Vector Analysis

PYL100: EM Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Semester II, 2019-2020

Prof. Rohit Narula1

1 Department of Physics

The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

January 20, 2020

Outline

Introduction to Electromagnetism

Vector Algebra

Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

Differential Calculus

Integral Calculus

Curvilinear Coordinates

The Dirac Delta Function

The Theory of Vector Fields

References

▶ Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

▶ Chapter I, 1., Vector Analysis
▶ Wolfram Mathematica (optional)
Applications of Electromagnetism
What is Electromagnetism?

▶ Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that describes the

interaction between charged particles.
▶ Charges come in only two flavors: positive (+), and negative
(−).
▶ By interaction we mean the (electromagnetic) forces which
the charges exert on each other.
▶ The EM force is ’carried/mediated’ by electromagnetic fields
composed of the electric fields (E) and magnetic fields (B).
Fields

▶ Simplified: A field is a physical quantity, represented by a

number, or a vector that has a value for each point in
space-time, i.e., (x, y, z, t).
▶ e.g., pressure (scalar field)
▶ e.g., wind velocity (as seen on a weather report) (vector field)
▶ e.g., the E and B fields of electromagnetism. (vector fields)
▶ More precisely: A field is a physical quantity, represented by
a tensor1 (e.g., a vector is a rank-1 tensor), that has a value
for each point in space-time, i.e., (x, y, z, t).
▶ e.g., stress tensor (rank-2 tensor field)

1
def: a tensor is an algebraic object (e.g., vector or scalar or other tensors)
that describes a linear mapping from one set of algebraic objects to another.
How are Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced?

▶ A stationary charged particle: produces a static electric

field.
▶ A steady current in a wire (also) produces a static magnetic
field.
▶ An accelerating charged particle produces an
electromagnetic (EM) wave/radiation, i.e., a synchronized
oscillation of electric and magnetic fields which have the
property that they travel through empty space/vacuum at the
speed of light c. (e.g., light, X-rays)
The Theoretical Basis of Classical Electromagnetism
▶ Maxwell’s equations in the SI unit convention, constitute a
set of 4 coupled, first-order, partial differential equations for
both [E (D)] and [B (H)].
▶
∇·D = ρf , (Gauss’ law of electricity)
∇·B = 0, (Gauss’ law of magnetism)
∂B
−∇ × E = , (Faraday’s law of induction)
∂t
∂D
∇ × H = Jf + , (Ampere’s law)
∂t
where ρf is the free charge density and, Jf is the free current
density.
▶ …which combined with the Lorentz force law

F = qE + q(v × B)
, form the basis of classical electromagnetism, and optics.
Vectors vs. Scalars

Figure: [Image from kullabs.com]

▶ Vector (noun): a quantity having a direction as well as a

magnitude.
▶ e.g., velocity, acceleration, force and momentum.
▶ Scalar (noun): a quantity that has a magnitude, but no
direction.
▶ e.g., mass, charge, density, and temperature.
▶ Vectors have magnitude, and direction, but not location.
▶ Typographically, vectors shall be represented by a bold face,
e.g., A.
Vector Operations

▶ We will encounter four kinds of vector operations:

▶ one addition (A + B),
▶ and three kinds of ’multiplication’.
▶ Multiplication by a scalar (kA),
▶ Dot product of two vectors (A · B),
▶ Cross product of two vectors (A × B).
Vector Addition

▶ For graphically representing vector addition, recall the triangle

rule (from high school).
▶ Vector addition is commutative, i.e.,

A+B=B+A

▶ Vector addition is also associative, i.e.,

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Multiplication by a scalar

▶ Multiplication of a vector by a positive scalar a multiplies the

magnitude but leaves the direction unchanged.
▶ Scalar multiplication is distributive, i.e.,

a(A + B) = aA + bB
Dot Product of Two Vectors

▶ The dot product of two vectors is defined (≡) by,

A · B ≡| A || B | cos θ
where θ is the angle they form when placed tail-to-tail.
▶ A · B yields a scalar, hence the alternative name scalar
product.
▶ The dot product is commutative, i.e.,

A·B=B·A

▶ The dot product is distributive, i.e.,

A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C
Dot product of two vectors
▶ Given vectors in component form, i.e.,
∑
A = a1 x̂1 + a2 x̂2 + a3 x̂3 + . . . = ai x̂i
i
∑
B = b1 x̂1 + b2 x̂2 + b3 x̂3 + . . . = bi x̂i
i

▶ Component-wise we can define the dot product as,

∑
A · B ≡ a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 + a4 b4 + . . . ≡ ai bi
i

▶ Also note that,

A · A =| A |2 = A2

▶ and,
0·A=0
Orthogonality and Projections
▶ Two vectors A and B are orthogonal2 if and only if,

A·B=0

▶ The scalar projection3 of B onto A is defined as,

B·A
PB,A =
A
▶ The vector projection of B onto A is defined as,

B·A
PB,A = A
A2
2
The term perpendicular describes a property of two vectors, orthogonal is
a related property of any collection of vectors (i.e., a collection of vectors is
orthogonal if and only if they are pairwise perpendicular), and normal is a
relation between a vector and a point of a smooth surface.
3
Is PA,B = PB,A ?
Cross Product of Two Vectors

