.

3. Rajput, R. K. Strength of Materials [Mechanics of Solids], Multicolour

illustrative revised Edition, S Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2004.

4. Benham, P. P. et al. Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 2nd ed.,

Longman Group Ltd., Harlow, England, 1996.
2.3. EXERCISES 29

2.3 Exercises
Exercise 2.1. A cylindrical gas tank has an external diameter of 500 mm,
thickness 8 mm and its 2.5 m long. The cylinder is filled with gas up to a
pressure of 1.2 M N/m2 . If the cylinder is made of steel of Young’s modulus
E = 200 GP a and Poisson’s ratio υ = 0.3, find;

(a) increase in external diameter, and

(b) increase in length.

Answer. 0.077 mm, 0.092 mm

Exercise 2.2. (a) Working from first principles, develop an expression for
the volumetric strain in a thin walled cylinder of mean radius 0 r0 and
wall thickness 0 t0 subjected to an internal fluid at pressure 0 p0 when the
ends of the cylinder are tightly closed. Assume Young’s modulus is E
and Poisson’s ratio is υ.

(b) A cylindrical steel pressure vessel has an internal diameter of 80 mm

and a wall thickness of 2 mm. The ends are closed and it is filled
with gas exerting a pressure of 4 M N/m2 . Assuming E = 200 GP a
and υ = 0.3, estimate the percentage increase in internal volume of the
tube.
pr
Answer. εvol = Et
(2.5 − 2υ), 0.076%

Exercise 2.3. A spherical shell of internal diameter 0.9 m and wall thickness
10 mm is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.4 N/mm2 . Assuming Young’s
modulus E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio υ = 0.3, determine

(a) Increase in diameter

(b) Increase in volume

Answer. 0.099 mm, 125, 962 mm3

Exercise 2.4. A spherical shell, 2 m diameter is subjected to an internal

pressure of 1471.5 kN/m2 . Find the minimum wall thickness of the shell
if the ultimate strength of the shell material is 294.3 M N/m2 and the joint
efficiency is 0.80. Assume a factor of safety of 4.

Answer. 12.5 mm
30 CHAPTER 2. THIN WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

Exercise 2.5. A long steel tube, 85 mm internal diameter and 1.2 mm thick,
has closed ends, and is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 3.5 M P a.
If E = 210 GP a, υ = 0.3 and working from first principles, estimate the
percentage increase in internal volume of the tube.
Answer. 0.114%
Exercise 2.6. A thin cylindrical shell has internal diameter of 200 mm, wall
thickness 4 mm and is subjected to an internal pressure of 3.2 M P a. The
ends may be closed as follows:
(a) Two water tight pistons attached to a common piston rod.
(b) Flanged ends
Assuming E = 210 GP a and υ = 0.3, find the increase in diameter in each
case.
Answer. 0.076 mm, 0.0648 mm
Exercise 2.7. A spherical pressure vessel has inside diameter of 400 mm and
is 5 mm thick. It is to be constructed by welding two aluminium hemispheres.
From tensile tests on a sample welded joint, it is found that the ultimate
tensile strength and the yield stress at the weld are 180 M P a and 120 M P a,
respectively. It is required that the tank have a safety factor of 2 with respect
to the ultimate tensile strength and 1.5 with respect to the yield stress. What
is the maximum permissible pressure in the tank?
Answer. 4 M P a

Further Reading
1. Case, J. et al. Strength of materials and structures, 4th ed., Arnold,
London, 1999.
2. Gere, J. M. Mechanics of Materials, 6th ed., Brooks/Cole-Thomson
Learning, Belmont, USA, 2004.
3. Rajput, R. K. Strength of Materials [Mechanics of Solids], Multicolour
illustrative revised Edition, S Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2004.
4. Hearn, E. J. Mechanics of Materials 1, 3rd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, UK, 1998.
7.1 Introduction
Welcome to the seventh lesson on shear force and bending moments. In this lesson, the
following sub-topics will be covered; simply supported beams, cantilever beams, types of beam
supports, types of loads on beams, determination of support reactions, definition and
calculation of shear force and bending moments on a beam. Towards the end, relationships
between load, shear force and bending moment will be derived.

