5 SETS II

5 SETS II
There is a standard strategy for proving that A ⊆ B. The proof has the following form.
Let a ∈ A.
..
.
(argumentation)
..
.
Then a ∈ B. Hence A ⊆ B.

However, to prove that A ⊈ B, we must find some a ∈ A such that A ∈

/ B.

Lemma 5.1. Let X, Y and Z be sets.

1. X ⊆ X.

2. ∅ ⊆ X

3. If X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ Z, then X ⊆ Z.

Proof. Let X, Y and Z be sets.

1. Let x ∈ X(on the LHS of X ⊆ X). Then, x ∈ X(on the RHS of X ⊆ X). Hence,
X ⊆ X.

2. We observe that x ∈ ∅ is always false. Thus, the logical implication “if x ∈ ∅, then
x ∈ X” is always true. Therefore, ∅ ⊆ X.

3. Suppose that X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ Z. Let x ∈ X. Then, x ∈ Y , since X ⊆ Y .

Consequently, we deduce that x ∈ Z as Y ⊆ Z. Hence, X ⊆ Z.

To prove that A = B we proceed as follows:

Let a ∈ A.
..
.
(argumentation)
..
.
Then a ∈ B. Hence A ⊆ B.
Conversely, let b ∈ B.
..
.
(argumentation)
..
.
Then b ∈ A. Hence B ⊆ A.
Therefore, A = B.

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Lemma 5.2. Let A, B and C be sets.
1. A = A.

2. If A = B then B = A.

3. If A = B and B = C then A = C.
Proof. Let A, B and C be sets.
1. We see that A ⊆ A, by Lemma 5.1. It follows that A = A.

2. Suppose that A = B. Then, by the definition of equality of sets, we have that B ⊆ A

and A ⊆ B. This gives us B = A. Therefore, A = B implies B = A.

3. Suppose that A = B and B = C. Then, A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, from which we get A ⊆ C

on applying Lemma 5.1. Furthermore, C ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. Application of Lemma 5.1
yields C ⊆ A. Hence, by the definition of equality of sets, we conclude that A = C.
Therefore, A = B and B = C implies A = C.

Theorem 5.1. Let A, B and C be sets.

1. A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B. If X is a set such that X ⊆ A and X ⊆ B then X ⊆ A ∩ B.

2. A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B. If Y is a set such that A ⊆ Y and B ⊆ Y then A ∪ B ⊆ Y .

3. A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative Laws).

4. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C (Associative Laws).

5. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) and A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (Distributive
Laws).

6. A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅ (Identity Laws).

7. A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A (Idempotent Laws).

8. A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A and A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A (Absorption Laws).

9. If A ⊆ B then A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C and A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C.
Proof. Let A, B and C be sets.
1. Let x ∈ A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Thus, x ∈ A. Hence A ∩ B ⊆ A. Let
y ∈ A ∩ B. Then y ∈ A and y ∈ B. This means that x ∈ B. Hence, A ∩ B ⊆ B. Next,
suppose that X ⊆ A and X ⊆ B. Now, let x ∈ X. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B, which
leads to x ∈ A ∩ B. Consequently, X ⊆ A ∩ B. Therefore, X ⊆ A and X ⊆ B implies
X ⊆ A ∩ B.

2. Let z ∈ A. By definition, we have that z ∈ A ∪ B. Hence, A ⊆ A ∪ B. Let w ∈ B. By

definition, we get w ∈ A ∪ B. Therefore, B ⊆ A ∪ B. Now, suppose that A ⊆ Y and
B ⊆ Y . Let y ∈ A ∪ B. Then, y ∈ A or y ∈ B. If y ∈ A then y ∈ Y, and so A ∪ B ⊆ Y .
If y ∈ B then y ∈ Y, and so A ∪ B ⊆ Y . Hence, A ⊆ Y and B ⊆ Y implies A ∪ B ⊆ Y .

