DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

UNIT-III DEFINITIONS & THEOREMS

GRAPH:
A graph G= (V , E ) consists of a non-empty set V , called the
set of vertices and a set E of ordered or unordered pairs
of elements of V, called the set of edges, such that
there is a mapping from the set E to the set of ordered
or unordered pairs of elements of V .

⮚ v 1 , v 2 , v 3are called vertices.

⮚ e 1 ,e 2 , e3 , e 4 ,e 5are called edges.

⮚ v 2and v 3 are adjacent vertices.

Isolated Vertex

A vertex of graph which is not adjacent to any other

vertex (which is not connected by an edge to any other
vertex) is called an isolated vertex.

Example:
 v4

Here is an isolated vertex.

Null Graph

A graph containing only isolated vertex (no edges) is

called a null graph.

Directed Graph or Digraph:

If in graph G= (V , E ) each edge e∈ E is associated

with an ordered pair of vertices, than G is called a
directed graph or digraph.
Undirected Graph:

If in graph G= (V , E ) each edge e∈ E is associated with an

unordered pair of vertices, than G is called an
undirected graph.

Self-Loop:

An edge of a graph that joins a vertex to itself is called

a loop or self-loop.

Parallel Edges:

⮚ If in a directed or undirected graph, certain pair of

vertices are joined by more than one edge, such
edges are called parallel edges.

⮚ In the case of directed edges, the two possible

edges between a pair of vertices which are
 opposite in direction are considered as distinct
edges.

Simple Graph:

A graph in which there is only one edge between a pair

of vertices is called a simple graph.

Multi Graph:

A graph which contains some parallel edges is called a

multi graph.

Pseudo Graph:
A graph in which loops and parallel edges are allowed is
called a pseudo graph.

Complete Graph:

A simple graph, in which there is exactly one edge

between each pair of distinct vertices is called a
complete graph.

The complete graph on n vertices is denoted by K n.

n ( n−1 )
Note: The number of edges in Kn is n c or
2
2
.

Hence, the maximum number of edges in a simple

n ( n−1 )
graph with n vertices is 2
.

Regular Graph:
 If every vertex of a simple graph has the same
degree, then the graph is called a regular graph.

If every vertex in a regular graph has degree n,

then the graph is called n−regular graph.

Note:

Any complete graph is regular, but any regular

graph is not complete graph.

Cycles or Circuits:

⮚ If every vertex of a simple graph is of degree2, then

the graph is called a cycle or cyclic graph or circuit.

⮚ A cycle with n vertices is denoted by C n, n ≥ 3.

⮚ A cyclic graph is a 2−regular graph.

Wheel Graph:
Wheel graph W n ( n ≥ 3) is obtained from Cn by adding a
vertex v inside Cn and connecting v to every vertex of Cn

by new edges.

Note:

Wheel graphs are not regular graphs and not

complete graphs.

Bipartite Graph:

If the vertex set V of a simple graph G= (V , E ) can be

partitioned into two subsets V1 and V2 such that every
edge of G connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2 (so
that no edge in G connects either two vertices in V1 or
two vertices in V 2), then G is called Bipartite graph.

Completely
Bipartite
Graph:

⮚ If every vertex
of V1 is connected with every vertex of V2 by an
 edge, then the graph G is called a completely
bipartite graph.

⮚ If V1 contains m vertices and V2 contains n vertices,

then the completely bipartite graph is denoted by
K m , n.

Sub graph:

⮚ A graph H=( V ' , E' ) is called a sub graph of G (V , E ) if '

V ⊆V

and E ⊆ E.
'

Proper Sub graph :

⮚ If V ⊂ V and E ⊂ E,
' '
then H is called a proper sub graph
of G.

Spanning Sub graph:

If V =V ,
'
then H is called a spanning sub graph of G. A
spanning subgraph of G need not contain all its edges.

Any sub graph of a graph G can be obtained by

removing certain vertices and edges from G. It is to be
noted that the removal of an edge does not go with the
removal of its adjacent vertices, whereas the removal
of a vertex goes with the removal of any edge incident
on it.

Vertex deleted Sub graph:

If we delete a subset U of V and all the edges incident

on the elements of U from a graph G= (V , E ) then the
subgraph ( G−U ) is called a vertex deleted subgraph of G.

Edge deleted Sub graph:

If we delete a subset F of E from a graph G ( V , E ), then the

subgraph ( G−F ) is called an edge deleted subgraph of G.

Induced Sub graph:

 A sub graph H=( V ' , E' ) of G= (V , E ) whereV ' ⊆ V and E
'

consists of only those edges that are incident on the

elements of V
'
is called an induced subgraph of G.