7.2 Lesson learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

7.1.1 Define simply supported beams and cantilever beams and types of beam supports.
7.1.2 Categorize types of loads that beams can carry such as concentrated loads, uniformly
distributed loads, linearly varying loads and moment/couple.
7.1.3 Calculate beam support reactions.
7.1.4 Derive relationships between the load, shear force and bending moment for
distributed loads, concentrated loads and couples.
BENDING OF BEAMS: LOADS, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENTS
Beam: A structural member that resists lateral loads. It must be supported at the end/ends or
elsewhere along the beam.
(i) Simply supported beam:

● The simply supported beam shown has two supports, a pinned/hinged support and a roller
support. Supports do not have to be at the ends.

Pinned support
(a) Prevents both horizontal and vertical translation.
(b) Allows rotation in the plane of the figure.
(c) For an inclined load ‘P’, we have both a horizontal reaction (RHA) and a vertical reaction
(RVA).
(d) There is no moment reaction.

1
Roller support:
(a) There is no translation in the vertical direction but translation is allowed in the horizontal
direction.
(b) Beam axis can rotate in the plane of the figure.
© For an inclined load ‘P’, we have a vertical reaction (RVB) but no horizontal reaction.
(d) There is no moment reaction.

(ii) Cantilever beam:

One end is fixed, the other end is free. For a fixed support:

⇛ No translation or rotation at the support

⇛For an inclined load ‘P’, we have a horizontal reaction (RHA), a vertical reaction (RVA) and a
couple/moment reaction (MA).

● For both simply supported beams and cantilever beams, all the reactions can be determined
by equations of static equilibrium i.e. statically determinate.
Reactions in (iii), (iv) and (v) cannot be determined by equations of statics alone i.e. statically
indeterminate.

Types of loads

2
Determination of reactions at beam supports
Example 1
The figure below shows a statically determinate beam supporting a point load P 1 and a
uniformly distributed load (udl) q. To determine reactions:

⇔ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅 =0

𝑏
⇛⇛ 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐵; 𝑅 × 𝐿 = 𝑃 (𝐿 − 𝑎) + 𝑞𝑏 ×
2
𝑃 (𝐿 − 𝑎) 𝑞𝑏
𝑅 = +
𝐿 2𝐿
3
 𝑏
⇛⇛ 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴; 𝑅 × 𝐿 = (𝑃 × 𝑎) + 𝑞𝑏 𝐿 − 𝑜𝑟
2
𝑃 𝑎 𝑞𝑏 𝑏
𝑅 = + 𝐿−
𝐿 𝐿 2
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑃 + 𝑞𝑏

Example 2: Determine the support reactions for the beam shown below.

4
 ⇔ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅 =0

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐵: (−𝑅 𝐿) + 𝑃 (𝐿 − 𝑎) + 𝑀 = 0
𝑃 (𝐿 − 𝑎) 𝑀
𝑅 = +
𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝑎 𝑀
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐴: − 𝑃 𝑎 + 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = −
𝐿 𝐿

Example 3:

For the cantilever beam shown:

𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑃 − 𝑅 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑃

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐵: 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 𝑃𝐿

Assumptions for simple bending

→ All loads act in the x-y plane.

→ Beams must be symmetric about the plane of bending i.e cross-section must have a vertical
axis of symmetry.
If these conditions are not met, the beam will bend out of its plane requiring a more rigorous
analysis (4th year).

5
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

● Consider a cantilever beam acted on by a load ‘P’ at the free end. Imagine we cut the beam
at section mn and isolate the left hand end as a free body.
● For static equilibrium:
(i) 𝑃=𝑉
(ii) −𝑃𝑥 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 𝑃𝑥
V → Shear force
M → Bending moment

Deformation sign convention

● The sign convention for shear force and bending moment is as summarized below.
● This convention is referred to as the deformation sign convention to distinguish it from
static sign convention where forces are taken as positive when they act in the positive
direction of the coordinate axis.

6
Example 4: Determine the shear force V and the bending moment M in the beam at
sections located: (i) At a very small distance to the left of the middle of the beam.
(ii) At a very small distance to the right of the middle of the beam.