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3. Let x ∈ A ∪ B. Then, x ∈ A or x ∈ B. If x ∈ A then x ∈ B ∪ A, by definition, and
so A ∪ B ⊆ B ∪ A. If x ∈ B then x ∈ B ∪ A, by definition, and so A ∪ B ⊆ B ∪ A.
Thus, we obtain A ∪ B ⊆ B ∪ A. Conversely, let x ∈ B ∪ A. Then, x ∈ B or x ∈ A. If
x ∈ B then x ∈ B ∪ A, by definition, and so B ∪ A ⊆ A ∪ B. If x ∈ A then x ∈ B ∪ A,
by definition, and so A ∪ B ⊆ B ∪ A. Consequently, we have that B ∪ A ⊆ A ∪ B.
Therefore, B ∪ A = A ∪ B.
Let z ∈ A ∩ B. Then, z ∈ A and z ∈ B. Thus, z ∈ B ∩ A by definition, meaning
A ∩ B ⊆ B ∩ A. Let u ∈ B ∩ A. Then, u ∈ B and u ∈ A. It follows that u ∈ A ∩ B
by definition, and so B ∩ A ⊆ A ∩ B. Therefore, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
4. Let z ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. Then z ∈ A ∪ B or z ∈ C. First, suppose that z ∈ A ∪ B. Then,
z ∈ A or z ∈ B. If z ∈ A then z ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) by Part (2) of Theorem 5.1, and if
x ∈ B then x ∈ B ∪ C, and hence z ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C). Second, suppose that x ∈ C. It
follows from Part (2) of Theorem 5.1 that x ∈ B ∪ C, and hence z ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).
Putting the two cases together, we deduce that (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C).
Conversely, let y ∈ A∪(B ∪C). Then, y ∈ A or y ∈ B ∪C. Firstly, suppose that y ∈ A.
It follows that y ∈ A∪B, and hence y ∈ (A∪B)∪C, where we used Part (2) of Theorem
5.1. Secondly, suppose that y ∈ B ∪ C. Then y ∈ B or y ∈ C. If y ∈ B then y ∈ A ∪ B,
and so by Part (2) of Theorem 5.1, y ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. If y ∈ C then y ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
Putting the two cases together, we deduce that A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. Therefore,
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).
5. Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C). Then, x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C. Hence, x ∈ B or x ∈ C. If
x ∈ B we deduce that x ∈ A ∩ B, and if x ∈ C we deduce that x ∈ A ∩ C. In either
case, we use Part (2) of this theorem to see that x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). Therefore,
A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Conversely, let x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). Then, x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C. First, suppose
that x ∈ A ∩ B. Then, x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Hence x ∈ B ∪ C by Part (2) of Theorem
5.1, and therefore x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C). Second, suppose that x ∈ A ∩ C. Then, x ∈ A and
x ∈ C. By part 2 of Theorem 5.1, it follows that x ∈ B ∪ C, and so x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C).
Combining the two cases we deduce that (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊆ A ∩ (B ∪ C). Therefore,
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Theorem 5.2. Let A, B and C be sets.

1. A \ B ⊆ A.
2. (A \ B) ∩ B = ∅.
3. A \ B = ∅ if and only if A ⊆ B.
4. B \ (B \ A) = A if and only if A ⊆ B.
5. If A ⊆ B then A \ C = A ∩ (B \ C).
6. If A ⊆ B then C \ A ⊇ C \ B.
7. C \ (A ∪ B) = (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B) and C \ (A ∩ B) = (C \ A) ∪ (C \ B) (De Morgan’s
Laws).

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Proof. Let A, B and C be sets.
1. Let u ∈ A \ B. Then, u ∈ A and u ∈
/ B. Thus, u ∈ A. Therefore, A \ B ⊆ A.

2. Let x ∈ (A \ B) ∩ B. Then, x ∈ A \ B and x ∈ B. Thus, x ∈ A and x ∈ / B, since

x ∈ A \ B. This means that x ∈ B and x ∈ / B, which is a contradiction. As a result,
the statement x ∈ (A \ B) ∩ B is false. Therefore, x ∈ (A \ B) ∩ B =⇒ x ∈ ∅. Hence
(A \ B) ∩ B ⊆ ∅. Using part 2 of Lemma 5.1, we see that ∅ ⊆ (A \ B) ∩ B. We conclude
that (A \ B) ∩ B = ∅.

3. Suppose that A \ B = ∅. Now, let y ∈ A. Assume that y ∈ / B. Then, we have that

y ∈ A \ B, which is a contradiction since A \ B = ∅. Thus, y ∈ B. Therefore, A ⊆ B.
Hence, we have shown that A \ B = ∅ implies A ⊆ B.
Conversely, suppose that A ⊆ B. Next, assume that there exists x such that x ∈ A\B.
Then, x ∈ A and x ∈ / B. This means that x ∈ B because of the supposition that A ⊆ B.
So we have that x ∈ B and x ∈ / B, which is a contradiction. This implies that there
is no x such that x ∈ A \ B. Hence, A \ B = ∅. Therefore, A ⊆ B is necessary and
sufficient for A \ B = ∅.