Path:

A path in a graph is a finite alternating sequence of

vertices and edges, beginning and ending with vertices,
such that each edge is incident on the vertices
preceding and following it.

If the edges in a path are distinct, then the path is

called a simple path.

Circuit or Cycle:

If the initial and final vertices of a path are the same,

then the path is called a circuit or cycle.

Connected Graph:

An undirected graph is said to be a connected graph if

there is a path between every pair of distinct vertices of
the graph.
 A graph that is not connected is called a
disconnected graph.

ISOMORPHIC GRAPHS:

Two graphs G1 and G2 are said to be isomorphic to each

other, if there exists a one-one correspondence
between the vertex sets which preserves adjacency of
the vertices.

Complement Graph:

Let G be a simple graph, then the graph G is called the

complement graph of G if the vertex set of G is the
same as that of G and such that two vertices of G are
adjacent if and only if those vertices are non-adjacent
in G.
Self – complementary:

A graph G is self – complementary if G and G are

isomorphic.

Eulerian path:

A path of a graph G is called an Eulerian path, if it

includes each edge of G exactly once.

Eulerian Circuit:

A circuit of a graph G is called an Eulerian circuit, if it

includes each edge of G exactly once.

Eulerian Graph:

A graph containing an Eulerian circuit is called an

Eulerian graph.

Hamiltonian path:

A path of a graph G is called a Hamiltonian path, if it

includes each vertex of G exactly once.

Hamiltonian Circuit:
A circuit of a graph G is called a Hamiltonian circuit, if it
includes each vertex of G exactly once.

Hamiltonian Graph:

A graph containing a Hamiltonian circuit is called a

Hamiltonian graph.

1)State and prove Handshaking theorem.

Statement:
Let G= (V , E ) be a graph and let e denote the number of
edges and let v1 , v2 , … , vn be n vertices, then
n

∑ deg ( v i ) =2 e
i=1

Proof:
Since every edge is incident with exactly two
vertices, every edge contributes 2 to the sum of the
degree of the vertices.
Therefore, all the e edges contribute 2e to the sum
of the degree of the vertices.
n

Hence∑ deg ( v i ) =2 e.
i=1

2)Prove that in any graph G, the number of vertices of

odd degree is even.
Proof:
Let G= (V , E ) be the undirected graph.
 Let V1 and V2 be the sets of vertices of G of even and
odd degrees respectively.
Then by Handshaking theorem, we have
❑ ❑
∑ deg ( v i ) + ∑ deg ( v j )=2 e ……(1)
v i ∈V 1 v j ∈V 2

Since each deg ( v i ) is even,v∑

∈V
deg ( v i ) is even.
i 1

❑
Let ∑ deg ( v i ) =2 k Where k is a constant .
v i ∈V 1

From (1),2 k + ∑ deg ( v j )=2 e

v j ∈V 2

∑ deg ( v j )=2e-2 k
v j ∈V2

❑
∑ deg ( v j )=2 ( e−k )
v j ∈V 2

❑
∴ ∑ deg ( v j ) is even.
v j∈ V 2

Since each deg ( v j ) is odd, the number of terms

❑

contained in v∑
∈V
deg ( v j ) or in V2 is even.
j 2

Hence, the number of vertices of odd degree is even.

3)Find the maximum number of edges ina simple graph

with n vertices.
Solution:
By Handshaking theorem, we have
n

∑ deg ( v i ) =2 eWhere e is the number of edges inG .

i=1

Therefore, deg ( v 1 ) +deg ( v 2 ) +…+ deg ( v n) =2 e

( n−1 ) + ( n−1 )+ …+ ( n−1 ) ¿

n ( n−1 )=2 e
 n ( n−1 )
⟹ e=
2

n ( n−1 )
(i.e) Number of edges = 2

Hence, the maximum number of edges in any simple

n ( n−1 )
graph with n vertices is 2
.

4)Prove that the maximum number of edges in a

simple disconnected graph G with n vertices and k

( n−k ) ( n−k+ 1 )
components is 2
.

Solution:
Given G be a disconnected graph with n vertices and k

components.
Let the number of vertices in the i
th
component be ni

Then n1 +n 2+ n3+ …+n k =n

Subtract 1 to each term,

( n 1−1 ) + ( n2 −1 ) +…+ ( nk −1 ) =n−k -----(1)
2 2
(( n1−1 ) + ( n2−1 ) +…+ ( nk −1 ) ) =( n−k )

2 2 2
( n 1−1 ) + ( n2−1 ) + …+ ( n k −1 ) +2 ( n1−1 ) ( n 2−1 )

