LECTURE NOTES

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

UNIT-II
Name Of The Programme B.Tech-CSE

Regulations R-23

Year and Semester 2nd Year, 2nd Semester

Name of the Course Coordinator Mr.Ch.Samsonu, Associate Professor, KHIT

CSE Department

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

KALLAM HARANADHAREDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NH-5, Chowdavaram Village, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Approved By
AICET, New Delhi, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK Kakinada
Accredited By NBA, Accredited By NAAC with A Grade

ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-25

Database Management System (R23) B.Tech(CSE) II Year II Sem

UNIT II
Relational Model: Introduction to relational model, concepts of domain, attribute, tuple,
relation, importance of null values, constraints (Domain, Key constraints, integrity
constraints) and their importance, Relational Algebra, Relational Calculus.
BASIC SQL: Simple Database schema, data types, table definitions (create, alter), different
DML operations (insert, delete, update).

RELATIONAL DATA MODEL

 Relational model is the most popular model and the most extensively used model.
 The relational model proposed by CODD.
 The relational model represents the database as a collection of relations(tables). Every
row in the table represents a collection of related data values. These rows in the table
denote a real-world entity or relationship.

The table name and column names are helpful to interpret the meaning of values in each row.
The data are represented as a set of relations. In the relational model, data are stored as tables.
However, the physical storage of the data is independent of the way the data are logically
organized.

Number of rows is called Cardinality. Example above table has Cardinality 4.

Number of columns is called Degree. Example above table has degree 5.

Key Characteristics of the Relational Model:

 Data Representation: Data is organized in tables (relations), with rows (tuples)
representing records and columns (attributes) representing data fields.
 Atomic Values: Each attribute in a table contains atomic values, meaning no multi-
valued or nested data is allowed in a single cell.
 Unique Keys: Every table has a primary key to uniquely identify each record,
ensuring no duplicate rows.
 Attribute Domain: Each attribute has a defined domain, specifying the valid data
types and constraints for the values it can hold.

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 Tuples as Rows: Rows in a table, called tuples, represent individual records or

instances of real-world entities or relationships.
 Relation Schema: A table’s structure is defined by its schema, which specifies the
table name, attributes, and their domains.
 Data Independence: The model ensures logical and physical data independence,
allowing changes in the database schema without affecting the application layer.
 Integrity Constraints: The model enforces rules like:
o Domain constraints: Attribute values must match the specified domain.
o Entity integrity: No primary key can have NULL values.
o Referential integrity: Foreign keys must match primary keys in the referenced
table.
 Relational Operations: Supports operations like selection, projection, join, union, and
intersection, enabling powerful data retrieval manipulation.
 Data Consistency: Ensures data consistency through constraints, reducing redundancy
and anomalies.

Domain
• Columns in table have a unique name, often referred as attributes in DBMS. A domain is
a unique set of values permitted for an attribute in a table. For example, a domain of
month-of-year can accept January, February….December as possible values, a domain of
integers can accept whole numbers that are negative, positive and zero.
• Domain: It contains a set of atomic values that an attribute can take.

Relational Integrity Constraints

• While designing Relational Model, we define some conditions which must hold for data
present in database are called Constraints.
• These constraints are checked before performing any operation (insertion, deletion and
updation) in database.
• If there is a violation in any of constrains, operation will fail.
Constraints on the Relational database management system is mostly divided into 4 categories
are:

1. Domain Constraints
2. Entity Integrity Constraints
3. Key Constraints
4. Referential Integrity Constraints

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Domain Constraints
Domain constraints can be violated if an attribute value is not appearing in the corresponding
domain or it is not of the appropriate data type.
Domain constraints specify that within each tuple, and the value of each attribute must be
unique. This is specified as data types which include standard data types integers, real numbers,
characters, Booleans, variable length strings, etc.
Example:

Domain Constraints are Data type constraints, length constraints, Not null constraints…

Entity integrity constraints

 The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
 This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation and if
the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those rows.
 A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.
EXAMPLE:

Key Constraints

An attribute that can uniquely identify a tuple in a relation is called the key of the table. The
value of the attribute for different tuples in the relation has to be unique.

Why Key Constraints Are Important?

 Prevent Duplicates: Ensure unique identification of rows.
 Maintain Relationships: Enable proper linking between tables (via foreign keys).
 Enforce Data Integrity: Prevent invalid or inconsistent data.

