who performs the study, any results that impact on the design or operation of the interconnection should be

communicated to the concerned parties.

Multi function protective relays may be cost effective for generator and line protection when many
individual relays are required. When multifunctional relays are selected limited back up conventional relays
be provided based upon safety, cost of equipment lost or damaged, repairs. Back up protective relays with
different designs and instrument transformers should be provided for reliably and security and avoid blind
spots.

3.2 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

3.2.1 Introduction

Instruments transformers – i.e. current transformer and voltage transformers insulate secondary circuits
from Primary (power) circuit and provide quantities which are proportional to those in primary. These
quantities are used for metering and relaying circuits. Current and voltage transformers are regarded as
constituting part of the protection system and must be carefully matched with the protective relay.
Measuring current transformers for metering are required to accurately perform its function over normal
range of load currents, whereas protective current transformers is required to provide sufficiently accurate
secondary current to provide satisfactory protection over a wide range of fault current from a fraction of
full load to many times of full load. Therefore separate type of current transformers are used for measuring
and protection. In case of voltage transformers same transformers can serve both the purposes.

Protective relays in a. c. power systems are connected in the secondary circuits of current transformers and
potential transformers. In current transformers, primary current is not controlled by condition of the
secondary circuit. Hence primary current is dominant in the operation of current transformers. Instrument
transformers are further classified into two groups:

1. Protective instrument transformers used in association with relays, trip coils, pilot wires etc.
2. Measuring instrument transformers – used in conjunction with ammeter, wattmeter etc.

As a result, the ratio error is very important in protective current transformers, and phase angle error may
be less important. Voltage transformer is used for transforming voltage from one value to another
(generally lower) value. Both current transformers and voltage transformers come under the title Instrument
transformers. Discussions in this book are based on Indian Standards Mentioned here in under.

Latest version of following Standards may be referred for complete information.

A. Current Transformer

i) IS: 2705 (4 parts) – Current Transformer

ii) IEC 185 Current Transformer – International Electro-technical Commission
iii) IS 4201 – Application Guide for current transformers
iv) IEC-60044-1 - Current transformers

B. Voltage Transformer

i) IS 3156 (Part III) – Protective voltage transformer

ii) IS 3156 (Part I) – Measuring voltage transformer
iii) IS 4146 – Application guide fore voltage transformer
iv) IEC Pah 186 – Voltage transformer – International Electro-technical Commission
v) IEC-60044-2 - Voltage Transformers

3.2.2 Current Transformer

Primary requirement is that current ratio must be constant. Primary winding is connected in series with load
and carries load current to be measured. The winding is connected to the relay or metering unit. Secondary

109
 current for relay together with load resistance and winding impedance constitute the burden of the
transformer. Primary current contains two components.

a) Secondary current which is transformed and is in inverse ratio of the turns ratio.
b) Exciting current to magnetise the core and supply eddy and hysteresis losses and is not transformed.
Amount of exciting current depends upon core material and burden requirement.

The ratio error is given by the following expression.

K a I s − I p × 100
% error =
Ip
Ka = Rated transformation ratio
Is = Actual secondary current
Ip = Actual primary current

As the relay time has reduced to the order of a few mili-seconds in modern protective relays, the transient
behavior of current transformers and voltage transformers needs more attention. In order to prevent
saturation of current transformer cores during sub-transient currents, larger cores and air gaps are
introduced in CT’s for fast protective relays.

The standard specifications given by IEC, IEEE and IS cover several aspects about current transformers
such as general requirements, specifications, testing, applications, terms and definitions.

The major criterion of the selection of the current transformer ratio almost invariably is maximum load
current. In other words, the current transformer secondary current at maximum load currents, should not
exceed the continuous current rating of the applied relay. This is particularly applicable to phase type relays
where load current flows through the relays. This criterion applies indirectly to the ground relays even
though they do not receive current because they are generally connected to the same set of current
transformers as the phase relays. Since the ratio has been set on the basis of load current of the phase
relays, this ratio would then apply to the ground relay. The current transformer ratio is selected to provide
around 5 amperes or 1 amp. (in switchyard) secondary for the maximum load current. Where delta-
connected CT’s are used, the √3 factors should not be overlooked.

