Conjugate Transpose

The conjugate transpose (also known as the Hermitian transpose) of a matrix is found by
taking the transpose of the matrix and then taking the complex conjugate of each entry. The
complex conjugate of a complex number changes the sign of the imaginary part, so for a
complex number a + bi, its complex conjugate is a - bi.

Operators in quantum mechanics

Operators in quantum mechanics are mathematical entities used to represent physical
processes that result in the change of the state vector of the system, such as the evolution of
these states with time. These operators can also represent physical properties of a system that
can be experimentally measured (for example position, momentum, or energy), the
observables associated to this quantum system.
An operator is a mathematical object that acts on the state vector of the system and produces

another state vector. To be precise, if we denote an operator by and |ψ⟩ is an element of

the Hilbert space of the system, then

where the state vector |ϕ⟩ also belongs to the same Hilbert space.
There are many types of important operators in quantum mechanics. In this lecture, we will
present some of these, such as the unitary operators that determine the time evolution of a
quantum system and the Hermitian operators which can be assigned to physically
observable properties of a system.

Matrix representation of operators

construct a matrix representation of operators

The starting point is an operator equation of the form

where |ψ⟩ and |φ⟩ are state vectors. This equation can be rewritten using the identity operator
given by the basis elements

and rewritten as

We can now evaluate the inner product between the basis vector |ϕj⟩ and the state vector |φ⟩
to obtain
which can also be expressed as a matrix multiplication equation in terms of its components

using

where we define
Matrix representation of operators

The derivation above demonstrates that an operation equation of the form can
be expressed in terms of a matrix representation

where the operator ^A is represented by a (square) matrix

Unitary Operators
A unitary matrix is a complex square matrix that, when multiplied by its conjugate transpose,
results in the identity matrix. In other words, a matrix U is unitary if U†U = UU† = I, where
U† is the conjugate transpose (Hermitian adjoint) of U, and I is the identity matrix of the same
dimension as U.
A linear operator whose inverse is its adjoint is called unitary. These operators can be thought
of as generalizations of complex numbers whose absolute value is 1.

A unitary operator preserves the ``lengths'' and ``angles'' between vectors, and it can be
considered as a type of rotation operator in abstract vector space. Like Hermitian operators,
the eigenvectors of a unitary matrix are orthogonal. However, its eigenvalues are not
necessarily real.
Properties of Unitary Matrices

Unitary matrices have several important properties:

 Norm Preservation: Unitary matrices preserve the Euclidean norm of vectors. If U is

a unitary matrix and v is a vector, then the norm of Uv is equal to the norm of v.
 Inner Product Preservation: They also preserve inner products, which implies that
angles between vectors are preserved under unitary transformations.
 Determinant: The determinant of a unitary matrix has an absolute value of 1.
 Eigenvalues: The eigenvalues of a unitary matrix lie on the unit circle in the complex
plane.
 Invertibility: A unitary matrix is always invertible, and its inverse is equal to its
conjugate transpose, U-1 = U†.

Projection operator in matrices

A projection is a linear transformation P (or matrix P corresponding to this transformation in
an appropriate basis) from a vector space to itself such that P2=P. That is, whenever P is
applied twice to any vector, it gives the same result as if it were applied once (idempotent).
A projection operator in quantum mechanics is a linear operator that maps a vector in a
Hilbert space onto a subspace. It's crucial for understanding measurement processes because
it determines the possible outcomes of a quantum system when observed. An operator with
the property

which means that acting twice on a given state vector produces the same result as acting just
once, is described as a projection operator. Let us give an explicit example of such operator.
Assume that we have an n-dimensional Hilbert space with a basis given by . We can
then define the operator as