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Primary Key Constraints

 A "primary key constraint" is a specific type of "key constraint" in a database,
 The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.
 Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.
 A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can consist of
single or multiple columns (fields).
 Primary keys can be classified into two categories Simple primary key that consists of
one column and composite primary key that consists of Multiple column.
 Primary keys can be defined in CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE:

Example:

In the given table, CustomerID is a primary key attribute of Customer Table. It is most likely to
have a single key for one customer, CustomerID =1 is only for the CustomerName =" Google".

Unique Key Constraints

A Unique Key ensures that the values in a column are unique, but unlike a primary key, it allows
one NULL value.
Employee_ID Email Name
1 [email protected] Aniket Kumar
2 NULL Shashwat Dubey
3 stalin@ gmail.com Manvendra Sharma
Unique Values: The email column must contain unique values.
[email protected] and stalin@ gmail.com are valid.
Adding another row with [email protected] would result in an error.
Allows One NULL: The email column can contain one NULL value.

Valid: NULL in the second row.

Invalid: Adding another row with NULL in email will be rejected.

Referential Integrity Constraints

 Referential integrity constraints are rules that ensure relationships between tables remain
consistent.

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 They enforce that a foreign key in one table must either match a value in the referenced
primary key of another table or be NULL.
 This guarantees the logical connection between related tables in a relational database.
 Referential Integrity constraints in DBMS are based on the concept of Foreign Keys.

Why Referential Integrity Constraints Are Important ?

 Maintains Consistency: Ensures relationships between tables are valid.
 Prevents Orphan Records: Avoids cases where a record in a child table references
a non-existent parent record.
 Enforces Logical Relationships: Strengthens the logical structure of a relational
database.
In the example, we have 2 relations, Customer and Billing.
Tuple for CustomerID =1 is referenced twice in the relation Billing. So we know
CustomerName=Google has billing amount $300

IMPORTANCE OF NULL VALUES

In SQL there may be some records in a table that do not have values for every field and those
fields are termed as a NULL value.

The scenarios where null values are used:

Null values can be used in cases of
 Missing data
 Unknown data
 Not applicable data
 When a mathematical or statistical computation can't be performed.

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NULL values could be possible because at the time of data entry information is not available. So
SQL supports a special value known as NULL which is used to represent the values of attributes
that may be unknown or not apply to a tuple.
SQL places a NULL value in the field in the absence of a user-defined value.
For example, the Apartment_number attribute of an address applies only to addresses that are in
apartment buildings and not to other types of residences.
So, NULL values are those values in which there is no data value in the particular field in the
table.
Importance of NULL Value
 It is important to understand that a NULL value differs from a zero value.
 A NULL value is used to represent a missing value, but it usually has one of three
different interpretations:
 The value unknown (value exists but is not known)
 Value not available (exists but is purposely withheld)
 Attribute not applicable (undefined for this tuple)
 It is often not possible to determine which of the meanings is intended. Hence, SQL does
not distinguish between the different meanings of NULL.

Principles of NULL values

 Setting a NULL value is appropriate when the actual value is unknown, or when a value
is not meaningful.
 A NULL value is not equivalent to a value of ZERO if the data type is a number and is
not equivalent to spaces if the data type is a character.
 A NULL value can be inserted into columns of any data type.
 A NULL value will evaluate NULL in any expression.
 Suppose if any column has a NULL value, then UNIQUE, FOREIGN key, and CHECK
constraints will ignore by SQL.

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA
Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which takes instances of relations as input and
yields instances of relations as output. It uses operators to perform queries. An operator can be
either unary or binary. They accept relations as their input and yield relations as their output.
Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation and intermediate results are also
considered relations.
The fundamental operations of relational algebra are as follows −
 Select
 Project
 Union
 Set-different
 Cartesian product
 Join
 Rename

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Select Operation (σ)

It selects tuples that satisfy the given predicate from a relation.
Notation :-
σp(r)
Where σ stands for selection predicate and r stands for relation. p is prepositional
logic formula which may use connectors like and, or, and not. These terms may
use relational operators like − =, ≠, ≥, <, , >, ≤.
For example 1:
σ subject = "database"(Books)
Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database'.
For example 2:
σ age>= 40(Teacher)
Output − Selects tuples from Teacher whohse age is greater than
or equal to 40.
For example 3:
σ subject = "database" and price = 450(Books)
Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database'
and 'price' is 450.

Project Operation (∏)

It projects column(s) that satisfy a given predicate.
Notation − ∏A1, A2, An (r)
Where A1, A2 , An are attribute names of relation r.
Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated, as relation is a set.
For example −
∏subject, author (Books)

Selects and projects columns named as subject and author from the relation Books..