▶ The cross product of two vectors is defined by,

A × B ≡| A || B | sin θ n̂
where θ is the angle they form when placed tail-to-tail, and n̂
is a unit vector4 pointing ⊥ to the plane of A and B.
▶ The correct orientation of n̂ is determined by the right-hand
rule, e.g., A × B above points into the page.
4
a hatted n̂ denotes a unit vector
Cross Product of Two Vectors
▶ A × B is itself a vector (hence the alternative name vector
product).
▶ The cross product is distributive,

A × (B + C) = (A × B) + (A × C)

▶ But the cross product is not commutative,

B × A ̸= A × B
and instead,
B × A = −(A × B)

▶ Geometrically, | A × B | is the area of the parallelogram

generated by A and B.
▶ Two parallel/anti-parallel vectors yield a zero cross product,
e.g., A × A = 0
Cross Product of Two Vectors

▶ Given component-wise 3d vectors we can conveniently

calculate the cross product via a determinant5 .

x̂1 x̂2 x̂3

A × B = A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B3
▶ Expand the above determinant and check that it matches
with the expression 13, Chapter I of [IEDJ].
▶ The vector A × B is orthogonal to both A and B.
▶ Two non-zero vectors A and B are parallel/anti-parallel if and
only if
A×B=0

5
You must be able to calculate determinants for both 3 × 3, and 2 × 2
matrices.
Scalar Triple Product

▶ The scalar triple product between vectors A, B and C is

given by
A · (B × C)

▶ Geometrically, A · (B × C) is the volume of the parellopiped

generated by A, B and C.
▶ Cyclic order preserves sign, i.e.,

A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B)
Scalar Triple Product
▶ While non-cyclic permutations reverse sign, i.e.,

A · (C × B) = B · (A × C) = C · (B × A) = −A · (B × C)

▶ In component form, the scalar triple product evaluates to a

determinant,

A1 A2 A3
A · (B × C) = B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3
▶ The dot and cross can be interchanged (keeping the same
cyclic order),

A · (B × C) = (A × B) · C

▶ Problem: What’s wrong with (A · B) × C?

Vector Triple Product
▶ The vector triple product between vectors A, B and C is
given by
A × (B × C)
which geometrically amounts to?
▶ …”a vector in the plane spanned by B and C, which is also
perpendicular to A”.
▶ It can be simplified via the BAC-CAB identity,
A × (B × C) ≡ B(A · C) − C(A · B)

▶ Let’s regroup the brackets. Since cross-products are not

associative, i.e.,
(A × B) × C̸=A × (B × C)
it turns out that this regrouping,
(A × B) × C = −A(B · C) + B(A · C)
is an entirely different vector6 !
6
Unlike the scalar triple product A · (B × C) where at worst you’ll be off by
a sign.
The Position Vector

▶ The location of a point in three dimensions can be described

by listing its Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z)
▶ The vector to that point from the origin is called the position
vector,
r ≡ xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ

▶ Its magnitude, √
r= x2 + y2 + z2
is simply the distance from the origin O.
The Position Vector

▶ The unit vector

r
r̂ =
r
points radially outward.
▶ The infinitesimal displacement vector7 from (x,y,z) to
(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz) is,

dl = dxx̂ + dyŷ + dzẑ

7
dl does not point in any particular direction since dx ̸= dy ̸= dz, in general.
The Separation Vector s

▶ In electrodynamics, one frequently encounters problems

involving two points, typically, a source point, r′ , where an
electric charge is located, and a field point, r, at which you
are calculating the electric or magnetic field.
▶ The separation vector s from the source point to the field
point is then,

s ≡ r − r′ = (x − x′ )x̂ + (y − y′ )ŷ + (y − y′ )ŷ

Ordinary Derivative

Figure: www.themathpage.com

▶ Given a function f(x), the ordinary derivative df/dx represents

the rate of change of f w.r.t x.
▶ Alternatively, it tells us how rapidly f varies when we change x
by an infinitesimal (tiny) fraction dx.
▶ Geometrically, it gives us the slope of the graph of f vs. x.
The Partial Derivative

Figure: www.khanacademy.com

▶ The partial derivative of a function of several variables is its

derivative with respect to only one of those variables, with the
others held constant (as opposed to the total derivative, in
which all variables are allowed to vary).
▶ Q: Given f(x, y) = x2 y3 , compute ∂y
∂f df
, and dy .
▶ Ans: ∂f
∂y = 3x2 y2 and df
dy = 3x2 y2 + 2xy3 dx
dy
The Del ∇ Operator [END OF LEC. 1]
▶ The del operator is defined as,

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ≡ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
▶ Note, ∇ is not a vector! Instead, it’s an operator, which in
the grad case, maps a differentiable scalar function f to a
vector function ∇f.
▶ Nor does it multiply what appears on the right of it. (∇T ??)
▶ Instead, it’s a vector operator, or an instruction to act on
whatever appears to its right.
▶ It’s really just (very) clever notation8 and acts in 3 ways:
▶ On a scalar function: ∇T (gradient)
▶ On a vector function v, via the dot product: ∇ · v (divergence)
▶ On a vector function v, via the cross product: ∇ × v (curl)

8
So clever that it allows us to use ∇ ”like a vector”, but being an operator
it alone doesn’t have a meaning!
The Gradient