What is a qubit?
A qubit is the basic unit of information in quantum computing. Qubits play a similar role in
quantum computing as bits play in classical computing, but they behave differently. Classical
bits are binary and can hold only a position of 0 or 1, but qubits can hold a superposition of
all possible states. This behavior means that a qubit can be in a state of 0, 1, or any quantum
superposition of the two. There are infinite possible superpositions of 0 and 1, and each of
them is a valid qubit state.
What are Quantum Computers?
Quantum computers are advanced machines on the basis of quantum physics. They use
qubits whereas classical computers use the classical bits. Quantum computers are faster than
any classical or supercomputers. They solve problems more easily when compared with
classical computers.
Core Principles of Quantum Computing
Here are the core principles of Quantum Computing
 Superposition − Superposition is a method in quantum computing that describes how
the qubits can add two or more states simultaneously.
 Entanglement − Entanglement is the capability of qubits to link their state with other
qubits.
 Decoherence − Decoherence means it loses its quantum property due to
environmental factors such as electromagnetic radiation
 Interference − Interference tells how subatomic particles interconnect with each
other and themselves while in a superposition state.
Applications of Quantum Computing
The following are the areas where quantum computing is used −
 Artificial intelligence − Quantum computing helps Artificial intelligence by
enhancing the machine learning algorithms. It reduces the time taken for data
processing and training the model.
 Cybersecurity − In the area of Cybersecurity, quantum computing helps to detect
threats quickly. With faster analysis, organizations can respond to threats immediately,
minimizing damage and reducing recovery time.
 Drug development − Quantum computing improves the understanding of disease
through data analysis and develops complex biological models with significant
accuracy. They are good at target-finding and has the ability to solve the problem on
atomic level.
 Financial modeling − Quantum computing allows real-time risk assessment, builds
complex financial models, and helps mitigate the potential risk of capital loss.
 Weather forecasting and climate change − Quantum algorithms can efficiently
analyze the data and accurately predict the weather. They are better at understanding
the long-term climate trends and potential impacts of climate change.

Difference between Classical Computing vs Quantum Computing

Classical Computing Quantum Computing

Classical computing uses classical bits. Quantum computing uses qubits

Algorithms often need many parallel computations, Quantum programming considers

 multiple options simultaneously,
which can be time-consuming enabling an algorithm to run across all
options in a single step

Classical software development translates source Quantum programming handles

code from a programming language into specific probabilities for outcomes, unlike
‘machine code’ for a platform, and performs classical programs that deterministically
operations (gates) on thousands of transistors. produce 0 or 1.

Quantum gates operate on qubits within

Classical gates manipulate bits
quantum computing

Generally slower when dealing with certain Quantum computers are faster than any
complex problems due to the limitations in parallel classical computer for specific types of
computation. problems.

Classical programs are deterministic, producing Quantum programs are probabilistic,

definite results of 0 or 1. handling probabilities for outcomes

Quantum circuits must be reversible to

Most classical circuits are not inherently reversible.
recover input states from outputs