Union Operation (∪)

It performs binary union between two given relations and is defined as −
r ∪ s = { t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s}
Notation − r U s
Where r and s are either database relations or relation result set (temporary relation).
For a union operation to be valid, the following conditions must hold −
 r, and s must have the same number of attributes.
 Attribute domains must be compatible.

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 Duplicate tuples are automatically eliminated.

Π author (Books) ∪ Π author (Articles)

Output − Projects the names of the authors who have either written a book or an article or both.

Intersection Operation (∩)

It displays the common values in r & s. It is denoted by ∩.
r∩s
Example:
Π author (Books) ∩ Π author (Articles)
Output − Projects the names of the authors who have written both book and an article.

Set Difference (−)

The result of set difference operation is tuples, which are present in one relation but are not in the
second relation.
Notation − r − s
Finds all the tuples that are present in r but not in s.
Π author (Books) − Π author (Articles)
Output − Provides the name of authors who have written books but not articles.

Cartesian Product (Χ)

Combines information of two different relations into one.
On applying CARTESIAN PRODUCT on two relations that is on two sets of tuples, it will take
every tuple one by one from the left set(relation) and will pair it up with all the tuples in the right
set(relation).
So, the CROSS PRODUCT of two relation A(R1, R2, R3, …, Rp) with degree p, and
B(S1, S2, S3, …, Sn) with degree n, is a relation C(R1, R2, R3, …, Rp, S1, S2, S3, …, Sn) with
degree p + n attributes.
The cardinality (number of tuples) of resulting relation from a Cross Product operation is
equal to the number of attributes(say m) in the first relation multiplied by the number of
attributes in the second relation(say n).
Cardinality = m*n

Notation:
rΧs

Example:
Consider two relations STUDENT(SNO, FNAME, LNAME) and DETAIL(ROLLNO, AGE)
below:
STUDENT table:
SNO FNAME LNAME
1 Albert Smith
2 Pearl Weber

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DETAIL table:

ROLLNO AGE
5 18
9 21
On applying CROSS PRODUCT on STUDENT and DETAIL,
STUDENT ✕ DETAILS
we get:
SNO FNAME LNAME ROLLNO AGE
1 Albert Smith 5 18
1 Albert Smith 9 21
2 Pearl Weber 5 18
2 Pearl Weber 9 21

In general, we don’t use cartesian Product unnecessarily, which means without proper meaning
we don’t use Cartesian Product. Generally, we use Cartesian Product followed by a Selection
operation and comparison on the operators as shown below :
σ A=D (A ✕ B)

Example: σ author = 'Raghu Ramakrishnan’(Books Χ Articles)

Output – Displays a relation, which shows all the books and articles written by 'Raghu
Ramakrishnan’

Join Operations:
A Join operation combines related tuples from different relations, if and only if a given join
condition is satisfied. It is denoted by ⋈.
Example:
EMPLOYEE
EMP_CODE EMP_NAME
101 Stephan
102 Jack
103 Harry
SALARY
EMP_CODE SALARY
101 50000
102 30000
103 25000

Operation: (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME SALARY
101 Stephan 50000
102 Jack 30000
103 Harry 25000

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Example 2: Project EMP_NAME and SALARY from two table based on their EMP_CODE.
Π EMPNAME, SALARY (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)
Output:
EMP_NAME SALARY
Stephan 50000
Jack 30000
Harry 25000

Difference between Join and Cartesian Product in Relational Algebra:

Cartesian Product Join
Generates all possible combinations of rows Combines rows from multiple tables based on a
between two tables. specific matching condition between columns.
Different types of joins exist like inner join, left
No filtering condition is applied and it is only
join, right join, full outer join, each with its own
one operation.
filtering logic.

Rename Operation (ρ)

The results of relational algebra are also relations but without any name. The rename operation
allows us to rename the output relation. 'rename' operation is denoted with small Greek letter rho
ρ.
Notation − ρ x (E)
Where the result of expression E is saved with name of x.

RELATIONAL CALCULUS
In contrast to Relational Algebra, Relational Calculus is a non-procedural query language, that is,
it tells what to do but never explains how to do it.
Relational calculus exists in two forms:
1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)
2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

TRC is based on the concept of tuples, which are ordered sets of attribute values that represent a
single row or record in a database table.
Filtering variable ranges over tuples.
Notation − {T | Condition}
Where T is a tuple variable and the above returns all tuples T that satisfies a condition.
For example (1)−
{ T.name | Author(T) AND T.article = 'database' }
Output − Returns tuples with 'name' from Author who has written article on 'database'.
For example (2)−
{ T.name | Employees(T) ∧ T.Salary > 50000 }
Output − Returns tuples with 'name' from Employees whose salary > 50000.
TRC can be quantified. We can use Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀).