7
Solution:
● Referring to (a):
𝐿 𝑃 𝑀
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐴: 𝑅 . 𝐿 = 𝑃. + 𝑀 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = +
4 4 𝐿
3𝐿 3𝑃 𝑀
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐵: 𝑅 . 𝐿 + 𝑀 = 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = −
4 4 𝐿
(i) Cross-section just to the left of the middle (MO excluded)
● Referring to (b), shear force V and bending moment M are as shown (+ve according to the
sign convention above).
● Couple MO is absent since we imagine the beam to be cut to the left of the center.
Vertical force equilibrium:
𝑅 − 𝑃 − 𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟
3𝑃 𝑀 𝑃 𝑀
𝑉 =𝑅 −𝑃 = − −𝑃 =− −
4 𝐿 4 𝐿
Shear force is negative and therefore acts opposite to the direction shown.
Moment equilibrium: Moments about an axis through the cut end (to eliminate V):
𝐿 𝐿
−𝑅 + 𝑃 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟
2 4
𝑃𝐿 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 3𝑃 𝐿 𝑀 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑀
𝑀=− +𝑅 =− + − = −
4 2 4 4 2 𝐿 2 8 2
(ii) X-section just to the right of the middle (i.e. M O included)
● Referring to (c):

Vertical force equilibrium: 𝑅 − 𝑃 − 𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑅 − 𝑃 = − −

Moment equilibrium: Moments about an axis through the cut end (to eliminate V):
𝐿 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑀
−𝑅 + 𝑃 − 𝑀 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = +
2 4 8 2
Example 5:
A beam ABC with an overhang supports a uniform load of intensity q=6 kN/m and a
concentrated load P = 28 kN. Calculate the shear force (V) and the bending moment (M) at a
section D located 5 m from the left hand support.

8
Solution:
Determine reactions: Moments\B:
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
(−𝑅 (𝑘𝑁) × 8𝑚) + (28𝑘𝑁 × 5𝑚) + 6 × 8𝑚 × 4𝑚 − 6 × 2𝑚 × 1𝑚 = 0
𝑚 𝑚
𝑅 = 40𝑘𝑁

𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐴: (𝑅 (𝑘𝑁) × 8𝑚) − (28𝑘𝑁 × 3𝑚) − 6 × 10𝑚 × 5𝑚 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 48𝑘𝑁
𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 (𝑏); 𝐹 =0 𝑖. 𝑒. − 40 + 28 + (6 × 5) + 𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 = −𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑵

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒.

(−40 × 5) + (28 × 2) + (6 × 5 × 2.5) + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑴 = 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑵𝒎

● Same results for V and M will be obtained if we use the right hand side of the beam i.e. (c).

● We always assume that the unknown shear force (V) and unknown bending moment (M) are
positive. A negative answer implies the correct direction is the opposite.

9
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
Distributed Load

● Let the shear force and bending moment on the left be V and M, respectively.
● Increments over distance dx are dV and dM.
Load equilibrium

𝑑𝑉
𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. − 𝑉 + (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉) + 𝑞. 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 = −𝑞 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑑𝑥

The rate of change of shear force wrt x is equal to the negative of the applied load (-q).

(i) For no load on part of the beam (q=0), dV/dx = 0 or V = constant on that part of the beam.
(ii) If q is a constant over part of a beam (uniform load), then dV/dx = constant (k) i.e. V = kx.
Shear force V changes linearly over that part of the beam.

Shear force at two different cross-sections along a beam:

𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = −𝑞; 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑞. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑞. 𝑑𝑥 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉 − 𝑉 = − 𝑞. 𝑑𝑥

= −(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵)

i.e. For distributed loads, the change in shear force between any two sections of a beam can
be obtained from the area under the load distribution curve between those sections.
Note that the equation cannot be used when we have concentrated loads.

Moment equilibrium:
Take moments about the left hand face and assume counterclockwise as +ve.
10
 𝑑𝑥
−𝑀 − 𝑞. 𝑑𝑥 − (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀) = 0
2
𝑑𝑀
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠; = 𝑉 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑑𝑥
The rate of change of bending moment wrt x is equal to the shear force e.g.
If V = 0 in a region of a beam, dM/dx = 0 i.e. M = constant in that region.
(This applies only for distributed loads, not concentrated loads)
Integrating between two points along the beam:

𝑑𝑀 = 𝑉. 𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 − 𝑀 = 𝑉. 𝑑𝑥

(= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵)

The change in bending moment between any two sections along a beam can be found from
the area under the shear force diagram between those sections.
Note:

● Equation can be used even when concentrated loads act between A and B.
● Equation cannot be used when a couple acts between A and B because a couple causes a
sudden change in BM.

