Chapter 2

Diode Fundamentals

Prof. Francis Kofi Ampong

Senior Lecturer
Dept. of Physics, University of Science &
Technology, Kumasi
 Outline

 Introduction
 The Ideal Diode
 The real diode
Diode Analyses (the diode models)
 Special Types of p–n Junction Semiconductor Diodes
 Applications of Diode
 INTRODUCTION
 The origin of a wide range of electronic devices being used can be
traced back to a simple device, the p–n junction diode.
 The p–n junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor
impurity is doped on one side and an n-type impurity is doped on the
other side of a single crystal.
 All the macro effects of electronic devices, i.e., wave shaping,
amplifying or regenerative effects, are based on the events occurring at
the junction of the p–n device.
 Most modern devices are a modification or amalgamation of p–n
devices in various forms.
 Prior to the era of semiconductor diodes, vacuum tubes were being
extensively used. These were bulky, costly and took more time to start
conducting because of the thermo-ionic emission.
 The semiconductor diodes and the allied junction devices solved all
these problems.
diode bridge
5
 Physical Structure

The most important region, which is called pn junction, is the boundary

between n-type and p-type semiconductor.

6
The Diode
 Characteristics

• Conducting in one direction and not in the

other is the I-V characteristic of the diode.
• The arrowlike circuit symbol shows the
direction of conducting current.
• Forward biasing voltage makes it turn on.
• Reverse biasing voltage makes it turn off.

SJTU Zhou Lingling 8

THE IDEAL DIODE

In order to understand the essence of diode function (diode behavior),

we begin with a ‘’fictitious ‘’ element, the ideal diode. The ideal diode
may be considered the most fundamental non-linear element. It is a
two-terminal device having the circuit symbol
3.1 The ideal Diode
Current-Voltage characteristic

(a) diode circuit symbol (b) i–v characteristic;

Figure 3.2 The two modes of operation of ideal
diodes and the use of an external circuit to limit the
forward current (a) and the reverse voltage (b).

(d) equivalent circuit

(c) equivalent circuit
in the forward direction.
in the reverse direction;

11
Assume both diodes are ideal

R = 1 kΩ R = 1 kΩ
I I

+ +
VD VD
10 V - 5V -

diode is turned of
diode is turned ON
Writing a loop equation
Writing a loop equation
yields:
yields:

10  0  IR VD = 5 V
10 10
I   10mA
R 1
EXAMPLE 2
Assume the diodes in figure a and b are ideal. Find I and V.
Sol) We don’t know whether none, one, or both diodes are
conducting.
Make a plausible assumption, proceed with the analysis, and
then check whether we end up with a consistent solution !
(a) Assume that both diodes are conducting.
10  0
VB = 0, V = 0 I D2   1 mA
10
VB  (10)
Writing a node equation at B, I  I D 2 
5
0  (10)
I 1 , I  1 mA, V =0 V
5
(b) Assume that both diodes are conducting.
10  0
VB = 0, V = 0 I D2   2 mA
5
V  ( 10)
Writing a node equation at B, I  I D 2  B
10
0  ( 10)
I 2 , I  1 mA Impossible !!
10
Assume that D1 is off, and D2 is on.

10  (10)
I D2   1.33 mA
15
VB  10  10  1.33  3.3 V

I  0, V  3.3 V

15
THE REAL DIODE
I-V Characteristics

The diode i–v

relationship with some
scales expanded and
others compressed in
order to reveal details

17
 I-V Characteristic Curve

Terminal Characteristic of Junction Diodes

• The Forward-Bias Region, determined by vo
• The Reverse-Bias Region, determined by  VZK  v  0
• The Breakdown Region, determined by v  VZK

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The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions

Shockley diode
equation
 The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias
Conditions
I-V characteristic equation:
v
i  I（
s e
nVT
 1)
V

• Exponential relationship, nonlinear.

• Is is called saturation current, strongly depends on
temperature.
• n  1 or 2， in general n  1
• VT is thermal voltage.
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is
the absolute temperature of the p–n
kT
VT  junction, and q is the magnitude of
charge of an electron (the elementary
q charge) 20
For appreciable current in the forward direction,
(i>>Is)

 V

i  IS e nVT

 
This relationship can be expressed
alternatively in the logarithmic form

 i 
v  nVT ln  
 IS 
Assuming V1 at I1 and V2 at I2 then:
 V1 nVT 
I 1  I S  e 
 
 V2 nVT 
V2 I 2  I S  e 
 
V1 V2
V2 V1 
I 2 e nVT
 V1 e nVT

I1
e nVT
I1 I2
I2
V2  V1  nVT ln
I1

I2
V2  V1  2.3nVT log 10
I1
 The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias Conditions

I2
V2  V1  2.3nVT log 10
I1

Let I1 = 1 mA, and I2 = 10 mA

10
V2  V1  2.3nVT log 10  2.3nVT
1

Thus, for a decade (factor of 10) change in current, the diode

voltage drop changes by 2.3nVT which is approximately 60mv
(for n=1) or 120mv (for n=2).
 The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias
Conditions
• Turn-on voltage
A conduction diode has approximately a constant voltage drop across it.
It’s called turn-on voltage.