+2 ( n2 −1 )( n3−1 ) + …+2 ( nk−1−1 ) ( n k −1 )= ( n−k )2

∴ ( n1−1 )2+ ( n2−1 )2 +…+ ( nk −1 )2 ≤ ( n−k )2

2 2 2 2
n1 −2 n1 +1+n 2 −2n 2+1+ …+nk −2n k + 1≤ ( n−k )
 ( n12+ n22+ …+nk 2 )−2 ( n1 +n2 +…+ nk ) +k ≤ ( n−k )2
( n12+ n22+ …+nk 2 )−2 n+k ≤ ( n−k )2 By (1)

n1 +n2 +…+ nk ≤ ( n−k ) +2 n−k …..(2)

2 2 2 2

ni ( ni−1 )
Maximum number of edges in i
th
component ¿
2

Therefore, maximum number of edges combining all

the k components

n1 ( n1−1 ) n2 ( n2−1 ) nk ( nk −1 )
¿ + + …+
2 2 2
2 2 2
n1 −n1 +n2 −n2+ …+n k −nk
¿
2

(n12 +n22 +…+ nk 2 )−( n1 +n2 +…+ nk )

¿
2

( ( n−k )2+ 2 n−k )−n By (2)

≤
2

( n−k )2+ n−k

≤
2

( n−k )2+(n−k )
≤
2

( n−k )( n−k +1 )
≤
2

( n−k ) ( n−k+ 1 )
Hence, maximum number of edges 2
.
5)Define self-complementary graph. Show that if G a
self-complementary graph with n vertices then it has
4 n∨4 n+1 vertices( i .e ) n=0∨1 ( mod 4 ).
Solution:
A graph G is said to be self complementary graph if
its complement graph G is isomorphic to G.
( i .e ) G≅ G

Assume that the graph has n vertices and e edges.

n ( n−1 )
For n vertices, the number of edges in K nis
2
.

By definition, we have ¿ G∨¿=¿ K n ∨−¿ G∨¿ ¿

Number of edges in G

= No. of edges in K n−¿ No. of edges in G

n ( n−1 )
No. of edges in G=
2
–e

Since G ≅ G ,G also has same number of edges.

n ( n−1 )
Therefore, e=
2
−e

n ( n−1 )
e +e=
2

n ( n−1 )
2 e=
2

4 e=n ( n−1 )

n ( n−1 )
e=
4

Therefore, either n is divisible by 4 or ( n−1 ) is divisible

by4 .
 Hence, number of vertices is either 4n or 4 n+1

( i .e ) n ≡0∨1 ( mod 4 ).

6) Prove that a given connected graph is

Eulerian if and only if all the vertices of G are of
even degree.

Proof:
Let the graph G be Eulerian and so it has an
Eulerian circuit v 1 e 1 v 2 e 2 v 3 … … … e n v1 which traverses
through all edges of G only once.

The internal vertex vi is incident on two edges ei

and e i+1 both of which contribute degree 2to v . i

So, each time vi occurs as an internal vertex,

degree 2 is added to its degree.

Therefore, its total degree is even.

The terminal vertex v1 is incident on two edges e1

and e . n

So, its degree is also even.

Therefore, all the edges are present, all vertices

are present in the Eulerian circuit.

Hence, degree of all vertices are of even degree.

Conversely, assume all vertices are of even
degree.

Suppose G is not Eulerian, then there is an edge

which is not included in any circuit.

Let C be the maximum cycle of G.

(i.e) cycle containing maximum edges of G).

Since C is not Eulerian, there exists an edge uv ∈G

which is not included in C and u is a vertex in C .

This is possible since G is connected.

If u is a part of any other cycle C,

'
then C+ C
'
is a
cycle containing more number of edges than C

which is against our choice.

So, u is not a part of any other cycle, which

guarantees that u is of odd degree contradiction
to our hypothesis.

Hence, G is an Eulerian graph.

7) Show that a connected graph G has an Euler
path but not an Euler circuit if and only if it
has exactly two vertices of odd degree.

Proof:Given Gis a connected graph.

Suppose G has an Euler path from v 1to v n, say,
v e v e …e v .
1 1 2 2 n n

The edges e and e contribute 1 to the degrees of

1 n v1

and v respectively.
n

Every time the path passes through a vertex, it

contributes 2 to its degree.
It is true for v1 and vn also.
So, the degrees of v and v are always odd and 1 n

the degrees of each internal vertices remain

even.
Thus the graph contains exactly two vertices of
odd degree.
Conversely, let the connected graph G contains
two vertices of odd degree, say v and v . 1 n
Adding a new edge e=v v to G we get a graph
1 n G1

with all even degree vertices.

Therefore by theorem, “A connected graph G is
Eulerian if and only if every vertex of G is of even
degree”, G is an Eulerian graph.
1

Removing e=v v fromG , we get

1 n 1 G containing an
Euler path from v to v .
1 n