3.2.3 Terminology of Current Transformer (IS: 2705)

Composite Error:- Under steady state conditions, the rms value of the difference, integrated over one cycle,
between:

a) the instantaneous value of the primary current and

b) the product of the rated transformation ratio an the instantaneous values of the actual secondary
current. (This includes the affects of phase difference, of any turns correction and of distortion of
water waveform).

This is generally expressed as a percentage of the rms value of the primary current according to the
expression given below:
100 1 T
∫ 0 (K nis − iP ) dt
2
Composite error =
IP T
Where
IP = primary current (rms value)
T = duration of one cycle in seconds,
Kn = rated transformation ratio,
is = instantaneous value of the secondary current, and
ip = instantaneous value of the primary current

110
 Accuracy Limit Factor: The ratio of the rated accuracy limits primary current to the rated primary current.
Standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30. Rated Accuracy Limit Primary Currents

The value of the highest primary current up to which the transformer will comply with the specified limits
of composite error. It is the product of rated primary current and rated accuracy limit factor.

Excitation Current: The rms value of the current taken by the secondary winding of a current transformer
when sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency is applied to the secondary terminals; the primary and any other
windings being open-circuited.

Standard Accuracy Classes: For protective current transformer, the accuracy class is designated by the
highest permissible percentage composite error at the rated accuracy limit primary current prescribed for
the accuracy class concerned, followed by the letter ‘P’ (meaning protection). The standard accuracy
classes for protective current transformers are 5P, 10P and 15P.

Standard accuracy class for measuring current transformers are 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 3and 5.

Knee-Point Voltage: That sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency applied to the secondary terminals of the
transformer, all other windings being open-circuited, which when increased by 10%, causes the exciting
current to increase by 50%.

As per IS: 2705 Minimum knee point voltage (Vk) is specified in accordance with a formula of the type:

Vk = K. Is (Rct + Rb)

Where,
Vk is the minimum knee point voltage in volts,

K is a parameter to be specified by the purchaser which depends on the system fault level and the
characteristics of the relay intended to be used.
Is is the rated secondary current of the current transformer (or the secondary current as derived from
a specified turns ratio and primary current)
Rct is the resistance of the secondary winding corrected to 750C (generally left to manufacturer)
Rb is the impedance of the secondary circuit as specified by the purchaser

Phase Displacement: The difference in phase between the primary and secondary current vectors, the
direction of the vectors being so chosen that the angle is zero for a perfect transformer. The phase
displacement is said to be positive when the secondary current vector leads the primary current vector. It is
usually expressed in minutes.

3.2.4 Application of Protective Current Transformers

General shape of exciting characteristics for cold rolled silicon steel material (cross) generally used for
protection CTs is shown in figure 3.2.

Working range of a protective transformer extends from ankle point to knee point and beyond (full range).
Metering current transformer normally operates in the region of ankle point about 10% to 120% full load.
High permeability with low saturation level material is used for metering CTs. CT saturates above this
range and protects the meters. Ratio and phase angle errors are shown in tables 3.1 & 3.2 for standard
accuracy class and special accuracy class Ct for metering as per IS: 2705. Table 3.3 shows limits of error
for protective current transformers.

111
 Figure 3.2: Exciting Curve for Current Transfer
(Typical)
The determination of the rating of a protective CT is dependant on its application and consequently the
following parameters are worked out: rated burden, rated accuracy limit factor and accuracy class.

