MicroLink Information Technology College

Introduction to
Formal Language And
Automata

Student Handout

Course Title: Introduction to Formal Language and

Automata
Course Code: CSSE-363
Credit Hr: 3 [ 3 Lecture ]
Instructor: Ephraim Tilahun

March 2020

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Chapter One
Formal Language

Introduction
Theory of Computation
Why we study theory?
 Theory provides concepts and principles that help us understand the general nature of the
discipline.
 The ideas we win discuss have some immediate and important applications.
E.g. digital design, programming language, compiler design etc.
 We use it to convince the reader.
We will look at models that represent features at the core of all computers and their applications. To
model the hardware of a computer, we introduce the notation of automation (plural, automata).
Automation is a construct that processes all the indispensable features of a digital computer.
It accepts inputs, produces outputs, may have some temporarily storage, and can make decisions in
transforming the input into the output.
A language is a system of communication consisting of a set of primitives and rules.
Types of Language
 Natural Language: between humans, rules come after the fact.
 Formal Language: has pre-established rule e.g. Programming Language
Ideally any sentence in any language has to be true syntactically and semantically.
Remark:
 In natural language incorrect syntax can have correct semantic.
 In natural language correct syntax may give nonsense semantic.
Example:
The man drives the car. (Nouns → verb → noun phrase)
The car drives the man.
 In formal Language syntax and semantic should be correct.

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Review of set Theory

Sets
A set is a collection of elements
S = {0, 1, 2}
To indicate x is an element of S xЄS
Example:
S = { 2, 4, 6, , , , , , }
Or S = {i : i>0, i is Even }
S1 U S2 = { x : x Є S1 OR x Є S2 }------------ Union
S1 ∩ S2 = {x: x Є S1 AND x Є S2} ------------- Intersection
S1 – S2 = {x: x Є S1 and x is not Є S2} -------- Difference
S = {x: x Є U, x not Є S } ----------------------- Complementation
S1 U S2 = S1 ∩ S2
Demorgan Laws
S1 ∩ S2 = S1 U S2
Important Expressions
 A set S1 is said to be a subset of S2 if every element of S1 is also an element of S2.
S1 C S2
 If S1 C S but S contains an element not in S1 we say that S1 is a proper subset of S.
S1 C S.
 If S1 and S2 have no common element that is, S1 ∩ S2 = Ǿ then the sets are said to be disjoint
set.
 A set is said to be finite if it contains a finite number of elements: otherwise it is infinite.
 The size of a finite set is the number of elements in it. This is denoted by |S|.
 A given set normally has many subsets. The set of all subsets of a set is said the power set of
S and is denoted by 2S.
 Complete list E.g. S = {a, b, c} finite
 General format for non-complete listable
S = {x: p(x)} Infinite Countable
Uncountable
Z = {, , , , -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 , , , , } Countable Infinite
[0, 10] Uncountable Infinite
Let A and B be sets
Let f: A → B be a function, f is
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a) Said to be onto if Rf = B, i.e. for b Є B

Э aЄA Э f (a) = b
b) Said to be one-to-one if a1 ≠ a2 => f (a1) ≠ f (a2)
c) Said to be bijection if it onto and one-to-one.
Definition:
A set A is countable if A is either finite or there exits f: N → A is bijection
Example: Show that the set Z is countable
Solution:
f: N→Z by
(n – 1) / 2 , if n is Odd
f(n) = (n / 2) , if n is Even
f is bijection
Definition:
Let A be a set. The cardinality of A denoted by |A|, and called its cardinal number.
[For a finite set B, |B| = the number of elements in the set]
If ACB, then |A| < |B|
2A is the power set A. |A| < |2A|

Function and Relation

A function is a rule that assign to elements of one set a unique element of another set. If f denotes a
function then the first set is called the domain of f, and the second set is its range. We write
f: S1→ S2 ((x1, y1), (x2, y2) , , , , , , )
Total function: if the domain of f is all of S1
Partial function: if the domain of f is subset of S1.
Function: if xi occurs at most once
Relation: if xi occurs more than once
Let A1, A2, , , An be sets A relation R on sets Ai , i =1, 2, 3, 4, , , , n is given by
R C A1 x A2 x , , , , , x An
(Relation is a subset of Cartesian product of sets)
If n = 2, R is called binary
Let R be a binary relation on set A (R C A x A)
Let a, b Є A then (a, b) Є R
If (a, b) Є R, then a R b
If (a, b) Є R, then a R b
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Equivalence: a generation of the concept of equality (identity). To indicate that a pair (x, y) is
equivalent:
We write x ≡ y. But it should satisfy.
1) Reflexivity x ≡ x for all x
2) Symmetry if x ≡ y then y ≡ x
3) Transitivity if x ≡ y and y ≡ z then x ≡ z
Example: x mod 3 = y mod 3
Then 2 ≡ 5 and 12 ≡ 0 ≡ 36
Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3}
a) R1 = { (0,0) } Yes, because R1 C AxA
b) R2 = { (0,1), (1,2) } Yes, because R2 C AxA
c) R3 = { (0,0), (1,4) } No because R3 C AxA
d) R4 = { (0,0), (0,2), (1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (2,0), (3,1), (3,3) }
Check for equivalence
Solution:
R1, R2 are not equivalence relation
R4 is equivalence
Let R be an equivalent relation on set A
For a Є A, the collection of elements related to a is called an equivalence class, and denoted by a
or [a].
a ={bЄA|aRb}
Example: Find equivalent classes for R4
0 = {0, 2}
2 = {0,2}
1 = {1, 3}
3 = {1,3}