Example 6:
The cantilever beam shown is free at end A and fixed at end B. It is subjected to a distributed
load varying linearly in intensity from ‘0’ at end ‘A’ to ‘q 0’ at end B’. Using equilibrium methods,
determine the shear force ‘V’ and bending moment ‘M’ at a distance x from the free end.
Compare the values with those obtained using the equations derived above.
Solution:
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑥
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠: = 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 =
𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
Shear force using equilibrium:
𝑞 𝑥 1 1 𝑞 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑞 = ; 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (𝑥) =
𝐿 2 2 𝐿 2𝐿

11
 𝑞 𝑥 𝒒𝟎 𝒙𝟐
𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉 + = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 = −
2𝐿 𝟐𝑳

𝑞 𝐿
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑉 = −
2
Shear force using derived equations:

𝑑𝑉 𝑞 𝑥 𝒒𝟎 𝒙𝟐
= −𝑞 = − (𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 11) 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 = −
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝟐𝑳
Bending moment using equilibrium:

𝑞 𝑥 𝑥 𝒒𝟎 𝒙𝟑
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑; 𝑀 + = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −
2𝐿 3 𝟔𝑳
𝒒𝟎 𝑳𝟐
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝑴 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝑳, 𝑴 = −
𝟔
Bending moment using derived equations:

𝑑𝑀 𝑞 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 𝒒𝟎 𝒙𝟑
=𝑉=− 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = − =−
𝑑𝑥 2𝐿 3(2𝐿) 𝟔𝑳

12
Concentrated Load

(In Figure (b) above, assume V1 = dV and M1 = dM)

𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. − 𝑉 + (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉) + 𝑃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑃 𝑖. 𝑒. … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖)

As we pass from left to right through a point of concentrated load application, the shear force
decreases by an amount equal to the magnitude of the downward load.
Moment equilibrium:
𝑑𝑥
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒: − 𝑀 − 𝑃 − (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀) = 0
2
𝑑𝑥 𝑃
𝑑𝑀 = 𝑃 + 𝑉. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑉. 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑃
≅ + 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠)
2
Since dx is infinitely small, then dM is also infinitely small i.e.
Bending moment does not change as we pass through a point of application of a concentrated
load.
We note as follows:
𝑑𝑀
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑉;
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑀
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: =𝑉
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑀
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: = 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑃 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒) 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑑𝑥
At a point of application of a concentrated load ‘P’, the shear force decreases abruptly by
amount ‘P’.

13
Couple (assumed +ve counterclockwise)

(In Figure (c) above, assume V1 = dV and M1 = dM)

𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. − 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑉 = 0

Therefore, shear force does not change at a point of application of a couple.

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒: − 𝑀 + 𝑀 − (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟

𝑑𝑀 ≅ −𝑀 + 𝑉. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠)
Since dx is very small, V.dx is very small compared to M0 i.e.
𝑑𝑀 ≅ −𝑀
Therefore, as we pass from left to right through a point of application of a couple (M O), the
bending moment decreases abruptly by the value MO.

14
8.1 Introduction
Welcome to the eighth lesson on shear force and bending moment diagrams. In this lesson, the
following topics will be covered; analysis and drawing of shear force and bending moment
diagrams for loaded beams. Focus will be on cantilever beams and simply supported beams.
Types of load on the beams include concentrated loads, uniformly distributed loads, linearly
varying loads, moments/couples.
8.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
8.2.1 Calculate the values of shear force and bending moment along a beam carrying various
types of loads.
8.2.2 Draw, to a reasonable scale, the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the loaded
beam.
8.2.3 Determine from the diagrams the maximum shear force and the maximum bending
moment.

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

Cantilever with end load

Assume the beam is cut at distance x from the left hand end (see (b) below).
Assume further that the shear force at the cut end is V and the bending moment is M (both +ve
in accordance with the sign convention).
Shear force

𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃 + 𝑉 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉 = −𝑃 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

Shear force V is constant from x = 0 to x = L as shown in (c).

15
Bending moment (Moments\cut edge):
𝑃𝑥 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −𝑃𝑥 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
At x = 0, M = 0 and at x = L, M=-PL.
i.e. bending moment increases in a linear manner from x = 0 to x = L as shown in (d).

Cantilever with a udl

Shear force

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑏); 𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −𝑞𝑥 (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)

At x = 0, V = 0 and at x=L, V = -qL.

SF increases linearly from zero to –qL as shown in (c).