4. Suppose that B \ (B \ A) = A. Let z ∈ A. Then, z ∈ B \ (B \ A). It follows that

z ∈ B and z ∈
/ B \ A. Thus, z ∈ A ∩ B, which means that z ∈ B. Hence, A ⊆ B.
Conversely, suppose that A ⊆ B. Next, let w ∈ B \ (B \ A). Then, w ∈ B and
w∈/ B \ A, which means that w ∈ A ∩ B = A. Thus, w ∈ A, and so B \ (B \ A) ⊆ A.
Now, let y ∈ A. Then, y ∈ B. We see that y ∈ A ∩ B, which mean that y ∈ B \ A.
That is, y ∈ B \ (B \ A). We obtain A ⊆ B \ (B \ A). Hence, B \ (B \ A) = A.
Therefore, we have shown that B \ (B \ A) = A if and only if A ⊆ B.

5. Let x ∈ C \ (A ∪ B). Then, x ∈ C and x ∈ / A ∪ B. It follows that x ∈

/ A and x ∈/ B.
Since x ∈ C and x ∈/ A, we see that x ∈ C \ A. Since x ∈ C and x ∈/ B, then x ∈ C \ B.
Hence, x ∈ (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B). Therefore, C \ (A ∪ B) ⊆ (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B). Now, let
y ∈ (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B). Hence, y ∈ C \ A and y ∈ C \ B. Because y ∈ C \ A, it follows
that y ∈ C and y ∈ / A. Because y ∈ C \ B, it follows that y ∈ C and y ∈ / B. We
have that y ∈
/ A and y ∈ / B, which yields y ∈/ A ∪ B. Thus, y ∈ C \ (A ∪ B). Hence,
(C \ A) ∩ (C \ B) ⊆ C \ (A ∪ B). We conclude that C \ (A ∪ B) = (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B).

7. Let x ∈ C \ (A ∪ B). Then, x ∈ C and x ∈ / A ∪ B. Because x ∈/ A ∪ B, we find that

x∈/ A and x ∈ / B. Consequently, we deduce that x ∈ C \ A and x ∈ C \ B, which
means that x ∈ (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B). Hence, C \ (A ∪ B) ⊆ (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B).
Conversely, let y ∈ (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B). Then, we have that y ∈ C \ A and y ∈ C \ B.
We notice that y ∈ C \ A means that y ∈ C and y ∈ / A, and y ∈ C \ B means that
y ∈ C and y ∈ / B. We obtain y ∈ C and y ∈/ A ∪ B, that is, y ∈ C \ (A ∪ B). Hence,
(C \ A) ∩ (C \ B) ⊆ C \ (A ∪ B). Therefore, C \ (A ∪ B) = (C \ A) ∩ (C \ B).

Theorem 5.3. Let A and B be sets.

1. (A′ )′ = A (Complementation law).

2. (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ and (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′ (De Morgan’s laws).

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′ ′
3. A ∪ A = U and A ∩ A = ∅ (Complement laws).
Theorem 5.4. Let X, Y and Z be sets.
1. X △ ∅ = X.
2. X △ X = ∅.
3. X △ Y = Y △ X.
4. X △ (Y △ Z) = (X △ Y ) △ Z.
5. X ∩ (Y △ Z) = (X ∩ Y ) △ (X ∩ Z).
6. X △ Y = (X ∪ Y ) \ (X ∩ Y ).
Proof. Let X, Y and Z be sets.
1. Let h ∈ X △ ∅. Then, h ∈ X \ ∅ or h ∈ ∅ \ X. If h ∈ X \ ∅, then h ∈ X, which
means that X △ ∅ ⊆ X. If h ∈ ∅ \ X, then h ∈ X because h ∈ ∅ \ X is false. Thus
X △ ∅ ⊆ X. Both cases lead to X △ ∅ ⊆ X. Next, let g ∈ X. Then g ∈ X \ ∅, and so
g ∈ X \ ∅ ∪ ∅ \ X. Hence, X ⊆ X △ ∅. Therefore, X △ ∅ = X.
2. Let z ∈ X △ X. Then, z ∈ X \ X. That is z ∈ X and z ∈/ X, which is false. Hence,
X △ X ⊆ ∅. Next, we observe that ∅ ⊆ X △ X. Therefore, X △ X = ∅.

Theorem 5.5. Let A, B, C and D be sets.