Disadvantages of Quantum Computers

Quantum computers have the potential to revolutionize the field of computing, but they also
come with a number of disadvantages. Some of the main challenges and limitations of
quantum computing include:
1. Noise and decoherence: One of the biggest challenges in building a quantum
computer is the problem of noise and decoherence. Quantum systems are extremely
sensitive to their environment, and any noise or disturbance can cause errors in the
computation. This makes it difficult to maintain the delicate quantum state of the
qubits and to perform accurate and reliable computations.
2. Scalability: Another major challenge is scalability. Building a large-scale quantum
computer with a large number of qubits is extremely difficult, as it requires the precise
control of a large number of quantum systems. Currently, the number of qubits that
can be controlled and manipulated in a laboratory setting is still quite small, which
limits the potential of quantum computing.
3. Error correction: Error correction is another major challenge in quantum computing.
In classical computing, errors can be corrected using error-correcting codes, but in
quantum computing, the errors are much more difficult to detect and correct, due to
the nature of quantum systems.
4. Lack of robust quantum algorithms: Even though some quantum algorithms have
been developed, their number is still limited, and many problems that can be solved
using classical computers have no known quantum algorithm.
 5. High cost: Building and maintaining a quantum computer is extremely expensive, due
to the need for specialized equipment and highly trained personnel. The cost of
building a large-scale quantum computer is also likely to be quite high, which could
limit the availability of quantum computing to certain groups or organizations.
6. Power consumption: Quantum computers are extremely power-hungry, due to the
need to maintain the delicate quantum state of the qubits. This makes it difficult to
scale up quantum computing to larger systems, as the power requirements become
prohibitively high.
There are several multinational companies that have built and are currently working on
building quantum computers. Some examples include:
1. IBM: IBM has been working on quantum computing for several decades, and has
built several generations of quantum computers. The company has made significant
progress in the field, and its IBM Q quantum Experience platform allows anyone with
an internet connection to access and runs experiments on its quantum computers.
IBM’s most recent quantum computer, the IBM Q System One, is a 20-qubit machine
that is designed for commercial use.
2. Google: Google has been working on quantum computing for several years and has
built several generations of quantum computers, including the 72-qubit Bristlecone
quantum computer. The company claims that its quantum computer has reached
“quantum supremacy,” meaning it can perform certain calculations faster than any
classical computer.
3. Alibaba: Alibaba has been investing heavily in quantum computing, and in 2017 it
announced that it had built a quantum computer with 11 qubits. The company has also
been developing its own quantum chips and is planning to release a cloud-based
quantum computing service in the near future.
4. Rigetti Computing: Rigetti Computing is a startup company that is building and
developing superconducting qubits-based quantum computers. They offer a cloud-
based quantum computing platform for researchers and developers to access their
quantum computers.
5. Intel: Intel has been developing its own quantum computing technology and has been
building quantum processors and cryogenic control chips, which are used to control
the quantum bits. In 2019, they announced the development of a 49-qubit quantum
processor, one of the largest processors of its kind developed so far.
6. D-Wave Systems: D-Wave Systems is a Canadian quantum computing company,
founded in 1999, which is known for its development of the D-Wave One, the first
commercially available quantum computer. D-Wave’s quantum computers are based
on a technology called quantum annealing, which is a type of quantum optimization
algorithm. They claim to have built the first commercially available quantum
computer, but their system is not a fully general-purpose computer and it’s mainly
used for optimization problems.
7. Xanadu: Xanadu is a Canadian startup company that is building a new type of
quantum computer based on a technology called photonic quantum computing.
 Photonic quantum computing is based on the manipulation of light particles (photons)
to perform quantum computations. Xanadu’s approach is different from other
companies that are building quantum computers, as it uses light instead of
superconducting qubits. They are focusing on developing a general-purpose quantum
computer that can run multiple algorithms.

Table: Comparison between classical and quantum computers

Properties Classical Computers Quantum Computers

Basic Unit Bits (0 or 1) Qubits (0, 1 or both)

Qubits can exist in multiple

Superposition Not possible superpositions

Entanglement Not possible Qubits can become entangled

Can perform multiple calculations

Processing Perform tasks one by one
simultaneously

Limited by Moore’s Law and Faster and more efficient for certain
Speed
physical limitations problems

Algorithms Classical algorithms Quantum algorithms

Cryptography, optimization,
Applications Various industries and fields
chemistry, etc.

A few of the more common types of qubits in use are as follows:

 Superconducting qubits: Made from superconducting materials operating at
extremely low temperatures, these qubits are favored for their speed in performing
computations and fine-tuned control.
 Trapped ion qubits: Trapped ion particles can also be used as qubits and are noted
for long coherence times and high-fidelity measurements.
 Quantum dots: Quantum dots are small semiconductors that capture a single electron
and use it as a qubit, offering promising potential for scalability and compatibility
with existing semiconductor technology.
 Photons: Photons are individual light particles used to send quantum information
across long distances through optical fiber cables and are currently being used in
quantum communication and quantum cryptography.
 Neutral atoms: Commonly occurring neutral atoms charged with lasers are well
suited for scaling and performing operations.