16
Moments\cut edge:
𝑥 𝑞𝑥
𝑞𝑥 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = − (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐)
2 2
𝑞𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑀 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑀 = −
2
𝑑𝑀
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒: 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 (𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) = −𝑞𝑥 (𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
𝑑𝑥
● At x = 0, slope = 0 and at x = L, slope = -qL.
● The bending moment diagram is shown in (d).

Uniformly distributed load on a SSB

Force equilibrium:

17
Referring to (a): 𝑅 =0
𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑞𝐿
𝑞𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅 = =𝑅
2

Referring to (b):
𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. − + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = − 𝑞𝑥 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
2 2

𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑉 = −
2 2
SF diagram is shown in (c). Note dV/dx = -q as derived earlier (on page 10).

Moment equilibrium: Moments\cut edge:

𝑞𝐿 𝑥 𝑞𝐿𝑥 𝑞𝑥
− 𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = − (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)
2 2 2 2
● When x = 0, M = 0 and when x = L, M = 0. We need to get a third point, say Max.
𝑑𝑀 𝑞𝐿 𝐿
= − 𝑞𝑥 = 0; 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑞𝐿 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑀 = − =
2 2 2 4 8

Bending moment diagram is shown in (d).

18
Concentrated load on a simply supported beam

We have a loading discontinuity at C. Need to consider SF and BM first for part AC, then part CB.
To determine support reactions (see (a)):

↔ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅 =0

𝑃𝑏
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠(𝐵); −𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑃𝑏 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅 =
𝐿
𝑃𝑎
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑅 =
𝐿

19
 (i) 0<x<a
● Force equilibrium (refer to (b))
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏
− + 𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎)
𝐿 𝐿
● Moment equilibrium (moments\cut edge):
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏𝑥
− 𝑥 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑏
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑀 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑀 =
𝐿
(ii) a<x<L
● Force equilibrium (refer to (c))
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎
− + 𝑃 + 𝑉 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −𝑃 =− (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝐿)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
● Moment equilibrium (moments\cut edge):
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏𝑥 𝑥
− 𝑥 + 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = − 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑃𝑎 1 − (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑏
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑀 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑀 = 0
𝐿
The shear force diagram is shown in (d) while the bending moment diagram is shown in (e).
Notes:
𝑷𝒃 𝑷𝒂
(𝑎) 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎: 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝐿: 𝑉 = −
𝑳 𝑳
𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽
𝑰𝒏 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔, = 𝟎: 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍 = −𝒒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒒 𝒊𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑃𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑀 𝑷𝒃
0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎: 𝑀 = 𝑖. 𝑒. = (= 𝑉)
𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝑳
𝑥 𝑑𝑀 𝑷𝒂
𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝐿: 𝑀 = 𝑃𝑎 1 − 𝑖. 𝑒. =− (= 𝑉)
𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝑳
(b) At point of application of the load P, we have an abrupt change in the shear force diagram
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝐿 𝑃(𝑏 − 𝐿) 𝑃𝑎
(𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑃) 𝑖. 𝑒. −𝑃 = − = =−
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

20
 𝑑𝑀 𝑃𝑏
𝑊𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃, = (= 𝑽)
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝒅𝑴 𝑷𝒂
𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷, =− (= 𝑽)
𝒅𝒙 𝑳
Therefore, when SF changes from +ve to –ve, slope of the BM also changes from +ve to –ve.

(c) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝐹 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 [𝑀 − 𝑀 = ∫ 𝑉. 𝑑𝑥] (see page 11)

𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎𝑏
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝐹 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 = ×𝑎 =
𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑏
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝑀 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑀 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠
𝐿
Therefore, the area represents the increase in BM between the two points.
We can use similar arguments on other parts of the beam.
𝑃𝑎𝑏
(𝑑) 𝑀 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐿
𝐼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑎
𝑉 =− 𝐼𝑡 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 > 𝑏)
𝐿
𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛

Example 7: A beam ABCDE with an overhang is loaded as shown in Figure 6.37.

(a) Construct, to a suitable scale, the shear force and bending moment diagrams indicating all
principle values.
(b) Determine the location of the point where the bending moment is zero.