▶ Given a scalar function, say T(x, y, z), the change in the

quantity T when x, y, z are varied infinitesimally i.e., by
(dx, dy, dz)9 is given by the total differential,

∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = ( )dx + ( )dy + ( )dz ≡ (∇T) · (dl)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where
∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T ≡ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
is, by definition, the gradient of T, and is evidently a
vector function.
▶ Using then the definition of the dot product we can of course
also write,
(∇T) · (dl) ≡| ∇T || dl | cos θ

9
What if the changes in x, y, z were larger (i.e., not infinitesimal)?
The Gradient and the Directional Derivative
▶ Loosely-speaking we may think of the gradient as ”a
multi-variable generalization of the derivative”.
▶ To make this concrete, consider the definition for the
directional derivative of a function f(x, y, z, . . .) along the
unit vector û as,
f(a + hû) − f(a)
Dû f(a) ≡ lim = ∇f(a) · û
h→0 h | {z }
the gradient of f at a
which is the rate of change of f as x → a in the direction û.
▶ The directional derivative can be rewritten as,

Dû f(a) = ∇f(a) · û = |∇f(a)| cos θ

so the largest the Dû f(a) can be is when θ = 0, i.e., when û is
in the direction of the gradient ∇f(a).
▶ Thus the gradient ∇f(a) points in the direction of the
greatest increase of f, i.e., the direction of steepest ascent.
Properties of the Gradient

▶ The gradient ∇T, or alternatively, |∇T| ∇T

at an arbitrary
location points in the direction of maximum increase of the
function T around that particular location/point.
▶ The magnitude | ∇T | gives the slope (rate of increase) along
this maximal direction.
▶ When the gradient vanishes, i.e., ∇T = 0 at (xi , yi , zi ) then
the entire set, {(xi , yi , zi )} represent the stationary points of
the function T(x, y, z).
▶ These stationary points/extrema are either:
▶ local maxima
▶ local minima
▶ saddle points
▶ If you want to locate the extrema(s) of a scalar function of
three (or more) variables, simply set its gradient to zero.
Exercise: The Gradient Of a Hill

▶ First, assume a very simple hill of elevation,

h(x, y) = −x2 − y2 + 100

having a height 100 m. What does the gradient and the
contour lines look like?
▶ Second, draw a more arbitrary, realistic hill using contour lines
(topological map).
▶ Q: What does the gradient ∇h(x, y) look like?
The Gradient Of a Hill

▶ On a contour/topological map, the gradient points in a

direction which minimizes the distance between adjacent
contour lines. Thus the gradient is always ⊥ to a contour line.
▶ Do all the gradient vectors point exactly toward the global
peak?
▶ Ans: No, they do not! The gradient ∇h(x, y) is a local
quantity, and only gives the magnitude and the direction of
maximum increase around the given point (i.e., locally) in
question, say (xi , yi ).
▶ Dwell on the mnemonic: ”water always flows in the direction
opposite the direction of the gradient.”
The Divergence

▶ The divergence of a vector function v in 3d-space is defined

as:
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
∇·v≡ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

▶ The divergence ∇ · v is itself a scalar function.

▶ Is ∇ · v defined for each point, or do we have one value per v?
The Divergence

▶ The diagrams above plot a vector field10 with the (scaled)

magnitude and direction of the vector valued function v at
selected points/grid in Cartesian space.
▶ Geometrically, the divergence measures how much the vector
v spreads out (diverges) from the point in question.
10
In vector calculus, a vector field is an assignment of a vector to each point
in a subset (grid point)) of space.
An Intuitive Picture of Divergence

▶ Consider a liquid-flow analogy. If you drop some sawdust11

at a particular location on the surface and they seem to
spread out(in), as opposed to staying stationary, or simply
translate, we have location of positive(negative) divergence.
▶ A point of positive divergence is a source, or “faucet”; a
point of negative divergence is a sink, or “drain.”
11
Why sawdust?
The Divergence: be careful visualizing!

▶ One might be lulled into thinking that Fig.(a) represents the

E due to a single, static charge. However, it cannot possibly
represent v = k rr̂2 , since the radial vectors above are getting
longer!
▶ Instead, say if Fig.(a) represents v = r r̂, then it has a
constant divergence12 everywhere, i.e., ∇ · v = 3.
▶ You might think that the vector function given by Fig.(c) has
a zero divergence everywhere.
▶ But that would be incorrect, since the arrows/vectors, starting
from the bottom are getting longer.
12
In spherical coordinates ∇ · v = 1 ∂
r2 ∂r
(r2 vr ) + ...
The Curl

▶ The curl of a vector function v is defined as,

x̂ ŷ ẑ
∇×v= ∂
∂x
∂
∂y
∂
∂z (vector function)
vx vy vz
▶ Geometrically, it measures of how much v swirls around the
point in question.
▶ Intuitively, imagine standing at the edge of a pond. Float a
small and light paddlewheel; if it starts to rotate at that
location, then you’ve placed it at a point of non-zero curl.
The Curl

▶ Thus, the three functions in the figures shown for divergence

all have zero curl.
The Curl

▶ Whereas the functions above have a substantial curl, pointing

in the ẑ direction, as the natural right-hand rule would
suggest.
Addition and Scalar Multiplication Rules

▶ Just like with ordinary calculus, certain mathematical rules

hold for vector derivatives,

▶ The above rules are fortunately quite intuitive!