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Existential Quantifier: ∃T ∈ R(Cond) will succeed if Cond succeeds for at least one tuple in T.
Universal Quantifier: ∀T ∈ R(Cond) will succeed if Cond succeeds for at all tuples in T.

Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

In DRC, the filtering variable uses the domain of attributes instead of entire tuple values (as done
in TRC, mentioned above).
Notation −
{ a1, a2, a3, ..., an | P (a1, a2, a3, ... ,an)}
Where a1, a2 are attributes and P stands for formulae built by inner attributes.
For example −
{< article, page, subject > | ∈ TutorialsPoint ∧ subject = 'database'}
Output − Yields Article, Page, and Subject from the relation TutorialsPoint, where subject is
database.
Just like TRC, DRC can also be written using existential and universal quantifiers. DRC also
involves relational operators.
The expression power of Tuple Relation Calculus and Domain Relation Calculus is equivalent to
Relational Algebra.

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL is a database language designed for the retrieval and management of data in a relational
database. SQL stands for Structured Query Language.
SQL includes database creation, deletion, fetching rows, modifying rows, etc.

Applications of SQL

As mentioned before, SQL is one of the most widely used query language over the databases.
Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.
 Allows users to describe the data.
 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.
 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.
SQL databases:
 Microsoft SQL
 MySQL
 Oracle
 PostgreSQL
 MSSQL

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DATABASE SCHEMA
A schema is the blueprint or structure that defines how data is organized and stored in a database.
It outlines the tables, fields, relationships, views, indexes, and other elements within the
database. The schema defines the logical view of the entire database and specifies the rules that
govern the data, including its types, constraints, and relationships.

Components of an SQL Schema:

DATA TYPES
1. CHAR(Size): This data type is used to store character string values of fixed length. The
maximum number of character is 255 characters.

2. VARCHAR(Size) / VERCHAR2(Size): This data type is used to store variable length

string data. The maximum character can hold is 2000 character.

3. NUMBER(P, S): The NUMBER data type is used to store number (fixed or floating
point). P is precision and S is scale.
 The precision is the number of digits in a number. It ranges from 1 to 38.
 The scale is the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in a number. It ranges
from -84 to 127.
For example, the number 1234.56 has a precision of 6 and a scale of 2. So to store this number,
you need NUMBER(6,2).
P and S are optional.
4. INT(size) or INTEGER(size) , FLOAT, DOUBLE, DECIMAL are also used
5. DATE: This data type is used to represent date and time. The standard format is DD-
MMM- YYYY as in 17-SEP-2009.
6. RAW: The RAW data type is used to store binary data, such as digitized picture or
image.
7. BOOL or BOOLEAN : True or false

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SQL COMMAND CATEGORIES:

SQL has the following categories of commands used for managing the databases
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
3. Data Query Language (DQL)
4. Transational Control Language (TCL)
5. Data Control Language (DCL)

DDL(Data Definition Language)

DDL commands are used to work on database objects like TABLE, VIEW, SYNONYM, etc.
DDL Commands : Create, Alter, Drop, Truncate, Rename
CREATE COMMAND:
CREATE is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index, function, views, store
procedure and triggers).

CREATE TABLE command is used to create structure of a Table.

Syntax of create table command:
CREATE TABLE tablename
( column1 datatype(size),
column2 datatype(size),
column3 datatype(size),
.....
columnN datatype(size)
);

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CREATE and TABLE are the keywords.

Example 1:
Create a PERSON table with ( name,city and state columns)
SQL>Create table person
(
name varchar2(10),
city varchar2(10),
state varchar2(10)
);

Example2: create student table with ( rollno, name, branch , mobile)

SQL> Create table student
(
rollno varchar2(10),
name varchar2(10),
branch varchar2(10),
mobile number(10)
);

ALTER COMMAND:
ALTER TABLE is used to alter the structure of the database by add Columns, modify size and
delete an empty column

Syntax1: To add new columns

Alter table tablename add (column datatype(size), ...);
Example: Query to add new column ‘PINCODE’ to the STUDENT table
SQL>ALTER TABLE STUDENT ADD (PINCODE NUMBER (10));

Syntax2: To modify size(increase only) or change data type

Alter table tablename modify (column datatype(size));
Example: Query to modify size of the NAME attribute in the table ‘STUDENT’
SQL>ALTER TABLE STUDENT MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2 (15));

Syntax3: To delete an empty column

Alter table tablename drop column columnname;
Example: Query to delete ‘pincode’ column
SQL>ALTER TABLE STUDENT DROP COLUMN PINCODE;

Syntax4: To rename a column

Alter table tablename rename column oldcolumn_name to Newcolumn_name;
Example: Query to change attribute name from NAME to STNAME
SQL>ALTER TABLE STUDENT RENAME COLUMN NAME TO STNAME;

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DROP COMMAND:
DROP– is used to delete objects from the database. It is DDL Command.

