PHYSICAL SCIENCE | WEEK 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS:

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING Cosmology - the body of science that studies

OF ELEMENTS the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of
the universe.
LEARNING TOPICS: ● Religious or mythological cosmology
● The Big Bang Theory and Formation of explains the origin of universe and life
Light Elements. based on the religious beliefs of a specific
● Stellar Evolution and the Formation of tradition.
Heavier Elements ● The concept of creatio ex nihilo.
● God creating the universe as written in
LEARNING TARGETS: the book of Genesis.
● I can give evidence for and explain the
formation of the light elements in the big Physical cosmology explains the origin of
bang theory. universe based on scientific insights,
● I can give evidence for and describe the studies, and experiments
formation of heavier elements during star ● Nicolaus Copernicus and the heliocentric
formation and evolution. nature of the universe.
● The expanding universe through Albert
Einstein’s theory of relativity.
● The big bang theory

The Big Bang Theory and the Formation

of Light Elements.

Big Bang Theory

A cosmological model that describes how the
ENGAGE: L M ENTS universe started its expansion about 13.8
● Atoms billion years ago, states that the universe
● Subatomic Particles continues to move and expand.
● Atomic Number
● Mass Number 1. The universe began as a singularity or a
● Isotopes point containing all space, time, matter, and
● Atomic Mass energy.
2. It expanded rapidly in nothingness
•Time passes as our home planet, Earth, through a rapid yet peaceful process called
orbits a star in the Milky Way galaxy. inflation.
•Earth is just a tiny part of the vast 3. The universe cooled down as it expanded.
complex universe. Did you ever wonder how 4. A soup of matter in the form of
the universe came into existence? subatomic particles was formed and nuclei
of light atoms were created via
nucleosynthesis or nuclear fusion between p + n - ²H + y
protons and neutrons.
5. Electrons interacted with these nuclei to ● Two D nuclei may fuse together to form
form actual, primordial atoms via the either of the following:
process of recombination. a. The radioactive H isotope tritium (T or
3H, with one p and two n) and one p ; or
EVIDENCE OF BIG BANG ²H + ²H - ³H + p
Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz b. The isotope helium-3 (He-3 or 3He, with
(1910) two p and one n) along with one n
● Measurement of redshift. ²H + ²H - ⅔ He + n
● Observed that most spiral galaxies were
moving away from the earth. ● Helium-4 (He-4 or 4He, with two p and two
Georges Lemaître (1927) n) may be formed from three fusion
● Proposed alternative idea that the reactions.
universe is expanding. a. The fusion of one p and a T atom
Edwin Hubble (1929) ³H+p - ⁴²He + y
● Calculated distances between the earth b. The fusion of D with T
and several galaxies using redshift of light. ²H+³H - ⁴²He + n
● Observed distant galaxies were moving c. The fusion of D with He-3
away from the Earth and one another. ²H+³²He - ⁴²He + p
Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias (1965)
● Discovered cosmic microwave background ● He-4 may still undergo further fusion in
radiation (CMBR)—a low, steady humming the presence of a T atom, yielding the
noise believed to be energy remains. lithium-7 atom (Li-7 or 7Li, with three p and
Modern astronomy (2014) four n) and a γ.
○ Universe is estimated to be 13.8 billion ⁴²He+³H - ⁷³Li + y
years old with 5% of its composition Li-7 may react with one p to produce two
existing as ordinary matter stable He-4 nuclei.
⁷³Li+p - ⁴²He + ⁴²He
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
● Big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN), also ● He-4 may also fuse with He-3 to yield the
known as primordial nucleosynthesis, is the unstable isotope beryllium-7 (Be-7 or 7Be,
process of producing the light elements with four p and three n) along with one γ.
during the big bang expansion. ⁴²He+³²He - ⁷⁴Be + y
● It yields two stable isotopes of hydrogen,
two isotopes of helium, some lithium atoms, BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
and beryllium isotopes. • The nuclear reactions as predicted by the
● A proton (p) and a neutron (n) may fuse big bang nucleosynthesis.
together to yield a high-energy photon (γ)
and an isotope of hydrogen (H) called
deuterium (D or 2H, with one p and one n).
BIG BANG THEORY STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
• The correlation between predicted and • Elements associated with both living and
observed cosmic abundances of H and He nonliving things mostly originated from stars
was the major proof of the big bang theory. • Processes that occurred inside stars were
• Almost all available neutrons have responsible for the formation of these
combined with protons, forming 24% He-4 elements
by mass.
• About 74% H by mass remained • Elments heavier than beryllium were
uncombined. formed through stellar nucleosynthesis.
•To verify these observations, scientists • H and He produced from BBN started to
measured abundances of primordial material combine in nuclear fusion reactions.
in unprocessed gas in some parts of the • Very high amounts of energy were released
universe with no stars, as well as in parts of in the form of light, heat and radiation.
meteorites known as chondrites that
commonly fall to Earth. STELLAR EVOLUTION
•Stellar evolution refers to the process in
Stellar Evolution and the Formation of which a star changes through its lifetime.
Heavier Elements • The abundances of elements a star
•The tiny stars shining in the sky are contains change as it evolves.
actually giant balls of hydrogen and helium. • The course of evolution is determined by
•Earth is just a tiny part of the vast its mass.
complex universe. Did you ever wonder how
the universe came into existence? •All stars are formed from stellar nurseries
called nebulae.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) • A nebula breaks into smaller fragments as
• The BBN did not give rise to elements it further collapses before contracting into
heavier than beryllium. a protostar, or a very hot stellar core that
• Drop in temperature resulted in continues to gather gas and dust as it
insufficient energy levels for fusion contracts and increases in temperature.
reactions to push through. • Nuclear reactions like the proton-proton
• Nucleosynthesis continued with the fusion reactions occur at a temperature of
expansion of the universe. around 10,000,000 K.