For balanced protection system and distance protection special class current transformers designated class
PS are used and needs in addition following parameters to be specified.

a) Rated knee point voltage

b) Secondary winding resistance
c) Maximum exciting current at rated knee point voltage

Table 3.1: Limits of Error for Standard Accuracy Classes 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1

Accuracy Percentage current (Ratio) Error at Phase displacement in minutes at

Class Percentage of Rated Current percentage of rated current
5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8 5 5
0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10
0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30
1.0 3.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60

Table 3.2: Limits for error for Special Application Accuracy Class 0.2S and 0.5S

Accuracy Percentage current (Ratio) Error at Phase displacement in minutes at

Class Percentage of Rated Current percentage of rated current
1 5 20 100 120 1 5 20 100 120
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
0.2S 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10 10
0.5S 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30 30

112
 Table 3.3: Limits of Errors

Accuracy Current Error at Rated Phase Displacement at Rated Composite Error at Rated
Class Primary Current Primary Current Accuracy Limit Primary
Current
(percent) (minutes) (percent)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
5P ±1 ± 60 5
10P ±3 - 10
15P ±5 - 15

Rated Burden: The burden on a protective CT is composed of the individual burdens of the associated
relays or trip coils, instruments (if used) and the connecting leads.

Normally, the standard VA rating nearest to the burden computed should be used,. But attention is drawn to
the fact that a device may have different impedance under different operating conditions. The VA burden
which is effectively imposed on the CT at rated secondary current is given by the following formulas:

2
I 
Pe = Pr  s 
 Ir 
Where
Pe = affective VA burden on the CT
Pr = VA burden of the device at current setting
Is = rated secondary current of the current transformer,
Ir = current setting of the device

In selecting the most suitable standard rated output it is undesirable to specify a value which substantially
exceeds the burden as computed above; to do so might result in a transformer uneconomic in cost or of
unduly large dimensions. When the nearest standard VA rating is less than the total computed burden, it is
usually satisfactory to adopt the former.

Rated Accuracy Limit Factor: In determining the appropriate accuracy limit factor for a given
application, the important point to consider is the maximum value of primary current up to which
maintenance of ratio is required, other factors however, are also involved. The capabilities of a protective
current transformer are determined by the primary ampere-turns, the core dimension and material, and they
are roughly proportional to the product of the rated burden and the rated accuracy limit factor. With present
day material and normal dimensions, this product has a maximum value of about 150.

Correlation of Burden and Accuracy Limit Factor: Accuracy limit factor higher than 10 and rated
burdens higher than 15 VA are not recommended for general purposes. It is possible, however to combine a
higher rated accuracy limit factor with a lower burden rating and vice versa; but when the product of these
two exceeds the resulting current transformer may be uneconomical and/or of unusually large dimensions.
Moreover, it might not be possible to attain a product of 150 if the current transformers are of the wound-
primary type with low ratio and high rated short-time thermal current.

Accuracy Class: The required accuracy class of protection current transformer is dependent upon the
particular application and examples of its selection with particular regard to associated values of rated
accuracy limit and rated burden is in the examples.

3.2.5 Special Application (PS class CTs)

When the operation of the protective equipment is more precisely dependant upon the magnitude and phase
relationship of voltage and current as, for example, upon the balance of current in differential protection,
the current transformers may require characteristics other than those prescribed above. These characteristics
cannot conveniently be expressed in the terms used for accuracy classes 5P and 10P.

113
 For such applications, the current transformers characteristic are normally specified in the following terms:

a) Knee-point voltage,
b) The exciting current at the knee-point voltage or at a percentage there of for both
c) Resistance of the secondary winding

The values of the above terms are dependent on the protection gear involved. In such cases, the designer of
the protective system should specify the additional requirement that may be necessary in consultation with
relay manufacturer.

3.2.6 Protective Voltage transformers

3.2.6.1 Terminology

Protective Voltage Transformers: - A voltage transformer intended to provide a supply to protective

devices (relay or trip coils). These transformers are required to have sufficient accuracy to operate
protective system at voltages that occur under fault condition.
Accuracy Class Designation: - The accuracy class for protective voltage transformer is designated by the
highest permissible percentage voltage error for the accuracy class concerned from 5 percent of rated
voltage to a voltage corresponding to the rated voltage factor. This expression is followed by letter P for
protective. Voltage transformer and PR for 3 phase residual voltage transformer.
Standard Accuracy Classes: - this is designated by the highest permissible percentage voltage error at
rated voltages prescribed for the frequency class concerned.

