The process of transformation of things

Can you identify and name the various items

available in our environment involves an
used in making life comfortable in our villages
and towns. List the items and name the interactive relationship between nature,
material used in their making. technology and institutions. Human beings
interact with nature through technology and
create institutions to accelerate their
Everything available in our environment economic development.
which can be used to satisfy our needs, Do you think that resources are free
provided, it is technologically accessible, gifts of nature as is assumed by many?
economically feasible and culturally They are not. Resources are a function of
acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’. human activities. Human beings themselves
are essential components of resources. They
transform material available in our
environment into resources and use them.
These resources can be classified in the
following ways –
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable
and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual,
community, national and international
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship between (d) On the basis of status of development –
nature, technology and institutions potential, developed stock and reserves.

Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources

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for everybody’s need and not for any body’s available land for various purposes with careful
greed.” He placed the greedy and selfish planning.
individuals and exploitative nature of modern India has land under a variety of relief
technology as the root cause for resource features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains
depletion at the global level. He was against and islands. About 43 per cent of the land area
mass production and wanted to replace it with is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture
the production by the masses. and industry. Mountains account for 30 per
cent of the total surface area of the country and
ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide
At the international level, the Club of Rome facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.
advocated resource conservation for the first About 27 per cent of the area of the country is
time in a more systematic way in 1968. the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves
Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.
was once again presented by Schumacher
in his book Small is Beautiful. The seminal LAND UTILISATION
contribution with respect to resource
Land resources are used for the following
conservation at the global level was made
purposes:
by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987.
This report introduced the concept of 1. Forests
‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated 2. Land not available for cultivation
it as a means for resource conservation, (a) Barren and waste land
which was subsequently published in a book (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.
entitled Our Common Future. Another
buildings, roads, factories, etc.
significant contribution was made at the Earth
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. 3. Other uncultivated land (excluding
fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
LAND RESOURCES (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops
groves (not included in net sown area),
We live on land, we perform our economic
(c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated
activities on land and we use it in different
for more than 5 agricultural years).
ways. Thus, land is a natural resource of
utmost importance. It supports natural 4. Fallow lands
vegetation, wild life, human life, economic (a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation
activities, transport and communication for one or less than one agricultural year),
systems. However, land is an asset of a finite (b) Other than current fallow-(left
magnitude, therefore, it is important to use the uncultivated for the past 1 to 5
agricultural years).
5. Net sown area the physical extent of land
on which crops are sown harvested is
known as net sown area.
Area sown more than once in an
agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area.
LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA
The use of land is determined both by physical
factors such as topography, climate, soil types
as well as human factors such as population
Fig 1.3: India : Land under important Relief density, technological capability and culture
Features and traditions etc.
4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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 Reporting Area: 100 Per cent

Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2017

Fig. 1.4

Total geographical area of India is 3.28 of such land is very high. Hence, these lands
million sq km. Land use data, however, is are cultivated once or twice in about two to
available only for 93 per cent of the total three years and if these are included in the
geographical area because the land use net sown area then the percentage of NSA in
reporting for most of the north-east states India comes to about 54 per cent of the total
except Assam has not been done fully. reporting area.
Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir The pattern of net sown area varies greatly
occupied by Pakistan and China have also not from one state to another. It is over 80 per
been surveyed. cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana
and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman
Try to do a comparison between the two pie
Nicobar Islands.
charts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and find
out why the net sown area and the land
under forests have changed from 1960-61 Find out reasons for the low proportion of
to 2014-15 very marginally. net sown area in these states.

The land under permanent pasture has Forest area in the country is far lower than
also decreased. How are we able to feed our the desired 33 per cent of geographical area,
huge cattle population on this pasture land as it was outlined in the National Forest Policy
and what are the consequences of it? Most of (1952). It was considered essential for
the other than the current fallow lands are maintenance of the ecological balance. The
either of poor quality or the cost of cultivation livelihood of millions of people who live on the
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 5

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fringes of these forests depends upon it. A part There are many ways to solve the problems
of the land is termed as waste land and land of land degradation. Afforestation and proper
put to other non-agricultural uses. Waste land management of grazing can help to some extent.
includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on
put to other non-agricultural uses includes over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by
settlements, roads, railways, industry etc. growing thorny bushes are some of the
Continuous use of land over a long period of methods to check land degradation in arid
time without taking appropriate measures to areas. Proper management of waste lands,
conserve and manage it, has resulted in land control of mining activities, proper discharge
degradation. This, in turn, has serious and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes
repercussions on society and the after treatment can reduce land and water
environment. degradation in industrial and suburban areas.

