UNIT – III

Tensor Products, Teleportation

and Super Dense Coding

3. Core Concepts in Quantum Mechanics

3.1 Tensor Products
The tensor product combines multiple quantum states or operators into a single system,
enabling the description of multi-qubit systems.

Mathematics of Tensor Products:

= [ ] and ∣ψ2 ⟩ = [ ], their tensor product is:

a c
For two quantum states ∣ψ1 ⟩
b d
​ ​ ​

ac
∣ψ1 ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ2 ⟩ = [ ] ⊗ [ ] =
a c ad
b d bc
​ ​ ​ ​

bd
For n-qubit systems, tensor products generate a 2n -dimensional state space.

Example:
1 0
Combining ∣0⟩ = [ ] and ∣1⟩ = [ ]:
0 1
​ ​

0
1
∣0⟩ ⊗ ∣1⟩ = ∣01⟩ =
0
​

3.2 Multi-Qubit Systems

Multi-qubit systems describe states of multiple quantum bits, where the overall state is
represented as a superposition of basis states.

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General Form:

For n qubits:

2n −1
∣ψ⟩ = ∑ αi ∣i⟩,
​ where ∑ ∣αi ∣2 = 1
​

i=0

Example: 2-Qubit System

∣ψ⟩ = α∣00⟩ + β∣01⟩ + γ∣10⟩ + δ∣11⟩

3.3 Superposition
Superposition allows a qubit to exist in a combination of the ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ states.

Mathematics:

General state of a qubit:

∣ψ⟩ = α∣0⟩ + β∣1⟩, where ∣α∣2 + ∣β∣2 = 1

Visual Representation (Bloch Sphere):

Superposition is visualized as any point on the surface of the sphere.

Example:

Applying a Hadamard gate to ∣0⟩:

1
H∣0⟩ = (∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩)
2

3.4 Entanglement
Entanglement creates strong correlations between qubits, where the state of one qubit
depends on the state of another, regardless of distance.

Example: Bell State

The Bell state ∣ψ+ ⟩ is:

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 1
∣ψ+ ⟩ = (∣00⟩ + ∣11⟩)
2
​

Measurement of one qubit instantly determines the state of the other.

3.5 Decoherence
Decoherence describes the loss of quantum coherence due to interaction with the
environment, transitioning quantum states into classical mixtures.

Key Points:

Quantum information is lost when states entangle with the environment.

Reducing decoherence is critical for building practical quantum computers.

3.6 Quantum Teleportation

Quantum teleportation enables the transfer of quantum information using entanglement
and classical communication.

Protocol:
1
1. Alice and Bob share an entangled pair ∣ψAB ⟩​
= 2
​
(∣00⟩ + ∣11⟩).
2. Alice measures her qubit and the qubit to be teleported.

3. Alice sends the measurement outcome to Bob.

4. Bob applies a unitary operation to recover the state.

3.7 No-Cloning Theorem

The no-cloning theorem states that an arbitrary quantum state cannot be perfectly copied.

Proof Sketch:

If cloning were possible:

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 U (∣ψ⟩ ⊗ ∣e⟩) = ∣ψ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩

For two states ∣ψ⟩ and ∣φ⟩:

= (⟨ψ∣φ⟩)2 ,
⟨ψ∣φ⟩  contradicting linearity.

3.8 Superdense Coding

Superdense coding transmits two classical bits of information using one qubit and an
entangled pair.

Protocol:

1. Alice and Bob share an entangled pair.

2. Alice applies a unitary operation (e.g., I, X, Z, Y ) based on the two classical bits she
wants to send.

3. Alice sends her qubit to Bob.

4. Bob measures the joint state to decode the message.

Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) and

Applications

3.9 Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT)

The QFT transforms quantum states into the Fourier basis.

Mathematical Definition:

For an n-qubit state ∣x⟩, QFT maps it to:

2n −1
1
QFT(∣x⟩) = ∑ e 2πixk/2n
∣k ⟩
2n k=0

Example:

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For n = 2, QFT acts on the basis states:
1
∣0⟩ → (∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩ + ∣2⟩ + ∣3⟩)
2
​

3.10 Implementation of QFT

The QFT is implemented using Hadamard gates and controlled phase shift gates.

Circuit Representation:

1. Apply a Hadamard gate to the first qubit.

2. Apply controlled-phase gates to entangle the first qubit with the rest.

3. Repeat for all qubits.

Example Circuit for 2 Qubits:

1. Apply H to qubit 1.

2. Apply a controlled phase gate Rk . ​

3. Swap qubits at the end for proper ordering.

3.11 Applications of QFT

1. Shor’s Algorithm:

QFT is used to determine the periodicity in modular arithmetic.

2. Phase Estimation:

Finds eigenvalues of a unitary operator U .

3. Signal Processing:

Used in quantum versions of classical Fourier analysis.

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These notes provide an in-depth understanding of advanced quantum concepts, designed
for higher-level undergraduate students, combining theory, mathematical rigor, and practical
applications.

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