Product Rules
▶ While the product rules get a little more complicated…13

13
Proving these rules once is advised.
Second Derivatives

▶ By applying ∇ twice, we can construct five species of second

derivatives
(1) The Divergence of a Gradient aka The Laplacian

▶ When given a scalar function T, the Laplacian is defined as,

2 ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T

∇
|{z}T ≡ ∇ · (∇T) = + 2 + 2
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
just shorthand

▶ Note, the Laplacian of a scalar function T is a scalar function!

▶ On the other hand, given a vector function v, the Laplacian
is defined as,

∇2 v
|{z} ≡ (∇2 vx )x̂ + (∇2 vy )ŷ + (∇2 vz )ẑ
just shorthand

̸≡ ∇ · (∇v)
and is a vector function.
(2) The curl of a gradient

…is always zero. i.e.,14

∇ × (∇T) = 0

14
Do the proof!
(3) Gradient of a Divergence

∇(∇ · v)
…doesn’t show up much in the study of electromagnetism so we
won’t bother about it.
(4) The divergence of a curl

…is also always zero, i.e.,15

∇ · (∇ × v) = 0

15
Do the proof!
(5) The curl of a curl

∇ × (∇ × v) = ∇(∇ · v) − ∇2 v
is just the gradient of a divergence minus the Laplacian, or
(3) − (1).
Line Integrals

▶ A line integral is an expression of the form

∫ b
v ·
|{z} dl
a
dot product
where v is a vector function, and dl is the infinitesimal
displacement vector.
▶ The integral must be carried out along a prescribed path P
from point a to point b.
Line Integrals

▶ If the path P is closed loop (i.e., a = b) we put a circle

around the integral sign as,
I
v · dl ̸= 0
P
where it’s important to note that closed line integrals don’t
have to be zero, in general!
A Line Integral Example

Problem: Calculate the line integral for the vector function

v = y2 x̂ + 2x(y + 1)ŷ
from the point a = (1, 1, 0) to b = (2, 2, 0), along the paths (1)
and (2) in the above figure.
How about the closed loop that goes from a to b along (1) and
returns to a along (2)?
A Line Integral Example: Along path (1)

▶ Along the horizontal segment of (1) (only x varies) dy = dz

= 0, so
∫ ∫ 2
dl = dxx̂, y = 1, v · dl = y2 dx, v · dl = (1)2 dx = 1
1
A Line Integral Example: Along path (1)

▶ For the vertical segment of (1) (only y varies) dx = dz = 0,

so
∫ ∫ 2
dl = dyŷ, x = 2, v·dl = 2x(y+1)dy, v·dl = 4 (y+1)dy = 10
1

▶ Thus, summing the horizontal and vertical parts of (1) we get,

∫
v · dl = 1 + 10 = 11
(1)
A Line Integral Example: Along path (2)

▶ For path (2), x = y ⇒ dx = dy16 and, dz = 0

dl = dxx̂ + dyŷ, v · dl = x2 dx + 2x(x + 1)dx = (3x2 + 2x)dx,

, and finally, ∫
v · dl = 10
(2)

16
This step is crucial for a general path where variables are interdependent.
A Line Integral Example: a → (1) → (2) → a

▶ For the circuitous path a → (1) → (2) → a, we simply sum

the contributions of paths (1) and (2) and get,
I
v · dl = 11 − 10 = 1
Surface/Double and Flux Integrals

▶ A surface/double integral is an expression of the form

∫
f da
S

where f is a scalar function, da is an infinitesimal patch of area over

a prescribed surface S.
▶ However, the flux17 of a vector function v through S is defined as,
∫
v |{z} · da
S
dot product

17
in analogy with liquid flow, i.e., if v describes the flow a mass of liquid per
unit area per unit time.
Flux Integrals

▶ Since there are two opposite directions for the surface normal,
we choose the direction that points radially outward with the
origin as a reference point.
▶ If the surface is closed18 we write,
I
v · da ̸= 0
S

18
A closed surface in 3 − d is exemplified by a balloon.
Calculating Fluxes Numerically
▶ Let the vector function v(x, y) = xy2 ẑ, and S be a square
region of sides unity, with its south-west corner located at the
origin.
▶ Divide the square region into:
▶ 4 subsquares of length dxi = 0.25 and breath dyi = 0.25
▶ 16 subsquares of length dxi = 0.0625 and breath dyi = 0.0625
▶ 64 subsquares of length dxi = 0.015625 and breath
dyi = 0.015625 …
and calculate the value v(xi , yi ) at the center (xi , yi ) of each of
the subsquares i.
▶ The area element da = dxi dyi x̂.
∑
▶ The sum19 i v(xi , yi )dxi dyi is the required answer!
▶ As you increase the number of subsquares, the value obtained
from the sum above converges to the exact value:
∫
1
v · da =
S 6
19
A practical way to do this is to write a small computer program.
A Flux Example

Problem: Calculate the flux

v = 2xzx̂ + (x + 2)ŷ + y(z2 − 3)ẑ

over five sides (excluding the bottom).
A Flux Example: Surface 1

Note, that for surface (i) variables x and y are independent of each
other20 , and the integrals for each can be carried out
independently.
20
Why?
A Flux Example: Surface 2
A Flux Example: Surface 3
A Flux Example: Surface 4
A Flux Example: Surface 5
A Flux Example: Total