The standard accuracy classes for protective voltage transformer are ‘3P’ and ‘6P’.

Rated Burden: - The rated burden of a voltage transformer is usually expressed as the apparent power in
volt amperes absorbed at rated secondary voltage. The burden is composed of the individual burdens of the
associated voltage coils of the instruments, relays, trip coils to which the voltage transformer is connected.
The total burden is computed by adding them together after referring the individual value to a common
base i.e. rated secondary voltage.

Normally the standard VA rating nearest to be burden computed should be used. It is undesirable to specify
VA rating much higher than the computed value, as to do so might result in inaccuracies and the
transformer uneconomical in cost or of unduly large dimensions. When the value of the nearest standard
VA rating is less than the computed value, the use of such VA rating should be made in consultation with
the manufacturers.

Accuracy of a voltage transformer is guaranteed for burden variation between 25% to 100% of rated
burden.

3.2.6.2 Limits of Voltage Error & Phase Displacement

The rated residual voltage of a 3 phase residual voltage transformer is as follows:

a. For effectively earthed 1 x rated residual voltage

neutral transformers
b. For isolated neutral 3 x rated residual voltage
voltage transformers

Acc. Class Percentage Voltage Error Phase Displacement

3P ± 3.0 % ± 120 minutes
6P ± 6.0 % ± 300 minutes

114
3.2.6.3 Voltage Transformer Intended to Produce Residual Voltage

a) Rated secondary voltage of winding connected in broken delta to produce a residual voltage is 110
volts, 110/√3 or 110/3 for single phase voltage transformers intended to produce a residual
voltage.

The rated residual voltage of a 3 phase residual voltage transformer is as follows:

i) For effectively earthed 1 x rated residual voltage

neutral transformers
ii) For isolated neutral 3 x rated residual voltage
voltage transformers

Rated Secondary Voltage

Preferred Value Volts
100 110
100 100
3 3
100 100
3 3
If preferred value of rated secondary voltage produces a too low residual voltage, non-preferred values may
be used.

Rated Output: - should be as per IS: 3150 and preferred values are 25, 50 and 100 VA.

Accuracy Class: - as per IS accuracy class for a residual voltage transformer i.e. 6 P.

3.2.6.4 Special Application

When using a 3-phase voltage transformer with a generator, whether for metering or protection, it should
have a closed- tertiary – delta winding to provide path for the third harmonic component of the excitation
current in the core.

3.2.6.5 Application of Measuring Voltage Transformers

A measuring voltage transformer needs to maintain its accuracy from 80 to 120 % of rated voltage. It is not
required to maintain its accuracy within specified limit during the fault conditions.

3.2.6.6 Accuracy Class

It is undesirable that a higher class of accuracy should be called for, than is necessary for the duty required.
To do so is uneconomical and may result in voltage transformer of excessive dimensions which may
involve modification to the switchgear without serving any useful purpose.

3.2.7 Application of Protective Voltage Transformers

Altitude: voltage transformer bushing/weather casing between high voltage point and nearest earth point of
voltage transformer is increased in accordance with IS: 4146.

Atmospheric Pollution: minimum creepage distance under varying degrees of pollution of the voltage
transformer bushing/weather casing as recommended by IS: 4146 is as follows:

For heavily polluted conditions 23 mm per kV of highest equipment voltage

For normally and lightly 16 mm per kV of highest equipment voltage

polluted conditions
115
 Resistance to Earthquake: Porcelain insulators and bushings of voltage transformer 66 kV and above are
made suitable to withstand the stresses likely to be caused by earthquakes as per IS: 1983 and vibration
tests are specified.