L AND D EGRADATION AND C ONSERVATION SOIL AS A RESOURCE

MEASURES Soil is the most important renewable natural
We have shared our land with the past resource. It is the medium of plant growth
generations and will have to do so with the future and supports different types of living organisms
generations too. Ninety-five per cent of our basic on the earth. The soil is a living system. It
needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained takes millions of years to form soil upto a few
from land. Human activities have not only cm in depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock,
brought about degradation of land but have climate, vegetation and other forms of life and
also aggravated the pace of natural forces to time are important factors in the formation of
cause damage to land. soil. Various forces of nature such as change
Some human activities such as in temperature, actions of running water, wind
deforestation, over grazing, mining and and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc.
quarrying too have contributed significantly in contribute to the formation of soil. Chemical
land degradation. and organic changes which take place in the
Mining sites are abandoned after
excavation work is complete leaving deep Top soil
scars and traces of over-burdening. In states the upper soil layer
like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Subsoil weathered
Pradesh and Odisha deforestation due to rocks sand and
mining have caused severe land degradation. silt clay
In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is one
of the main reasons for land degradation. In
the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Substratum
Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land weathered parent
degradation due to water logging leading to rock material
increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
The mineral processing like grinding of
limestone for cement industry and calcite and
soapstone for ceramic industry generate huge
quantity of dust in the atmosphere. It retards
the process of infiltration of water into the soil
Unweathered
after it settles down on the land. In recent parent bed rock
years, industrial effluents as waste have
become a major source of land and water
pollution in many parts of the country.
Fig. 1.5: Soil Profile

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soil are equally important. Soil also consists nodules than the Khadar. It has more fine
of organic (humus) and inorganic materials particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
(Fig. 1.5). Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.
On the basis of the factors responsible for Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion
soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which
chemical and physical properties, the soils of are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
India are classified in different types. wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due
to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are
Classification of Soils intensively cultivated and densely populated.
India has varied relief features, landforms, Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and
climatic realms and vegetation types. These can be productive after proper treatment and
have contributed in the development of various irrigation.
types of soils.
Black Soil
Alluvial Soils These soils are black in colour and are also
This is the most widely spread and important known as regur soils. Black soil is ideal for
soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are growing cotton and is also known as black
made of alluvial soil. These have been cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition
deposited by three important Himalayan river along with the parent rock material are the
systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the important factors for the formation of black
Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in soil. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan
Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra,
of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
and the Kaveri rivers. Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east
direction along the Godavari and the Krishna
valleys.

Fig. 1.6: Alluvial Soil

The alluvial soil consists of various

proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move
inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles
appear some what bigger in size. In the upper
reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place
of the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Such
soils are more common in piedmont plains
such as Duars, Chos and Terai. Fig. 1.7: Black Soil
Apart from the size of their grains or
components, soils are also described on the The black soils are made up of extremely
basis of their age. According to their age fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known
alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition,
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium
bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 7

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 India: Major Soil Types

8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents. vegetation and in semi-arid environment, it is
They develop deep cracks during hot weather, generally humus poor. They are prone to
which helps in the proper aeration of the soil. erosion and degradation due to their position
These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to on the landscape. After adopting appropriate
work on unless tilled immediately after the first soil conservation techniques particularly in
shower or during the pre-monsoon period. the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea
Red and Yellow Soils
and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu,
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and for crops like cashew nut.
southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow
and red soils are also found in parts of Arid Soils
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont They are generally sandy in texture and saline
zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop in nature. In some areas the salt content is
a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in
very high and common salt is obtained by
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate,
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
high temperature, evaporation is faster and
Laterite Soil the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar
‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil because of the increasing calcium content
develops under tropical and subtropical downwards. The Kankar layer formations in
climate with alternate wet and dry season. the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of
This soil is the result of intense leaching due water. After proper irrigation these soils
to heavy rain. Lateritic soils are mostly deep become cultivable as has been in the case of
to very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generally western Rajasthan.
deficient in plant nutrients and occur mostly
in southern states, Western Ghats region of
Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West
Bengal and North-east regions. Where these
soils support deciduous and evergreen
forests, it is humus rich, but under sparse

Fig. 1.9: Arid Soil

Forest Soils
These soils are found in the hilly and
mountainous areas where sufficient rain
forests are available. The soils texture varies
according to the mountain environment
where they are formed. They are loamy and
silty in valley sides and coarse grained in
Fig. 1.8: Laterite Soil the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 9

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of Himalayas, these soils experience
denudation and are acidic with low humus
content. The soils found in the lower parts of
the valleys particularly on the river terraces
and alluvial fans are fertile.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soil cover and
subsequent washing down is described as soil
erosion. The processes of soil formation and
erosion, go on simultaneously and generally
there is a balance between the two. Sometimes,
this balance is disturbed due to human
activities like deforestation, over-grazing,
construction and mining etc., while natural Fig. 1.11: Gully Erosion
forces like wind, glacier and water lead to
soil is washed away. This is known as sheet
soil erosion. The running water cuts through
erosion. Wind blows loose soil off flat or
the clayey soils and makes deep channels as
sloping land known as wind erosion. Soil
gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation
erosion is also caused due to defective methods
and is known as bad land. In the Chambal
of farming. Ploughing in a wrong way i.e. up
basin such lands are called ravines.
and down the slope form channels for the
Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large
quick flow of water leading to soil erosion.
areas down a slope. In such cases the top
Ploughing along the contour lines can
decelerate the flow of water down the slopes.
This is called contour ploughing. Steps can
be cut out on the slopes making terraces.
Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. Western
and central Himalayas have well developed
terrace farming. Large fields can be divided into
strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between
the crops. This breaks up the force of the wind.
This method is known as strip cropping.
Planting lines of trees to create shelter also
works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are
called shelter belts. These shelter belts have
contributed significantly to the stabilisation of
sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in
Fig. 1.10: Soil Erosion western India.

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