1. If A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D then A × C ⊆ B × D.
2. A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C) and (B ∪ C) × A = (B × A) ∪ (C × A) .
3. A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C) and (B ∩ C) × A = (B × A) ∩ (C × A) .
4. A × ∅ = ∅ and ∅ × A = ∅.
5. (A ∩ B) × (C ∩ D) = (A × C) ∩ (B × D).
Proof. Let A, B, C and D be sets.
1. Suppose that A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D. Let (u, v) ∈ A × C. Then, u ∈ A and v ∈ C. It
follows that u ∈ B and v ∈ D. Thus (u, v) ∈ B × D. Therefore, A × C ⊆ B × D.
2. Let (x, y) ∈ A × (B ∪ C). Then, x ∈ A and y ∈ B ∪ C. Thus, y ∈ B or y ∈ C. If
y ∈ B, then (x, y) ∈ A × B, in which case (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (A × C). If y ∈ C,
then (x, y) ∈ A × C, which means that (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (A × C). We deduce that
(x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (A × C). Hence, A × (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A × B) ∪ (A × C).
Next, let (a, b) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (A × C). Then, (a, b) ∈ (A × B) or (a, b) ∈ (A × C).
If (a, b) ∈ (A × B), then a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Since b ∈ B, we have that b ∈ B ∪ C.
We see that (a, b) ∈ A × (B ∪ C). If (a, b) ∈ (A × C), then a ∈ A and b ∈ C. We
get b ∈ B ∪ C, since b ∈ C. It follows that (a, b) ∈ A × (B ∪ C). We see that
(a, b) ∈ A × (B ∪ C), and so (A × B) ∪ (A × C) ⊆ A × (B ∪ C). Therefore, we have
established that A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).

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Theorem 5.6.
Non-Indexed Version: Let F be a non-empty family of sets and let B be a set.
T T
1. X∈F X ⊆ A for all A ∈ F. If B ⊆ X for all X ∈ F then B ⊆ X∈F X.
S S
2. A ⊆ X∈F X for all A ∈ F. If X ⊆ B for all X ∈ F then X∈F X ⊆ B.
T S
S T
3. B X∈F X = X∈F (B X) (Distributive Law).
S T
T S
4. B X∈F X = X∈F (B X) (Distributive Law).
S
T
5. B \ X∈F X = X∈F B \ X (De Morgan’s law).
T
S
6. B \ X∈F X = X∈F B \ X (De Morgan’s law).
S
S
7. B × X∈F X = X∈F (B × X) (Distributive Law).
T
T
8. B × X∈F X = X∈F (B × X) (Distributive Law).

Indexed Version: Let I be a non-empty set, let {Ai }i∈I be a family of sets indexed by I
and let B be a set.
T T
1. i∈I Ai ⊆ Ak for all k ∈ I. If B ⊆ Ak for all k ∈ I then B ⊆ i∈I Ai .
S S
2. Ak ⊆ i∈I Ai for all k ∈ I. If Ak ⊆ B for all k ∈ I then i∈I Ai ⊆ B.
T S
S T
3. B i∈I Ai = i∈I (B Ai ) (Distributive Law).
S T
T S
4. B i∈I Ai = i∈I (B Ai ) (Distributive Law).
S
T
5. B \ i∈I Ai = i∈I B \ Ai (De Morgan’s law).
T
S
6. B \ i∈I Ai = i∈I B \ Ai (De Morgan’s law).
S
S
7. B × i∈I Ai = i∈I (B × Ai ) (Distributive Law).
T
T
8. B × i∈I Ai = i∈I (B × Ai ) (Distributive Law).
T
Proof.T 1. Non-Indexed: Let z ∈ X∈F X. Then z ∈ A for all A ∈ F. Therefore
X∈F X ⊆ A for all A ∈ F.
T T
Indexed: Let z ∈ i∈I Ai . Then, z ∈ Ak for all k ∈ I. Therefore, i∈I Ai ⊆ Ak for
all k ∈ I.
T S
S
3. Indexed: Let u ∈ B i∈I AT i . Then, u ∈ B and u ∈ i∈I Ai . It follows
S that Tu ∈ Ak
for some k ∈ I. Hence, u ∈ B AT k for
S some k

S∈ I. Therefore,
T u ∈ i∈I (B Ai ) by
Part (2) of Theorem 5.6. Hence B i∈I Ai ⊆ i∈I (B Ai ).
S T T
Now, let v ∈ i∈I (B Ai ). Then, v ∈ S B Aj for some j ∈ I. Hence, v ∈ B and
v ∈ Aj for some
T S j ∈ I.
Therefore, Sv ∈ T Ai by Part
i∈I T(2)
S of Theorem