Selection of the accuracy class for a particular application should be made in consultation with the
manufacturer.
A protective device is called upon to operate under system fault conditions. As the faults are generally
associated with voltage dips, a protective voltage transformer is required to maintain its accuracy within
specified limit from 5 to the voltage factor of rated voltage.

For applications with protective devices whose operation does not depend on the phase relationship
between the voltage and the current, for example, under voltage, overvoltage and over current relay of limit
importance and accuracy class of 6 P is considered to be quite adequate.

For applications with protective devices whose operation depends on the phase relationship between
voltage and current, for example, directional over current, reverse power and directional distance
protection, voltage transformers of class 3.0 is used.

The selection of accuracy class for any particular application depends on the sensitiveness of the protection
scheme required, and is decided by the purchaser in consultation with the manufacturer.

3.2.8 Choice of Connection (phase to Phase) (V)

In this type of connection, 2 single-phase voltage transformers are connected in ‘V’, both on the primary
and secondary sides. As there is no neutral on the primary winding, the zero sequence voltage cannot be
obtained. Hence, such a voltage transformer cannot be used where it is required to have zero sequence
voltage for protection or indication.

3.2.9 Star- Star

This is the most common connection used in metering and relaying schemes. When 3 phase 3 limb voltage
transmission are used the zero sequence voltage will not be transformed.

3.2.10 Star – Broken Delta

This connection is used for directional relay or when zero sequence voltage is required for earth fault
relaying scheme. With this connection a bank of 3 single-phase voltage transformers is used, the primary
star point being solidly earthed regardless of system earthing conditions. The voltage appearing across the
broken delta is three times the zero sequence voltage.

3.2.11 Voltage and insulation level and overvoltage withstand etc.

Voltage and insulation level is the same as for other equipment in the powerhouse.

3.2.12 Typical Example

A typical example of CTs and PTs characteristics fixed for 2 x 10 MW. Mukerian project for protection and
metering is shown in figure 3.4. Protection and metering single line is shown in figure 3.3.

116
 66kV FEEDER-1 66kV FEEDER-2
62 62 NOMENCLATURE
62 62
COUPLING VOLTAGE
COUPLING VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER 27 UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY
TRANSFORMER 32 REVERSE POWER RELAY
27 40 LOSS OF EXCITATION RELAY
F 41G EXCITATION BREAKER
81L 81H 27 81L 81H 46 NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY
WAVE TRAP WAVE TRAP 47 PHASE SEQUENCE VOLTAGE RELAY
51 OVER CURRENT RELAY
TZ Vs TZ Vs 51D DIRECTIONAL OVER CURRENT RELAY
185 51V OVER CURRENT VOLTAGE RESTRAINT
185
KV V TRIPS 52-3 TRIPS 52-4
RELAY
KV V 59 OVER VOLTAGE RELAY
SUPV. CARRIER SUPV. CARRIER 62 TIMING RELAY
CABINET CABINET
E/F 51 D E/F 64F ROTOR EARTH FAULT RELAY
51 D
64G STATOR EARTH FAULT RELAY
64T BACKUP POWER SYSTEM E/FRELAY
81L/H FREQUENCY RELAY (LOW , HIGH)
3 KVAR KW KWH BUS ZONE CHECK RELAY
A 87CH
KWH KW KVAR 3 87 B1 ,B2 BUS ZONE DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS
5 P 10
87G GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
A 5 P 10 87GT GEN. TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
185 PHASE COMPARISON RELAY
5 P 10
CURRENT AVR AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR
5 P 10
V Vs CURRENT TRANSFORMER E/F EARTH FAULT RELAY
200/1 Vs
TRANSFORMER V FM FREQUENCY METER
200/1 OER OVER EXCITATION RELAY
CLASS 1
CLASS 1 PAR COMP PARALLEL RUNNING COMPENSATION
TO UNIT PS PF POWER FACTOR METER
SYNCHRONISING R RESISTOR
87CH PS TO UNIT
SYNCHRONISING RT RECTIFIER T/F
TRIPS TRIPS TZ TRANSDUCER
P.T. PS PS UAT UNIT AUX. T/F
52-1,52-3 52-2,52-4 P.T.