VD ( on)  0.7V For silicon

VD ( on)  0.25V For germanium

Diodes with different current rating will exhibit the turn-on

voltage at different currents .

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The experimental I-V characteristic of a Si diode
 Diode Analyses: The Diode
Models
Circuit Model
a) Piece wise linear model
b) The constant-voltage-drop model
c) Iterative analysis

26
 Example
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Figure 5. With V =
5 V and R = 1 k. Assume that the diode has a current of 1 mA at a voltage of 0.7 V,
and that its voltage drop changes by 0.1 V for every decade change in current.

R
I
voltage drop changes by 0.1 V for
every decade change in current.
+
VD ≡2.3 nVT = 0.1 V
-
VDD

I2
VDD  I D R  VD V2  V1  2.3nVT log 10
I1

ID 
VDD  VD  V2  V1  0.1log 10
I2
R I1
 First iteration
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Figure 5. With V = 5 V and
R = 1 k. Assume that the diode has a current of 1 mA at a voltage of 0.7 V, and that its
voltage drop changes by 0.1 V for every decade change in current.

To begin the iteration we assume that VD = 0.7 V and

use the equation below to determine the current.
R I1= 1 mA , V1 = 0.7 V
I

ID 
VDD  VD  5  0.7 
  4.3mA  I
1k
2
+ R
- VD
VDD We then use the diode equation shown below
to obtain a better estimate for VD

I2
V2  V1  0.1log 10
I1

Substituting V1 = 0.7 V, I1 = 1 mA, and I2 = 4.3 mA results in V2 = 0.763. Thus the

results of the first iteration are ID = 4.3 mA and VD = 0.763 V
 Second Iteration
R
I Thus the results of the first iteration are I D = 4.3
mA and VD = 0.763 V. the second iteration
proceeds in a similar manner: But this time I 1 =
+ 4.3 mA and V1 = 0.763 V.
- VD
VDD

ID 
VDD  VD   5  0.763  4.237mA
R 1k

4.237
V2  0.763  0.1log 10  0.762
4.3

Thus, the second iteration yields ID = 4.237 mA and VD = 0.762V. Since these values
are not much different from the values obtained after the first iteration, no further
iterations are necessary, and the solution is ID = 4.237 mA and VD = 0.762V.
3.3.4 The need for Rapid Analysis
* In design process, rapid circuit analysis is necessary, the piecewise-linear model.
not in the final conformation process.
* In the final conformation process, SPICE is the best choice.
3.3.5 The Piecewise-Linear model
i D  0,  D  VD 0
i D  ( D  VD 0 ) / rD ,  D  VD 0 (3.8)

the constant-voltage-drop model

3.3.6 The Constant-Voltage-Drop model

VD  0.7 V
Microelectronic Circuits - Fifth
30
Edition Sedra/Smith
 Piecewise linear model
the piecewise-linear model.

Where VDO is the intercept of line B on the voltage axis and r D is the inverse
of the slope of line B. For the particular example shown, V DO = 0.65 V and rD
= 20 Ω.
 Example 2
Repeat the problem solved earlier with iterative analysis, utilizing the
piecewise-linear model. (Take VDO = 0.65 V and rD = 20 Ω)

R
I

+
- VD
VDD

Kirchoff loop equation for the equivalent circuit

VDD  VDO 5  0.65

ID    4.26mA
R  rD 1  0.02

The diode voltage can now be:

VD  VDO  I D rD  0.65  4.26  0.02  0.735V

 The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model

The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics

and its equivalent-circuit representation.

33
 Example 3
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in
Figure 5. With V = 5 V and R = 1 k.

R
I

+
- VD
VDD

Let’s solve the same problem using the constant-drop-voltage model.

We obtain;

VDD  0.7 5  0.7

ID    4.3mA
R 1
Testing a diode
 Types of diodes
• Rectifier diodes
• Designed to carry high current
necessary in power supplies.
• Signal diodes
• Optimized for speed, they are
used in low current and switching
applications.
• Zener diode
• Designed to conduct in the
reverse direction with a precise
breakdown voltage, they are used
in power supply regulation.
 LEDs: Light-Emitting Diodes
• Main difference is material is more exotic than silicon used in ordinary
diodes/transistors
– typically 2-volt drop instead of 0.6 V drop
• When electron flows through LED, loses energy by emitting a photon of light
rather than vibrating lattice (heat)
• LED efficiency is 30% (compare to incandescent bulb at 10%)
• Must supply current-limiting resistor in series:
– figure on 2 V drop across LED; aim for 1–10 mA of current

Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 37

The light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that produces
light when an electric current or voltage is applied to its terminals in the
forward direction. – it is also classified as an optoelectronic device
 1.5 The Application of Diode Circuits

• Rectifier circuits
 Half-wave rectifier
 Full-wave rectifier
• Transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding
• Bridge rectifier
 The peak rectifier
• Voltage regulator
• Limiter

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