Solution
● To determine the reactions:(free body diagram on page 23):

21
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐸: 𝑅 (8) − 8(3) − (3 × 6 × 9) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 23.25 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐵: 𝑅 (8) + (3 × 4 × 2) = (8 × 5) + (3 × 2 × 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 2.75 𝑘𝑁

Vertical force equilibrium:

𝑉 + 3𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −3𝑥 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
When x = 0, V = 0 and when x = 4, V = -12
Moment equilibrium:

3𝑥 3𝑥
𝑀𝑜𝑚\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒: 𝑀 + = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = − (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐)
2 2
When x = 0, M = 0 and when x = 4, M = -24

Vertical force equilibrium:

𝑉 + 3𝑥 − 23.25 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −3𝑥 + 23.25 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
When x = 4, V = 11.25 and when x = 6, V = 5.25
Moment equilibrium:
3𝑥
𝑀𝑜𝑚\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒: 𝑀 + − 23.25(𝑥 − 4) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −1.5𝑥 + 23.25𝑥 − 93 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐)
2
When x = 4, M = -24 and when x = 6, M = -7.5

Vertical force equilibrium:

𝑉 + 3(6) − 23.25 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 5.25 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
Moment equilibrium:

22
𝑀𝑜𝑚\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒: 𝑀 + 18(𝑥 − 3) − 23.25(𝑥 − 4) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 5.25𝑥 − 39 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
When x = 6, M = -7.5 and when x = 9, M = 8.25

Vertical force equilibrium:

−𝑉 − 2.75 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −2.75 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
Moment equilibrium:
𝑀𝑜𝑚\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒: 𝑀 − 2.75(12 − 𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 33 − 2.75𝑥 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
When x = 9, M = 8.25 and when x = 12, M = 0

We now sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams as shown below.
● Location where bending moment = 0
𝑀 = 5.25𝑥 − 39 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 7.429 𝑚

23
Example 8:
A simply supported beam is loaded as shown. On a suitable scale, draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams indicating the numerical values at critical points.

Solution:
To determine the reactions (Figure 6.27(a)):

⇔ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅 =0

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐴; (𝑅 × 8) − (5 × 2 × 7) − 20 − (5 × 2 × 1) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 12.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝐵; (𝑅 × 8) − (5 × 2 × 7) + 20 − (5 × 2 × 1) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 7.5 𝑘𝑁

0 < 𝑥 < 2 (𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 6.26(𝑎))

24
 ⇳ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉 + 5𝑥 − 7.5 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 7.5 − 5𝑥 𝑘𝑁 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)

When x = 0, V = 7.5 kN and when x = 2, V = -2.5 kN

To obtain the point where the shear force line crosses the x-axis:
7.5 − 5𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1.5 𝑚

𝑥
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒: 𝑀 + 5𝑥 − 7.5𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 7.5𝑥 − 2.5𝑥 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐)
2
When x = 0, M = 0 and when x = 2, M = 5 kNm

To obtain the bending moment when the shear force is zero:

When x = 1.5, M = 5.625 kNm

2 < 𝑥 < 4 (𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 6.26(𝑏))

𝑉 + (5 × 2) − 7.5 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −2.5 𝑘𝑁 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠\𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒: 𝑀 + 5 × 2 × (𝑥 − 1) − 7.5𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −2.5𝑥 + 10 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)

When x = 2, M = 5 kNm and when x = 4, M = 0

4 < 𝑥 < 6 (𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 6.26(𝑐))

−𝑉 + (5 × 2) − 12.5 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −2.5 𝑘𝑁 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

Moments\cut edge:

−𝑀 − 5 × 2 × (8 − 𝑥 − 1) + 12.5 × (8 − 𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 30 − 2.5𝑥 (linear)

When x = 4, M = 20 kNm and when x = 6, M = 15 kNm (see page 14)

6 < 𝑥 < 8 (𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 6.26(𝑑))

−𝑉 + (5 × (8 − 𝑥)) − 12.5 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −5𝑥 + 27.5 𝑘𝑁 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)

25
When x = 6, V = -2.5 kN and when x = 8, V = -12.5 kN

Moments\cut edge:
(8 − 𝑥)
−𝑀 − 5 × + 12.5 × (8 − 𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −2.5𝑥 + 27.5𝑥 − 60 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐)
2

When x = 6, M = 15 kNm and when x = 8, M = 0.

The SF and BM diagrams are as shown in Figures 6.27(b) and 6.27(c), respectively.

Example 9:
A horizontal beam of negligible weight is loaded as shown in figure 6.33. The distributed load
varies linearly from zero at the left hand end to q 0 kN at a distance ‘L’ m from the left hand end.
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams indicating all principal values.