DROP TABLE:
A DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table structure and all data from a table. We
cannot rollback.

Syntax: DROP TABLE tableName;

Example: SQL> DROP TABLE student;

TRUNCATE COMMAND:
TRUNCATE TABLE – is used to delete all data from a table. It is a DDL command.
.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE tableName;
Example: SQL> TRUNCATE TABLE student;

Difference between DROP and TRUNCATE in SQL

S.No DROP TRUNCATE
It is used to eliminate the whole database It is used to eliminate the tuples from the
1
from the table. table.
Integrity constraints get removed in the Integrity constraint doesn’t get removed in
2
DROP command. the Truncate command.
3 The structure of the table does not exist. The structure of the table exists.

DML(Data Manipulation Language)

These commands that deals with the manipulation of data present in the database.
DML commands are INSERT, UPDATE , DELETE

INSERT COMMAND:
INSERT is used insert the data into the table. It is DML command.
Syntax:
INSERT into tablename(Column1, Column2..) values (value1,value2,…);
Column1, Column2.. : Specify the column names only when to insert data for specific column
values for the record.

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Example:
Create table with table name “teacher” and insert records and display the records.
SQL> create table teacher ( id number(3), name varchar2(10), age number(3));
SQL> insert into teacher values(1, 'A.RAO', 30);
SQL> insert into teacher (id , name) values(2, 'B.RAO');
Inserted row with teacher id and name only.

INSERT values in interactive input mode using & symbol.

Example: SQL>insert into teacher values( &id, ‘&name’, &age );

UPDATE COMMAND:
UPDATE command is used to set the new data to the columns. It is DML command.
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename SET Column1=new value, Column2=new value .. where condition;

Example:Change the age of teacher to 45 whose id=3;

SQL> UPDATE teacher SET age=45 where id=3;

Example: Change the name of teacher to ‘ARJUN RAO’ whose name is ‘A.RAO’
SQL> UPDATE teacher SET name=’ARJUN RAO’ where name=’A.RAO’;

DELETE COMMAND:
DELETE command is used to delete a specific single record or group of records or all records
based on the given condition in WHERE clause. It is DML command.
It delete the records temporarily from the table. We can rollback the deleted records before
COMMIT command.

Syntax:
DELETE from tablename where condition;
Example: Delete a teacher record whose id=3;
SQL> DELETE from teacher where id=3;
Example: Delete a teacher record whose name is ‘B.RAO’
SQL>DELETE from teacher where name=’B.RAO’;

Example:Delete a teacher record whose age is 60

SQL>DELETE from teacher where age=60;

DQL (Data Query Language)

DQL command is SELECT that is used to display records of the table.
Syntax for simple SELECT:
SELECT Column_Name1, Column_Name2, ....., Column_NameN FROM Table_Name;

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In this SELECT syntax, Column_Name1, Column_Name2, ….., Column_NameN are the name
of those columns in the table whose data we want to read.

If you want to access all rows from all fields of the table, use the following SELECT syntax with
* asterisk sign:

SELECT * FROM Table_Name;

Example: Query to display all records of a table ‘STUDENT’

SQL> SELECT * FROM STUDENT;
Example: Query to display only ROLLNO & STNAME columns of a table ‘STUDENT’
SQL> SELECT ROLLNO, NAME FROM STUDENT;

DCL(Data Control Language)

DCL includes commands deal with the rights, permissions and other controls of the database
system. These are GRANT and REVOKE commands.

GRANT-gives user’s access privileges to the database.

Example: Query to grant delete permission to manager on Bank table.
SQL>GRANT DELETE ON BANK TO MANAGER;

REVOKE-withdraw user’s access privileges given by using the GRANT command.

SQL>REVOKE DELETE ON BANK FROM MANAGER;

TCL(Transaction Control Language)

TCL commands deal with the transaction within the database.

COMMIT– commits a Transaction.

Example: SQL> COMMIT;

ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.

Example: SQL> ROLLBACK;

SAVEPOINT–sets a savepoint within a transaction.

Example: SQL> SAVEPOINT A;
The above set a label ‘A’ for transaction at particular point.

Suppose if we want rollback till savepoint A:

SQL> ROLLBACK TO SAVE POINT A;
Where A is savepoint label.

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