/ 52-3
52-5
& UNIT1
SHUT DOWN
87B1
51
87B2
52-5,
& UNIT2
SHUT DOWN
52-4
/
/ / //
66KV 110V
11O V. CT 200/1
3 3 52-5 PS PS
66 K.V. BUS
5 P 10

PS PS LEGEND
PS
51TX 50/51T PS 50/51T 51TX
C.T. 200/1 C.T. 200/1 LIGHTNING ARRESTOR
5P 10 5P 10
TRIP & ALARM TRIP & ALARM RESISTOR
PS PS
52-1 INTERPOSING CTs INTERPOSING CT 52-2 EARTH

ISOLATOR
50/51 87GT 87GT 50/51
12.5 MVA 11/66 kV 12.5 MVA 11/66 kV 11 KV CIRCUIT
GT-1 GT-2 BREAKER
UAT-1 UAT-2 66 KV CIRCUIT
64T 64T
CT 600/5 BREAKER
CT 600/5
PS PS FUSE
TO 87GT 87GT KV SUPV.
KV SUPV. AVR 11-1 11-2 TO A AMMETER
51 51 AVR
RT-1 RT-2
V
VOLTMETER
TO UNIT RECORDING
SYN. TO UNIT TZ
TZ SYN. INSTRUMENT

CURRENT
47 32 46 40 51V 59 32 47 TRANSFORMER
59 51V 40 46
TO VR TO VR
VS
POTENTIAL
FM TO RECTIFIER TRANSFORMER
VS FM
CT 600/5 BRIDGE AVR CT 600/5
CLASS 1 CLASS 1
KW V V KW
KWH PF KVAR 0.5 KVAR PF KWH
0.5 TO AVR 3
3 TO AVR
A V V A TZ
TZ A A
10MVA 0.9 PF 41G 10MVA 0.9 PF
41G GWENERATOR
GWENERATOR
KWHSUPV.
G1 G2 KVARSUPV.
KWHSUPV.
KW SUPV.
KVAR SUPV. 64F
KW SUPV. PS 64F PS
87 G OER OER
CT 600/5 CT 600/5 87 G
5P 10
5P10

PS PS

DISTRIBUTION
DISTRIBUTION R 64 G R
64 G TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER
UNIT-1 UNIT-2

Figure 3.3: Protection and metering single line diagram (Mukerian Stage 2) (Specification)
TO MUKERIAN STAGE-1 FEEDER TO DASUYA FEEDER