▶ Note that the surface S over which the flux is calculated

need not be closed.
Evaluating a Surface Integral over a triangular S

▶ Problem: Evaluate ∫∫
xy dxdy
S
over the triangular region with ⊥ sides of unity, as above.
▶ Our strategy is to:
1. Calculate T(x, y = const.) × the area of each infinitesimally
short horizontal strip of height dy [INNER SUM:
x : 0 → (1 − y)], and then,
2. Sum these horizontal strips up one by one [OUTER SUM:
y : 0 → 1].
Evaluating the Surface Integral over a triangular S

1. Thus, keeping y constant, let’s focus now on the [INNER

SUM: x : 0 → (1 − y)], i.e.,
∫ 1−y
y(1 − y)2
H(y) = xy dx =
x=0 |{z} 2
y=const.
where the (1 − y) limit accounts for the fact that the length
of these strips varies.
2. Finally, we perform the [OUTER SUM: y : 0 → 1] and
∫ 1 ∫ 1
y(1 − y)2 1
H(y) dy = dy =
y=0 y=0 2 24
∫
3. HW: Find S xy dxdy by instead summing vertical strips.
Evaluating the Surface Integral for a Horizontally-Simple
Region
optional

▶ A horizontally-simple region is a region where every

horizontal line drawn inside it shares the same left-function
g1 (y) and right-function g2 (y).
▶ It’s evaluated as
 
∫∫ ∫ y=d ∫ g2 (y)
 
f(x, y)dA =  f(x, y) dx dy
S y=c x=g1 (y) | {z }
y=const

▶ You should be able to guess the math for surface integrals

over vertically-simple regions.
Evaluating the Flux for a surface described by z = g(x, y)
optional

▶ When the surface S can be described by the equation

z = g(x, y)
the flux of the vector function F(x, y, z) through S is given by
∫ ∫∫
∂g ∂g
F · dS = F · (− x̂ − ŷ + 1ẑ) dxdy
S A ∂x ∂y
where the region A is the projection of S on the (x, y)-plane.
▶ If you’re interested in learning more about surface
integrals/fluxes, you’re advised to refer to a textbook on
analytical geometry.
Evaluating the Flux for a surface described by z = g(x, y)
optional

▶ Problem: Calculate the flux of F = xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ over the surface
given by the planar region S : x + y + z = 1 above. The projection
of S along the (x, y)−plane is the shaded region A.
▶ Therefore, z = g(x, y) = 1 − x − y, and ∂g ∂x = −1, ∂y = −1
∂g

∫ ∫∫
F · dS = (xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ) · (x̂ + ŷ + ẑ) dA
S
∫ ∫A
= (x + y + z)dxdy (x + y + z = 1 : S)
A
1
=
2
Volume Integrals
▶ Given a scalar function T, volume integrals are expressed as,
∫
Tdτ
T
and dτ is an infinitesimal volume element.
▶ In Cartesian coordinates,21

dτ = dxdydz

▶ For a vector function v, on the other hand, the associated

volume integral is,
∫ ∫
vdτ = (vx x̂ + vy ŷ + vz ẑ)dτ
∫ ∫ ∫
= x̂ vx dτ + ŷ vy dτ + ẑ vz dτ

21
Radial and cylindrical coordinates are other candidates.
A Volume Integral Example

▶ Problem: Calculate the volume integral of T = xyz2 .

▶ It’s easy to see that z does not depend on either x or y, and
ranges from 0 to 3.
▶ This means that the integral over z can be factored out.
A Volume Integral Example

∫ ∫ 3 ∫∫
2 2
xyz dτ = z dz xy dxdy
0 | {z }
done earlier!
∫ 1 [∫ 1−y ]
=9 y xdx dy
y=0 x=0
∫ 1
9 3
= y(1 − y)2 dy =
2 0 8
Volume Integrals Over More General Regions
optional

▶ Ler R be a solid region22 bounded below and above by the

functions g1 (x, y) and g2 (x, y), respectively such that
g1 (x, y) ≤ z ≤ g2 (x, y)

▶ The region D is the projection of R onto the xy-plane. The

triple integral is then given by
 
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ g2 (x,y) ∫∫
 
f(x, y, z)dV =  f(x, y, z) dz dA = h(x, y) dA
R D z=g1 (x,y) | {z } D
x,y=const
which is a double-integral over the region D in the (x, y)-plane.
22
Such a solid region is known as a ”z-simple” solid.
Volume Integrals Over General Regions [END OF LEC. 2]
optional

▶ Problem: Evaluate ∫
(x + 2y)dV
R
where R is the tetrahedral region bounded by the planes
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and x + y + z = 2.
▶ We can rewrite the equation of the plane x + y + z = 2 as
z = 2 − x − y. Note that 0 ≤ z ≤ 2 − x − y. Hence, we have
 
∫ ∫ ∫ 2−x−y ∫∫
  2
 (x + 2y) dz dA = (x+2y)(2−x−y) dA =
D 0 | {z } D 3
x,y=const
The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients

▶ Given a scalar function T(x, y, z), by changing x, y and z

infinitesimally, i.e., by dx, dy and dz, the variation in T is,

dT = (∇T) · dl

▶ If we keep advancing from a to b along units of dli we can

accumulate the total change in the scalar function T,
∫ b
(∇T) · dl = T(b) − T(a)
a
also known as the fundamental theorem for gradients23 .
23
There is also a direct proof using the integral in the LHS above.
The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients

▶ Remarkably, the RHS, i.e., T(b) − T(a) makes no reference to

the actual path taken.
∫
▶ It implies that, ab (∇T) · dl is independent of the path taken
from a to b.24
▶ It also implies that,
I
(∇T) · dl = 0

24
In practice, even though the integral is independent of the path, we must
pick a specific (if convenient) route in order to evaluate it explicitly.
The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences
▶ The fundamental theorem for divergences states that:
∫ I
(∇ · v)dτ = v · da
V S

▶ It is alternatively known as, Gauss’ theorem, Green’s

theorem, or simply the divergence theorem.
▶ Physical Analogy: Imagine we are interested in measuring
the flux (RHS) of an incompressible fluid through a closed
area S.
▶ The divergence theorem states that instead of measuring the
flux directly, we could equivalently, sum up all the (liquid)
sources inside the volume V enclosed by the surface S.
▶ This works because the divergence is a measure of the
spreading out of vectors from a point, and regions of high
diverence can be taken to act like a source, or faucet for the
liquid analogy.
The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences

▶ Q: Verify the divergence theorem for v = 2xx̂ + y2 ŷ + z2 ẑ for

the sphere of radius unity. [Ans: LHS = RHS = 8π 3 ]
The Fundamental Theorem for Curls

▶ Also known as Stoke’s theorem states that,

∫ I
(∇ × v) · da = v · dl
S P

▶ The integral of a curl (of a vector function) over a surface S

is equal to the value of the function integrated over the
boundary P) enclosing that surface.
▶ Sticking with the liquid analogy, since the curl measures the
twist of v, if we are interested in the total swirl, we can
equivalently just measure how much the flow v follows the
closed boundary P enclosing the surface S.
▶ As earlier, by convention we select the orientation of da
pointing outward, and the sense of the line dl to be
The Fundamental Theorem for Curls

∫
▶ As a consequence of the theorem, S (∇ × v) · da depends
only on the boundary line P, but not on the particular surface
S used, as long as it is circumscribed by P.
▶ Think of an intact soap bubble across a fixed loop. It doesn’t
matter whether the bubble is convex, concave, or
combinations thereof, as long as the loop circumscribing it is
fixed.
▶ As a consequence we may deform S for mathematical
convenience as long as it satisfies the boundary P.
H
▶ S (∇ × v) · da = 0 for any closed surface, since the boundary
line, like the mouth of a balloon, shrinks down to a point.
▶ HW: Do example 1.11 of [IEDJ].
Spherical Coordinates

▶ An alternative to using the usual Cartesian coordinates

described by (x, y, z) is to use spherical coordinates
described by (r, θ, ϕ) where,
▶ r is the distance from the origin (the magnitude of the position
vector r)
▶ θ (the angle down from the z axis) is called the polar angle
▶ ϕ (the angle around from the x axis) is the azimuthal angle.
Spherical Coordinates

▶ From the above figure we observe that,

x = r sin θ cos ϕ
y = r sin θ sin ϕ
z = r cos θ
▶ A general vector A can be represented in spherical coordinates
as,
A = Ar r̂ + Aθ θ̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂
where r̂, θ̂, and ϕ̂ form an orthogonal basis set.
Spherical Coordinates

▶ In terms of Cartesian unit vectors we can write,25 ,

r̂ = sin θ cos ϕx̂ + sin θ sin ϕŷ + cos θẑ

θ̂ = cos θ cos ϕx̂ + cos θ sin ϕŷ − sin θẑ
ϕ̂ = − sin ϕx̂ + cos ϕŷ
25
Do the proof.
The volume element in spherical coordinates

▶ An infinitesimal displacement in the r̂ direction is simply dr,

and thus,
dlr = dr

▶ An infinitesimal element of length in the θ̂ direction is,

dlθ = rdθ

▶ An infinitesimal element of length in the ϕ̂ direction is,

dlϕ = r sin θdϕ

The volume element in spherical coordinates

▶ Thus the general infinitesimal displacement dl is,

dl = drr̂ + rdθθ̂ + r sin θdϕϕ̂

▶ The infinitesimal volume element dτ , in spherical

coordinates, is the product of the three infinitesimal
displacements:

dτ = dlr dlθ dlϕ = r2 sin θdrdθdϕ

The surface element in spherical coordinates

▶ Suppose you’re integrating over the surface of a sphere of

radius r, here,

da1 = dlθ dlϕ r̂ = r2 sin θdθdϕr̂

▶ On the other hand, if the surface lies in the xy plane, as

above26
da2 = dlr dlϕ θ̂ = rdr dϕ θ̂

▶ and so on…
26
What happened to the sin θ term in the RHS of dlϕ = r sin θdϕ?
More Formulae for Spherical Coordinates

27
27
The above formulae will be provided, if required, during the exam, and
need’nt be memorized.
Cylindrical Coordinates

