UNIT - I

Introduction to Quantum
Computing

1. Motivation for Studying Quantum Computing

Quantum computing is a revolutionary technology designed to solve certain classes of
problems much faster than classical computers. Its potential stems from leveraging unique
quantum mechanical phenomena, including superposition, entanglement, and quantum
interference.

1.1 Why Study Quantum Computing?

1. Tackling Computational Challenges:

Solves problems like prime factorization (important for cryptography) exponentially

faster with algorithms such as Shor's algorithm.

Optimizes complex systems in logistics, finance, and artificial intelligence.

2. Enabling Scientific Breakthroughs:

Accurate simulations of quantum systems, leading to new drugs, materials, and

catalysts.

Insights into physical systems for energy production and advanced technologies.

3. Future of Technology:

Quantum Machine Learning (QML) to process large datasets.

Development of quantum internet and secure communication protocols.

4. Economic and Strategic Importance:

National initiatives in quantum research (e.g., the US National Quantum Initiative,

India's Quantum Mission).

Quantum computing drives industry innovation and job creation.

Sample Problems:

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1. Optimization Problem:
Suppose you are scheduling shifts for 100 employees while minimizing overlaps and
adhering to preferences. Classical methods may take hours or days; quantum
algorithms aim to solve such problems in minutes.

2. Simulating a Molecule:
Simulate the electronic structure of a complex molecule like FeMoco (important for
nitrogen fixation). Classical methods struggle; quantum methods scale efficiently.

2. Major Players in the Quantum Computing Industry

2.1 Key Organizations and Their Contributions
1. IBM:

Leading quantum platforms like IBM Quantum Experience and Qiskit.

Advances in superconducting qubits for scalable systems.

Provides educational tools to train the next generation of quantum scientists.

2. Microsoft:

Azure Quantum integrates quantum and classical resources.

Researching topological qubits for fault-tolerant quantum computers.

3. Rigetti Computing:

Focuses on hybrid quantum-classical computing.

Notable for quantum cloud services for commercial applications.

4. D-Wave:

Specializes in quantum annealing rather than universal quantum computing.

Applications in optimization problems across industries.

5. Google:

Sycamore processor achieved quantum supremacy.

Research on error-corrected quantum systems.

6. Others:

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 IonQ: Focuses on trapped ion technology for high-precision qubits.

PsiQuantum: Uses photonic qubits to achieve fault tolerance.

2.2 Sample Problem:

Cryptography Challenge: Break a 2048-bit RSA encryption key using Shor’s algorithm on a
quantum computer. While classical computers might take billions of years, a large-enough
quantum system could achieve this in hours.

3. Origin of Quantum Computing

3.1 Key Historical Developments:
1920s–1930s: Quantum mechanics foundations laid by Planck, Einstein, Schrödinger, and
Heisenberg.

1980s:

Richard Feynman proposed using quantum systems to simulate quantum processes.

David Deutsch formulated the concept of a universal quantum computer.

1990s: Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms demonstrated the power of quantum computing.

2019: Google announced achieving quantum supremacy.

3.2 Sample Problem:

Simulate a quantum harmonic oscillator with multiple energy states. Quantum computers
can directly model these systems without approximation methods.

4. Overview of Major Concepts in Quantum Computing

4.1 Qubits and Multi-Qubit States
Qubit (Quantum Bit):

Represents |0⟩ and |1⟩ in superposition:

∣ψ⟩ = α∣0⟩ + β∣1⟩, ∣α∣2 + ∣β∣2 = 1

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 Entanglement: Correlation between qubits where the state of one qubit depends on
another.

Multi-Qubit States:

Combine states using tensor products:

∣ψ⟩ = ∣0⟩ ⊗ ∣1⟩ = ∣01⟩

4.2 Bra-Ket Notation

Ket |ψ⟩: Represents a quantum state vector.

Bra ⟨ψ|: Conjugate transpose of the ket.

Inner Product: Measures overlap:

⟨φ∣ψ⟩ = complex scalar

4.3 Bloch Sphere Representation

Visualizes qubit states in 3D:

∣0⟩ at the north pole and ∣1⟩ at the south pole.

Superpositions lie on the sphere surface.

5. Mathematical Foundations for Quantum Computing

5.1 Basis Vectors and Orthogonality
Basis Vectors:

1 0
Single-qubit basis: ∣0⟩ = [ ], ∣1⟩ = [ ].
0 1
​ ​

Orthogonality:

⟨0∣1⟩ = 0

5.2 Inner Product and Hilbert Spaces

Inner Product:

⟨ψ∣φ⟩ = ∑ ψi∗ φi​ ​ ​

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 Hilbert Space: Complex vector space for quantum states.

5.3 Matrices and Tensors

Pauli Matrices:

0 1 0 −i 1 0
σx = [ ] , σy = [ ] , σz = [ ]
1 0 i 0 0 −1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Tensor Product: Combine qubits:

ψ1 φ 1 ​ ​

ψ1 φ 2
∣ψ⟩ ⊗ ∣φ⟩ =
​ ​

ψ2 φ 1
​ ​ ​

​ ​

ψ2 φ 2 ​ ​

5.4 Unitary Operators and Projectors

Unitary Operator:

U †U = I
Projector: Projects state onto a subspace:

P = ∣ψ⟩⟨ψ∣

5.5 Dirac Notation

Simplifies expressions:

Outer Product:
∣ψ⟩⟨φ∣

5.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Eigenvalue Equation:

A∣v⟩ = λ∣v⟩

where A is an operator, λ is the eigenvalue, and ∣v⟩ is the eigenvector.

Problems for Practice

1. Matrix Multiplication Problem: Compute the product of the Pauli matrices σx and σy . ​ ​

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 1
2. Bloch Sphere Problem: Represent the state ∣ψ⟩ = (∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩) on the Bloch Sphere.
2
​

3. Eigenvalue Problem: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the operator:

1 0
A=[ ]
0 −1
​ ​

These notes provide a comprehensive introduction to quantum computing, along with

mathematical foundations and practice problems to strengthen understanding.

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