PLCC CTs DETAILS

LMU

NO. VOLTAGE CORE CIRCUIT QUANTITY RATED ACC. CLASS BURDEN VA

W AVE TRAP WAVE TRAP CT-N 11kV 1 OVERALL DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION 6 600/5A PS --
CVT-1 CVT-2
--- 11kV 2 PROTECTION -- 600/5A 5P10 60
--- 11kV 3 GEN. DIFF. PROTECTION -- 600/5A PS --
89-4EL
CT-P 11kV 1 DIGITAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR (DVR) 6 600/5A 0.5 60
89-3EL --- 11kV 2 GEN. METERING & EHG -- 600/5A 0.2 60
89-3L 89-4L
--- 11kV 3 GEN. DIFF. PROTECTION -- 600/5A PS --
CT-8 11kV 1 PROTECTION -- 30/5A 5P10 30
CORE-5
CT-10 11kV 1 PROTECTION 6 30/5A 5P10 30
CORE-4 CT-11 11kV 1 OVERALL DIFF. PROTECTION 6 30/5A PS --
CT-12 66kV 1 PROTECTION 2 200/1A PS --
CT-16 CORE-3 CT-14 66kV 1 OVERALL DIFF. PROTECTION 6 200/1A PS --
CT17
--- 66kV 2 BREAKER BACK-UP PROTECTION -- 200/1A 5P10 45
CORE-2
--- 66kV 3 BUS DIFFE. PROTECTION MAIN -- 200/1A PS --
CORE-1 --- 66kV 4 BUS DIFFE. PROTECTION CHECK -- 200/1A PS --
CT-15 66kV 1 BUS DIFFE. PROTECTION ZONE A 3 200/1A PS --
52-3 C B CB 52-4 --- 66kV 2 BUS DIFFE. PROTECTION ZONE B -- 200/1A PS --
--- 66kV 3 BREAKER BACK-UP PROTECTION -- 200/1A 5P10 60
89-3 89-4 CT-16 66kV 1 BUS DIFFE. CHECK 3 400-200/1A PS --
--- 66kV 2 BUS DIFFE. MAIN -- 400-200/1A PS --
PT-A BUS-2
PT-A BUS-1 --- 66kV 3 METERING -- 400-200/1A 0.5 60
PT-B BUS-2 --- 66kV 4 PROTECITON -- 400-200/1A PS --
PT-B BUS-1 5 DIRECTIONAL O/C & E/F PROTECTION -- 5P10
66kV BUS-B --- 66kV 400-200/1A 60
CT-17 66kV 1 BUS DIFFE. CHECK 3 400-200/1A PS --
--- 66kV 2 BUS DIFFE. MAIN -- 400-200/1A PS --
PT-A PT-B
--- 66kV 3 METREING -- 400-200/1A 0.5 60
--- 66kV 4 PROTECITON -- 400-200/1A PS --
66kV BUS-A --- 66kV 5 DIRECTIONAL O/C & E/F PROTECTION -- 400-200/1A 5P10 60
ZONE-B CT WIRE
ZONE-A CT WIRE
CHECK ZONE
CT W IRE
89-1 89-2
PTs DETAILS
CT-15 CORE-4 NO. QUANTITY RATIO ACC. BURDEN PHASE
CIRCUIT CLASS VA
V/V
CT-14
CORE-3
6 11000 110 V 0.5 50 1PH
VT1 DIGITAL VOLTAGE REGUALTOR (DVR)
CT-14 3 3
BC CORE-2
VT2 METERING SYN. & EHG 6 11000 110 V 200
0.2 1PH
CORE-1 3 3

VT3 PROTECITON 6 11000 110 V 3P 100

52-1 C B CB 52-2 1PH
3 3
LA METREING,RELAYING,PROTECTION & 66000 110 110 V
VT-1 CT-12 BPT A & B 6 0.5/3P 100-60 1PH
SYNCHRONIZATION 3 3 3
12.5MVA,11/66kV METREING,RELAYING,PROTECTION &
VG YnD11 CVT 1,2 6 66000 110 V 0.5/3P 50-50
SYNCHRONIZATION 1PH
3 3
VT-2 CT-11 CT-10
TO STATION SERVICE
TRANSFORMER

52-G2
VT-3 TO EXCITATION
CT-8
SYSTEM

CORE-3 REFRENCES DRAWINGS

CT-P CORE-2 FIGURE 3.2.12.2: 2x9MW MUKERIAN PROJECT METERING AND RELAYING SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
CT-P
CORE-1

9MW,11kV,0.9PF,
3PH,50Hz

CORE-3

CT-N CORE-2 CT-N

CORE-1

89LK

NGT

Figure 3.4: Protection and Metering CTs & PTs (AHEC Project)

117
3.3 GENERATOR PROTECTION

3.3.1 Introduction

Size of individual hydro generating units has risen to over 500 MW. In India 250MW generators are
installed at Nathpa Jhakri on River Satluj and at Tehri Hydro Power Project on river Bhagirthi. 6 x 165
MW units were installed at Dehar hydro power plant of Beas Link Project. Large sized electric generators
running in parallel and connected to long distance transmission lines requires proper protection as the loss
of even a single unit can jeopardize the operation of the power system to which it is connected.