▶ Do as HW.
Need for the Dirac Delta Function
▶ Given a body of mass M located at r0 , we may express it in
terms of its mass density ρ(r) as,
∫
M= ρ(r)dτ
V

▶ But what does the mass density of a point mass located at r0

look like?
▶ It can be unequal to zero only at a single point, i.e.,

ρ(r) = 0 ∀r ̸= r0

▶ The volume integral, however,

∫
ρ(r)dτ = M (finite)
V
is finite provided r0 lies within the volume V.
Need for the Dirac Delta Function

▶ Since there was no function that encoded such a property,

Paul A. M. Dirac invented one, writing ρ(r) as,

ρ(r) = M × δ(r − r0 )
, and requiring that,
∫ {
1 if r0 ∈ V
δ(r − r0 )dτ =
V 0 otherwise
δ(r − r0 ) = 0 ∀r ̸= r0
The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function

▶ The one-dimensional Dirac delta function28 , δ(x − a), can be

pictured as an infinitely high, but infinitesimally narrow
“spike,” with area 1, located at x = a, i.e.,
{
0 x ̸= a
δ(x − a) ≡
∞ x=a
and, ∫ ∞
δ(x − a)dx = 1
−∞
28
If x has units of length, what’s the unit of δ(x)?
Properties of the One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function

▶ Technically, δ(x) is not a function at all, since its value is

not finite at x = 0.
▶ It’s even, i.e., δ(x) = δ(−x).
▶ An important characteristic of the Dirac delta function is its
sifting property29 ,
∫ ∞ ∫ ∞
f(x)δ(x − x0 )dx = f(x0 ) δ(x − x0 )dx = f(x0 )
−∞ −∞
where, loosely speaking, the delta function picks out the value
of f(x) at x = x0 , i.e., f(x0 ).
▶ Another curious property of the Dirac delta function is,

1
δ(kx) =
δ(x)
|k|
where k is any (non-zero) constant

29
Prove the sifting property!
The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function

▶ If f(x) is differentiable,
∫ ∞
f(x)δ ′ (x − x0 )dx = −f′ (x0 )
−∞

▶ The δ(x) may also be seen as the derivative of the Heaviside

step function30 ,
d
δ(x − a) = Θ(x − a)
dx

30
This property might be invoked while discussing square potenial barriers in
the QM part of this course.
The Three-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function [END OF
LEC. 3]

▶ In three dimensions,

δ 3 (r) ≡ δ(x)δ(y)δ(z)
| {z }
shorthand
and, ∫
δ 3 (r)dτ ≡ 1
all space

▶ Also, ∫
f(r)δ 3 (r − r0 )dτ = f(r0 )
all space
Divergence of r̂/r2

▶ Consider the vector function31 ,

1
v= r̂
r2
▶ From the figure, evidently v has a LARGE positive divergence
at the center,
▶ …and yet…(do the math)
▶
1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ · v = 2 (r2 vr ) = 2 (1) = 0 everywhere!?
r ∂r r ∂r
which is certainly not what we were expecting!
31 1
Which is eerily reminiscent of E(r) = 4πϵ0 r2
r̂, the electric field due to a
single, static point charge.
Divergence of r̂/r2

▶ However, when we consider the divergence theorem, i.e.,

∫ I
(∇ · v)dτ = v · da
V S
the RHS is…
▶ …, I ∫ ( )
1
v · da = r̂ · (r2 sin θdθdϕr̂) = 4π
S r2
Divergence of r̂/r2

▶ But we’d just (albeit näively) found that the LHS, i.e.,
∫
V (∇ · v)dτ
∫
= 0, which contradicts the divergence theorem!
▶ However, V (∇ · v)dτ = 0 is incorrect –the source of the
problem being the point r = 0, where v = ∞, i.e., it BLOWS
UP.
▶ Indeed, ∇ · v is actually zero everywhere except the origin.32

32
Beware! The intuition of observing the spreading of sawdust at any of the
non-central points seems to suggest a non-zero diverence, at least to my eye.
Divergence of r̂/r2

▶ We resolve this paradox by realizing that the volume integral

of ∇ · (r̂/r2 ) must yield a constant 4π.
▶ How do we know?
▶ Well, the RHS of the divergence theorem just ”told us”.
▶ Thus, we can write using the definition of the Dirac delta
function,
∇ · (r̂/r2 ) = 4πδ 3 (r)

▶ Alternatively, 4π
1
∇ · (r̂/r2 ) is a concrete representation of the
Dirac delta function δ(r).
The Scalar Potential V
▶ When ∇ × E = 0 everywhere33 , Stokes’ theorem tells us
that, I
E · dl = 0

▶ On the other hand, the fundamental theorem of gradients

allows us to write, I
−∇V · dl = 0

▶ Thus, E can be written as the gradient of a scalar potential

V,
E = −∇(V+const.)
34

▶ The potential is not unique, i.e., any constant can be added

to V without affecting its gradient, i.e., the (negative) electric
field −E.
33
∇ × E = 0 is guaranteed only in the electrostatic regime.
34
The negative sign is purely a matter of convention.
Curl-less (or “irrotational”) fields virr

▶ The condition ∇ × E = 0 everywhere is equivalent to,

∫b
▶ E · dl is independent of path, for any given end points, a
a
consequence
H of the fundamental theorem of gradients.
▶ E · dl = 0.
▶ E is the gradient of some scalar function: E = −∇V
▶ Irrotational fields virr , i.e., ∇ × virr = 0, are also known as
conservative fields.35
▶ We’ll soon prove in the chapter on Electrostatics that the
work done in a moving a test charge against a background of
static charges is independent of the path taken.