26
Solution:

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑥
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠; = 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 =
𝐿 𝑥 𝐿
1 1 𝑞 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥: = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = . 𝑥. =
2 2 𝐿 2𝐿
1 𝑞 𝐿
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = . 𝐿. 𝑞 =
2 2
● To calculate reactions:
𝑞 𝐿 2 𝑞 𝐿
𝑀\𝐴: 𝑅 𝐿 − 𝐿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 =
2 3 3
𝑞 𝐿 1 𝑞 𝐿
𝑀\𝐵: −𝑅 𝐿 + 𝐿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 =
2 3 6
Force equilibrium (at x):

𝑞 𝑥 𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿 3𝑥
𝑉+ − = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 1− (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐)
2𝐿 6 6 𝐿
𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑉 = −
6 3
To get the point where the shear force is zero:
𝑞 𝐿 3𝑥 𝐿
1− = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = = 0.577𝐿
6 𝐿 √3

27
Moment equilibrium:

𝑞 𝐿𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 𝑥 𝑞 𝐿𝑥 𝑥
− +𝑀+ = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 1− (𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐)
6 2𝐿 3 6 𝐿

When x = 0, M = 0 and when x = L, M = 0.

𝑑𝑀 𝑞 𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐵𝑀 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (= 𝑉) = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0.577𝐿 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 =
𝑑𝑥 9√3
The shear force and bending moment diagram are as shown below.

28
48 CHAPTER 2. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

When x = 3, M = −77.5 kN m and when x = 6, M = −92 kN m

6 < x < 10 (See Fig. 2.29(c))

q o x2
V + + 24.33 − 30 − 50 = 0 or
2L
x2
V = 55.67 −
2
When x = 6, V = 37.67 kN and when x = 10, V = 5.67 kN

Moment equilibrium;
 2 
qo x x
M+ × + 24.33x − 30(x − 3) − 50(x − 6) = 0 or
2L 3

x3
M = 55.67x − − 390
6

When x = 6, M = −92 kN m and when x = 10, M = 0 kN m

To determine the position where the shear force is zero between the 30 kN
and the 50 kN loads,

x2
V = 5.67 − = 0 or x = 3.37 m
2
The bending moment at this point is given by;

3.373
M = (5.67 × 3.37) − − 90 = −77.3 kN m
6

2.7 Exercises
Exercise 2.1. A beam ABCD is simply supported at 0 B 0 and 0 C 0 where
AB = CD = 2 m, BC = 4 m (see Fig. 2.31). The beam carries a point
load of 60 kN at the free end 0 A0 , a uniformly distributed load of 60 kN/m
between 0 B 0 and 0 C 0 and an anticlockwise couple of 80 kN m in the plane of the
beam applied at the free end 0 D0 . Sketch the shear force and bending moment
diagrams and indicate all critical values. Determine also the position and
magnitude of the maximum bending moment.
2.7. EXERCISES 49

Figure 2.31: S.S.B. carrying a point load, distributed load and a couple

Figure 2.32: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

Answer. (see Fig. 2.32)

Exercise 2.2. A horizontal beam, the weight of which may be neglected is
loaded as shown in Fig. 2.33. The distributed load varies linearly from zero
at the left hand end to qo kN at a distance of L m from the left hand end.
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams and insert all principle
values.
L2
qo√
Answer. see Fig. 2.34 where Mmax = 9 3

Exercise 2.3. Repeat question 2.2 (i.e. determine the position of the zero
shear force and the value of the maximum bending moment) using the rela-
tionships between the loading, shear force and bending moment.
50 CHAPTER 2. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

Figure 2.33: S.S.B. carrying a linearly varying distributed load

Figure 2.34: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

Exercise 2.4. A horizontal beam, the weight of which may be neglected is

loaded as shown in Fig. 2.35. The distributed load varies linearly from zero
at the left hand end to 9 kN at a distance of 3 m from the left hand end.
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams and insert all principle
values.

Answer. (see Fig. 2.36)

Exercise 2.5. A beam ABCDE with an overhang is loaded as shown in Fig.

2.37.
2.7. EXERCISES 51

Figure 2.35: S.S.B. carrying an inclined point load and a distributed load

Figure 2.36: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

(a) Construct the shear force and bending moment diagrams indicating the
values at A, B, C, D and E.
(b) Determine the location of the point where the bending moment is zero.