The collective function of all forms of protection applied to large generators is, therefore, to reduce the
clearance time of all fault conditions associated with it. It is of prime importance that the protective devices
should disconnect the machines automatically if the fault is internal or if the external conditions are so
abnormal that the continued operation would result in damage. With the advent of higher transmission
voltages transmitting large blocks of powers at long distances, stability problems have increased and very
low operating times have been provided, a review of hazards is desirable, because these should be
understood when considering the advisability or otherwise of applying specific protective features.

Small hydro power projects from micro hydro range (5 kW-100 kW) and up to 25 MW capacity are being
installed mostly for energy. Desired protection is determined by the interconnected power system and
economic considerations.

3.3.2 Generator, Excitation Systems and Generating Station Arrangements

Stator winding of a three phase synchronous hydro generator consists of a number of single turn or multi
turn coils that are connected in series to form a single phase circuit. The phase windings are normally star
connected with neutral grounded through an external impedance. Most common arrangements are shown in
figures 3.5 (a) and (b).

LINE SIDE

figure 3.5 (a) figure 3.5 (b) Split Phase Winding

Generator neutral grounding practice is discussed in Para 3.6 alongwith stator earth fault protection.

Shaft mounted DC excitation systems are not being used. Excitation systems are discussed in Chapter 10
Volume 1. Static excitation system for large generators (Figure 10.2, Vol. 1) and brushless excitation
system (Figure 10.1, vol. 1) for small generators is being mostly used.

Generating station grid interconnection arrangements are discussed in Chapter 9 Para 9.2.1 & 9.2.2.
Generally unit generator transformer connection (Figure 9.2.1) for large generators and providing generator
breakers and generator bus sharing a transformer for multi unit (Figure9.2.2) for small sized generators are
used.

Induction Generators feeding into the grid up to about 3000 kW unit size have also been used.

118
3.3.3 Possible Faults

There are number and variety of failures to which a generator may be subjected. Several protective systems
are employed, both of the discriminative and non discriminative type. Great care must be exercised in co-
ordinating the systems used and the settings adopted.

Classification of faults

All faults associated with the unit may be classified as either insulation failure or abnormal running
conditions.

An insulation failure will result in either an inter-turn fault, a phase to phase or an earth fault, but most
commonly the latter since most insulation failures eventually bring the winding into direct contact with the
core.

Abnormal Running

The abnormal running conditions in hydro generators to be protected against comprise:-

a. Overloading
b. Loss of excitation
c. Unbalanced loading
d. Lubrication oil failure
e. Failure of prime mover
f. Over/under speed
g. Rotor displacement
h. Excessive vibration

Stator Faults

Break down of winding insulation may result in any of the following types of faults:
(a) Earth faults, (b) Phase faults (c) Inter-turn faults
Other faults originating from defective joints or inadequate or defective end turns or terminals will if
undetected, reach a stage where there is a breakdown of insulation.

A fault to earth is liable to cause arcing to the core which may not only damage the conductor but also
burning and welding of the laminations. To limit this damage it is almost universal practice to connect an
impedance or an earthing resistance between the generator winding neutral and the earth. Practice varies on
the method adopted for earthing and the impedance used. Phase to phase or three phase short circuit are not
limited by the earthing impedance.

Stator core of large hydro generators at Dehar Power Plant (6 x 165MW) of Beas Satluj Link Project
became loose at core joints a few years after commissioning. Stator punching at the location started
vibrating and shifted by 2 to 10 mm resulting in following.

i) Stator earth faults

ii) Excessive rise of stator temperature (hot spots)
iii) Rotor earth fault and excess temperature

Localized hot spots in the stator core can also be produced by improper operation e.g. excessive leading
power factor operation or core fluxing. Hot spots are the result of high eddy current produced from core
flux that finds conducting path across insulation between laminations.

Special Protection required in large size hydro generators is as follows:

i) Rigidity and strength of stator frame is needed to resist deformation under fault conditions and
system disturbances.

119