Let R be an equivalent relation on set A

For a, b Є A , a = b or a ∩ b ≠ ǿ
A = U a , for a Є A

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Mathematical Induction
 Is used to prove assertions: “Pn , a proposition is true for all n Є N
Steps:
1. Basic Step: verify Pb is true for some base value b;
2. Assumption Step: Pk is true for some k>b
3. Inductive Step: Show for k+1, that is, Pk+1 is true.
Example:
Show that Pn: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + , , , , , + n = n(n+1) / 2 is true V n Є N
Proof:
1) basis step: For n = 1, P1 holds
1(1+1) / 2 = 2/2 = 1
2) assumption step: Pk holds for k>1
1 + 2 + 3 , , , , , , k = k(k+1) / 2
3) inductive step: WTS Pk+1 holds
Pk+1: 1 + 2 + 3 + , , , , , , + k + (k+1)
= ((k+1) (k+2)) / 2 ----------------------------------------------------- *
Pk+1: 1 + 2 + 3 + , , , , , , + K+ (k+1) = Pk + (k+1)
= Pk + (k+1)
= k(k+1) / 2 + (k+1) by assumption
= (k(k+1) + 2(k+1)) / 2
= ((k+1) (k+2)) / 2 -----------------------------------------------------------**
* and ** are the same. Pk+1 is true.
Hence, Pn holds for all n Є IN

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Direct Graphs
A direct graph G = (V, E) where V is the set of nodes (Vertices)
E C V x V, set of edges
If (v, e ) Є E, then
v e
(v, e) Є E, then

v e

(v, w) Є E , then a path from v to w is a sequence v,v1, v2, , , , , , w

i.e. (v,v1), (v1,v2), , , , , , , , (vn, w)

v v2 v2 ..... Vn w

Examples:
...
a) V = { V1,V2, V3,V4 } ECVxV

V1 V2 (V2, V1 ) Є E through V2,V4,V1

(V4, V2 ) Є E through V4,V1,V2
(V1, V4 ) Є E through V1,V2,V4

V3 V4

b) Open Path

V1 V2

V5

V3 V4

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TREE
A tree is a directed graph with designed node r, called root and a zero or more sub trees each of whose
roots are connected to r.

r
7
1

3 4

6
5

Let ni be a node of a tree. A path from ni to nk is ni, ni+1, , , , , , nk

(an arc from ni to ni+1 and ni is the parent of ni+1, i = 1, 2, , , , , ,)
(A path from r to node 3 is r, 2,3 )
Leaf node: a node without a child. Leaf nodes don’t have children.
Nodes 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 in the above tree are leaf nodes.
Depth: the longest path from the root to the leaf (ni)

String
Let Σ be a finite set called an alphabet. A String is a sequence of symbols from Σ.
Example:
Σ = {0, 1}
S1 = 0
S2 = 00
S3 = 0110
S4 = λ (Empty String)
Let S be a string over Σ, then the length of S, denoted by |S| = number of symbols in S.
Consider the above example
|S1| =1, |S2| = 2, |S3| = 4, and |S4| = 0
Given Σ, Σ * the set of strings of finite length
Let Σ = {0, 1}
Σ * = { λ, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, , , , , , , , }
Let Σ = {a}
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Σ * = {λ, a, aa, aaa, , , , , , , , , , , } = {an > 0}

Recursive definition of Σ*
i) λ Є Σ *
ii) ax Є Σ* , a Є Σ , x Є Σ*
Σ0 - set of springs of zero length
Σ1 - set of strings of length one
Σ2 - set of strings of length two
Σi - set of strings of length i, i > 0
*
Σ - set of strings of length i > 0

Σ+ - set of strings of length i > 1

Let S1 and S2 be strings over Σ. then S1S2 is the concatenation of S1 and S2

Let S1 = a1a2, , , , , , ,an, ai Є Σ
S2 = b1b2, , , , , , ,bm, bi Є Σ
S1S2 = a1a2, , , , , , , anb1b2 , , , , , , , bm
S2S1 = b1b2 , , , , , , bma1a2 , , , , , , an
[Concatenation is not cumulative]
Let Σ = {0,1}
L1 = { λ } C Σ*
L2 = ǿ C Σ*
L3 = {0, 1} C Σ*
L4 = { λ, 01100, 000011} C Σ*
Such sets are called Language. In general a language L C Σ* over some Σ

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Let L1, L2 be two languages over some Σ.

The concatenation of L1L2 = { xy | x Є L1, and y Є L2}
L0 = {λ}
L2 = LL
L3 = LL2
L4 = LL3
Li = LLi -1
Example:
Let Σ = {a}
L0 = {λ}
L1 = {a} ,
L2 = LL1 = {a2}
L3 = LL2 = {a3}
L* = {λ, a, a2, a3, , , , , , , , }

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