Figure 2.37: S.S.B. carrying a point load and a distributed load

52 CHAPTER 2. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

Answer. (see Fig. 2.38)

Figure 2.38: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

Exercise 2.6. Fig. 2.39 shows a beam 6 m long, simply supported at the
ends. The beam carries a distributed load varying linearly in magnitude from
zero to 5 kN/m over a span of 3 m and a point load of 15 kN located at 1 m
from the right hand support.
(a) Calculate the reactions at the supports.
(b) Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagram.
(c) Determine the magnitude and location of the maximum bending mo-
ment.

Answer. (see Fig. 2.40)

Exercise 2.7. The shear force diagram for a simply supported beam is as
shown in Fig. 2.41
(a) Determine the loading on the beam, assuming that no loads act as cou-
ples on the beam. Explain clearly the logic used.
2.7. EXERCISES 53

Figure 2.39: S.S.B. carrying a point load and a distributed load

Figure 2.40: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

(b) Draw the bending moment diagram for the beam.

Answer. (see Fig. 2.42)

Exercise 2.8. Fig. 2.43 shows a beam 6 m long and simply supported over
a span of 4 m. The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of magnitude
40 kN/m over a span of 4 m between the supports. At the right hand end,
it supports a vertical force of 100 kN as well as an anticlockwise couple of
magnitude 120 kN m.

(a) Calculate the reactions at the supports.

(b) Draw the shear force and the bending moment diagrams.
54 CHAPTER 2. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

Figure 2.41: Shear force diagram for a simply supported beam

Figure 2.42: Loading on beam and B.M. diagram

Answer. (see Fig. 2.44)

Exercise 2.9. Fig. 2.45 shows a beam 8 m long and simply supported at its
2.7. EXERCISES 55

Figure 2.43: S.S.B. supporting a udl, couple and point load

Figure 2.44: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

ends. The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of magnitude 40 kN/m

over 4 m of its length and another distributed load of magnitude 80 kN/m
over the remaining 4; m length. At the center of the beam, a point load of
magnitude 200 kN as well as a clockwise couple of magnitude 360 kN m are
applied.

(a) Calculate the reactions at the supports.

(b) Draw the shear force and the bending moment diagrams.

Answer. (see Fig. 2.46)

56 CHAPTER 2. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

Figure 2.45: S.S.B. supporting a udl, couple and point load

Figure 2.46: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

Exercise 2.10. Fig. 2.47 shows a beam 6 m long, supported as a cantilever

beam. It carries a distributed load varying linearly in intensity from 0 at the
left hand end to 60 kN/m at the free end, a center point load of magnitude
120 kN and a clockwise couple of magnitude 240 kN m applied at the center
of the beam. Draw the shear force and the bending moment diagrams.

Answer. (see Fig. 2.48)

Exercise 2.11. Fig. 2.49 shows a cantilever beam carrying two point loads
and a uniformly distributed load as shown. Draw the shear force and the
bending moment diagrams.

Answer. (see Fig. 2.50)

2.7. EXERCISES 57

Figure 2.47: Cantilever beam supporting a distributed load, point load and a couple

Figure 2.48: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

Figure 2.49: Cantilever beam supporting a distributed load and point loads

Exercise 2.12. The shear force diagram for a beam is as shown in Fig. 2.51.
Assuming that no couples act as loads on the beam, determine the loading
on the beam and hence draw the bending moment diagram (S.F. units are in
58 CHAPTER 2. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

Figure 2.50: S.F. and B.M. diagrams

kN).

Figure 2.51: Shear Force diagram

Answer. (see Fig. 2.52)

2.7. EXERCISES 59

Figure 2.52: Loaded beam and B.M. diagram

Exercise 2.13. A precast concrete beam of length L is to be lifted from the

casting bed and transported so that the maximum bending moment is as small
as possible. If the beam is lifted by two slings placed symmetrically, show that
the distance between the slings should be 0.586L.

Further Reading
1. Case, J. et al. Strength of materials and structures, 4th ed., Arnold,
London, 1999.

2. Gere, J. M. Mechanics of Materials, 6th ed., Brooks/Cole-Thomson

Learning, Belmont, USA, 2004.

3. Rajput, R. K. Strength of Materials [Mechanics of Solids], Multicolour

60 CHAPTER 2. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

illustrative revised Edition, S Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi,

2004.

4. Hearn, E. J. Mechanics of Materials 1, 3rd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann,

Oxford, UK, 1998.

5. Benham, P. P. et al. Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 2nd ed.,

Longman Group Ltd., Harlow, England, 1996.