5.6. It follows
T vS∈ B
S
that i∈I Ai . THence, i∈I (B Ai ) ⊆ B i∈I Ai . We conclude that
B A
i∈I i = i∈I (B A i ).

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T
T
6. Let x ∈ B \ X∈F X . Then, we have that x ∈ B and x ∈ / X∈F X. It follows
that Sx ∈
/ Y for some Y ∈ F. Consequently, x ∈ B \ Y for some Y ∈TF. Hence,

x
S ∈ X∈F (B \ X) by Part (2) of this theorem. It follows that B \ X∈F X ⊆
X∈F (B \ X).
S
Now let y ∈ X∈F (B \ X). Then,T y ∈ B \ Z for some Z ∈ F. Thus,
T y ∈
B and y ∈ /Z
for some Z ∈ F. Hence,
S Ty∈ /
X∈F X. It follows that y ∈TB \
X∈FSX . Therefore,
X∈F (B \ X) ⊆ B \ X∈F X . We conclude that B \ X∈F X = X∈F (B \ X).

EXERCISE FIVE

1. Suppose that A, B, C are sets. For each of the following statements, either prove that
it is true or give a counterexample to show that it is false.

(a) A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C =⇒ A ⊂ C
(b) A ∈ B and B ⊂ C =⇒ A ∈ C
(c) A ⊂ B and B ∈ C =⇒ C

2. Which of the following holds for all sets A, B and C?

(a) If A ∈
/ B and B ∈
/ C then A ∈
/ C.
(b) If A ∈ B and B ⊈ C then A ∈
/ C.
(c) If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then C ⊈ A.
(d) If A ⊆ B and B ∈ C then A ∈
/ C.

3. Let M and N be sets. Prove that it is not possible that M ⊂ N and N ⊆ M are both
true.

4. Consider the sets F = {x4 | x ∈ Z}, G = {2t | t ∈ Z}, H = {r8 | r ∈ Z},

I = {6y | y ∈ Z} and J = {k − 5 | k ∈ Z}. Which is a subset of which?

5. Let A and B be any two sets. Is it true that one of A ⊆ B or A = B or A ⊇ B must

be true? Give a proof or a counterexample.

6. Let A, B and C be sets. Suppose that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C and C ⊆ A. Prove that

A = B = C.

7. Prove the rest of theorem Theorem 5.1.

8. Prove the remainder of Theorem 5.6.

9. Prove the rest of Theorem 5.2

10. Let A, B, and C be sets. Prove the following:

(a) (A ∪ B)\(A ∩ B) = (A\B) ∪ (B\A)

(b) A ∩ (B\C) = (A ∩ B)\(A ∩ C)
(c) (A \ B) ∩ (B \ A) = ∅

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11. Let U be a universal set and let A and B be subsets of U . Prove that
(U \ A) \ (U \ B) = (B \ A).

12. Let A and B be sets. Prove that A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

13. Prove the remainder of Theorem 5.4.

14. Let A, B1 , B2 , . . ., Bn be subsets of the set X with n ∈ N. Prove the following.

(a) A ( nk=1 Bk ) = nk=1 (A Bk )

T S S T

(b) A ( nk=1 Bk ) = nk=1 (A Bk )

S T T S

15. Let A, B1 , B2 , . . ., Bn be sets, where n ∈ N. Prove the following by mathematical

induction.

(a) A × ( nk=1 Bk ) = nk=1 (A × Bk )

S S

(b) A × ( nk=1 Bk ) = nk=1 (A × Bk )

T T

16. Let An = x ∈ R | 0 ≤ x ≤ n1 , where n ∈ N.



(a) Show that An is nonempty for all n ∈ N.

S T
(b) Find n∈N An and n∈N An .

17. Let An be sets with n ∈ N. Show that

S
(a) n∈N An = ∅ ⇐⇒ An = ∅ for all n ∈ N,
T T
(b) n∈N An = ∅ ⇐⇒ Ai Aj = ∅ for some i, j ∈ N.

18. Let F and G be non-empty families of sets. Suppose that F ⊆ G.

S S
(a) Prove that A∈F A ⊆ B∈G B
T T
(b) Prove that A∈F A ⊆ B∈G B

19. Let I be a non-empty set and let {Ai }i∈I and {Bi }i∈I be families of sets indexed by I.
Suppose that Ai ⊆ Bi for all i ∈ I.
S S
(a) Show that i∈I Ai ⊆ i∈I Bi .
T T
(b) Show that i∈I Ai ⊆ i∈I Bi .

20. Let F be a non-empty family of sets and let B be a set.

S S
(a) Prove that ( A∈F A) \ B = A∈F (A \ B).
T T
(b) Prove that ( A∈F A) \ B = A∈F (A \ B).

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