35
∫ b force F = −∇U is a force with the property
In mechanics, a conservative
that the total work done W = a F · dl in moving a particle between point a to
b is independent of the path taken.
The Vector Potential A

▶ Maxwell’s equations guarantee that

∇·B=0

▶ This allows B to be written as the curl of a vector potential

A,
B = ∇ × (A+∇T)
since mathematically (4) the divergence of a curl is always
zero, i.e., ∇ · (∇ × v) = 0
▶ The vector potential A is not unique, i.e., the gradient of any
scalar function +∇T can be added to A withough affecting its
curl, i.e., the magnetic field B, since mathematically (2) the
curl of a gradient is always zero, i.e., ∇ × (∇T) = 0.
Divergence-less (or “solenoidal”) fields

▶ The condition ∇ · B = 0 everywhere is equivalent to,

H
▶ B · da = 0 for any closed surface, a direct consequence of the
divergence theorem.
▶ B is the curl of some vector function: B = ∇ × A
∫
▶ B · da is independent of the details of the precise open
surface S(P), once its periphery P is set.36

36
This means we can deform the surface as we please as long as the
boundary is kept fixed.
The Helmholtz Theorem
”A well-behaved (i.e., goes to zero at infinity) vector field is uniquely
specified by its divergence and curl (and, in the case of a finite region,
additionally by its normal component over the entire boundary.)”
▶ i.e., suppose we know37
∇ · F(r) = D(r) and, ∇ × F(r) = C(r)
over all space.
▶ Then the unique vector field F is given by
F(r) = −∇U(r) + ∇ × W(r) Helmholtz Decomposition
where,
D(r′ ) C(r′ )
∫ z }| { ∫ z }| {
′ ′ ′ ′
1 3 ′ ∇ · F(r ) 1 3 ′ ∇ × F(r )
U(r) = d r and, W(r) = d r
4π |r − r′ | 4π |r − r′ |
where the ∇′ denotes that the derivatives are to be taken w.r.t.
source points r′ .
37
Note that since (4): ∇ · (∇ × v) = 0, we must have ∇ · C = 0 for
consistency.
Why’s Helmholtz Theorem Useful?
▶ Since a vector field is completely specified once its divergence
and curl are known (a purely mathematical result), and we
know that the study of electromagnetism involves the vector
fields E and B, we can already guess…
▶ …the laws of electromagnetism:
∇·E = something1
∇×E = something2
∇·B = something3
∇ × B = something4
which look exactly like Maxwell’s equations38 , which are
thus mathematically sufficient to reconstruct E, and B.
▶ Even further, we can almost solve for the fields E and B, even
without explicitly knowing what the RHS = somethingi are!
38
If you’re wondering where D and H went, here we’re discussing the
so-called microscopic representation of Maxwell’s equations. D and H appear
in the macroscopic formulation where the material medium is built into the
equations. Both formulations are equally general.
Why’s Helmholtz Theorem Useful?
▶ Considering the static39 version of Maxwell’s equations

ρ(r)
∇·E =
ϵ0
∇×E =0
∇·B =0
∇×B = µ0 j(r)

we’re gratified by noting that a given set of stationary charges ρ(r),

and steady currents j(r), may only generate one possible steady E,
and one possible steady B field.
▶ Similarly, if all the sources ρ, and currents j are zero everywhere,
then the only physical solution is E = B = 0.
▶ This implies that static electric and magnetic fields cannot generate
themselves, i.e., there must be stationary charges and steady
currents generating them!

39
i.e., all charges are stationary, and currents steady.
Limitations of our Treatment of the Helmholtz Theorem
[END OF LEC. 4]

▶ Our discussion for the Helmholtz theorem only works for

time-independent sources, and currents.
▶ For the time-dependent case, while the divergence and curl still
uniquely identify the vector field, the Helmholtz decomposition
looks a bit different.
▶ A second issue is that we haven’t grappled with the application of
the boundary conditions (i.e., the normal component of the field
must be known at all points of the periphery) that need to be
imposed if we’re considering a finite region of space.
FAQ 1

▶ Q: Prove the sifting property of the Dirac delta function, i.e.,

∫ ∞
f(x)δ(x)dx = f(0)
−∞

▶ We need to consider a concrete representation of the Dirac

delta function such as the top-hat function T(x) defined by
{
1
|x| ≤ ϵ
T(x) ≡ 2ϵ
0 |x| > ϵ
which in the limϵ→0 goes into the Dirac delta function. Note
that the area under curve of the top-hat function is 1.
FAQ 1

▶ Consider ∫ ∫
∞
1 ϵ
f(x)T(x)dx = f(x)dx
−∞ 2ϵ −ϵ
F(ϵ) − F(−ϵ)
=
2ϵ

▶ Taking the limϵ→0 we get

∫ ∞ ∫ ∞
F(ϵ) − F(−ϵ)
lim f(x)T(x)dx = f(x)δ(x)dx = lim = f(0)
ϵ→0 −∞ −∞ ϵ→0 2ϵ