STELLAR FORMATION THEORY •Protostars evolve into main sequence stars

• The star formation theory states that upon reaching gravitational equilibrium.
stars formed when gravity acted on the • Nuclear reactions form subatomic particles
particles expanding with the universe. called neutrinos and positrons.
• Stellar nurseries form from dense • An increase in pressure brought about by
molecular regions. positrons and neutrinos halt the contraction
• Protostars are formed when these regions of the protostar.
collapse.
•The sun is believed to be in the middle of • The resulting expansion eventually
the main sequence phase of stellar transforms the main sequence star to a red
evolution. giant.
• It will remain as such for at least five
billion years. •Main sequence stars evolve into red giant
• Red dwarf stars stay on the main sequence stars when all hydrogen atoms in their
phase for at least 100 billion years due to cores get depleted.
the slow rate of hydrogen fusion. Fusion of elements in a red giant

•Not all protostars become main sequence

stars.
• Brown dwarf stars are only able to fuel
deuterium fusion reactions.
• They cool gradually and have an average
lifespan of less than a billion years.

•Main sequence stars evolve into red giant

stars when all hydrogen atoms in their • Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars
cores get depleted. when the majority of helium in their cores
1. Helium becomes the major component of are consumed.
the core. 1. Hot and inert carbon core eventually
• Proton-proton chain reactions use becomes the white dwarf.
hydrogen to produce helium. • Lower amounts of helium in the core
• Hydrogen fusion moves to the outer shell decrease the rate of the alpha processes.
and the core's surface. • Outer shell expands into space, forming a
• Main sequence stars evolve into red giant planetary nebula.
stars when all hydrogen atoms in their
cores get depleted. • Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars
2. Fusion stops when all hydrogen atoms in when the majority of helium in their cores
the core are used up. are consumed.
• Pressure in the core decreases. 2. A white dwarf’s composition depends on
3. Helium atoms or alpha particles are its predecessor’s mass.
converted to carbon via the alpha fusion • A sun-sized main sequence star lacks
processes. energy to fuse carbon and the white dwarf
•Main sequence stars evolve into red giant would mostly contain inert carbon and some
stars when all hydrogen atoms in their oxygen.
cores get depleted. • A smaller star will produce a white dwarf
4. Temperature can increase to mostly composed of helium and a bit of
approximately 10 million K. hydrogen.
• Pressure also increases.
• Hydrogen is pushed away from the core.
• Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red 2. It releases massive quantities of
giant stars. high-energy neutrinos.
1. A high mass star can reach pressure and • Neutrinos break nucleons and release
temperature levels favorable for carbon neutrons.
fusion. 3. The generated neutrons are picked up by
nearby stars.
• Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red • key step in the formation of elements
giant stars. heavier than iron.
2. It evolves through several stages where
heavier elements are fused in the core and 1. the discovery of interstellar gas and dust
in the shells around it eventually forming in the early 1900s
multiple shells. 2. the study of different stages of stellar
• Multiple elements formed in a series of evolution happening throughout the universe
reactions in the following order: • Infrared radiation (IR) can be detected
Carbon Oxygen Neon Silicon Iron from different stages of stellar evolution.
• IR released by protostar is measured and
• Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red compared to IR from nearby area with zero
giant stars. extinction.
3. Elements lighter than iron can be fused • approximation of energy, temperature and
since the nucleus produced has a mass lower pressure from IR
than the sum of their masses.
• Missing mass is released as energy.

• Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red

giant stars.
4. Stellar nucleosynthesis of elements
heavier than iron is not possible due to its
energy requirement.

Elements heavier than iron are formed after

a supernova.
1. An exploding multiple-shell red giant is
called a supernova.
• happens when its core can no longer
produce energy to resist gravity.