Introduction to Graphs

MAT206
GRAPH THEORY Module 1

Department of Mathematics

NSSCE

December 15, 2024

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 Introduction to Graphs

Definition of Graph

A Graph G= (V,E) consists of set of objects V = {v1 , v2 , v3 ...}

called vertices and E = {e1 , e2 , e3 ....} called edges where each ek
is an edge connecting some vi and vj .
The vertices vi and vj are called end vertices of ek .
Representation of a graph is by means of a diagram,in which the
vertices are represented as points and edge as a line segment joining
its end vertices

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 Introduction to Graphs

Example

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 Introduction to Graphs

In the above graph e5 is called a self loop,edge connecting a verex

to itself,e2 and e6 are known as parallel edges,edges having same
end vertices.
A graph which has neither self loops nor parallel edges is called a
simple graph.

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 Introduction to Graphs

Example 2

(1)

This graph is a simple graph formed by removing parallel edges

and self loop from example1
Note:- Vertices and edges are also termed as nodes and connections

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 Introduction to Graphs

Application of Graphs

Graph theory is widely applied in engineering,physical

sciences,biological sciences,social sciences and other various
areas.A graph can be used to represent any physical situation
involving discrete objects and a relationship between them.
Some examples are listed below
Konigsberg Bridge problem
Utilities problem
Electrical network problems
Seating problem

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 Introduction to Graphs

Finite and Infinite graphs

A graph with a finite number of vertices and finite number of

edges is called a finite graph,otherwise it is an infinite graph

Department of Mathematics MAT206

 Introduction to Graphs

Department of Mathematics MAT206

 Introduction to Graphs

Bipartite Graphs

A graph G is called bipartite,if its vertex set V can be decomposed

into two disjoint subsets V1 and V2 such that every edge in G joins
a vertex in V1 with a vertex in V2

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 Introduction to Graphs

Examples

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 Introduction to Graphs

Incidence and Degree

When a vertex vi is an end vertex of the edge ej ,the edge ej is

said to be incident with the vertex vi
Two nonparallel edges are said to be adjacent if they are incident
with a common vertex
The number of edges incident on a vertex vi with self loops
counted twice is called the degree of vi and denoted by d(vi )

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 Introduction to Graphs

Department of Mathematics MAT206

 Introduction to Graphs

d(v0 ) = 3 d(v1 ) = 4
d(v2 ) = 4 d(v3 ) = 1
d(v4 ) = 0
Here we can see
d(v0 ) + d(v1 ) + d(v2 ) + d(v3 ) + d(v4 ) + d(v5 ) = 12=twice the
number of edges

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 Introduction to Graphs

Handshaking Lemma

If G is a graph with e number of edges and n vertices say

v1 , v2 , v3 , ....vn
then
Xn
d(vi ) = 2e
i=1

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 Introduction to Graphs

Theorem 1
Theorem 1
The number of vertices of odd degree in a graph is always even.
Proof
The degree sum can be expressed as follows
n
X X X
d(vi ) = d(vi ) + d(vj )
i=1 odd even
Sum in the L.H.S is even and
X
d(vj )
even

is even,hence
X
d(vj ) = even
odd
,which implies the total number of odd vertices must be even
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 Introduction to Graphs

Regular Graph

A graph in which all vertices are of same degree is called a regular

graph

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 Introduction to Graphs

Isolated vertex,Pendant vertex

A vertex having no incident edge (degree 0) is called an isolated
vertex
A vertex of degree one is called a pendant vertex or an end
vertex

Here v3 is a pendant vertex and v4 is an isolated vertex

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 Introduction to Graphs

Null graph

A graph without any edges is called a null graph

null graph with 3 vertices

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 Introduction to Graphs

Problems
1 Draw all simple graphs of one ,two,three and four vertices
2 Convince yourself that the maximum degree of any vertex in a
simple graph is n − 1
3 Show that the maximum number of edges in a simple graph
with n vertices is n(n − 1)/2
4 Construct a simple graph of 12 vertices with two of them
having degree 1,three having degree 3 and remaining seven
having degree 10.
5 What is the largest number of vertices in a graph with 35
edges,if all vertices are of degree atleast 3.
6 Prove that for any simple graph with atleast 2 vertices has
two vertices of same degree
7 Let G be a graph with n vertices and m edges .Assume that
each vertex is of degree k or k + 1.Show that the number of
vertices of degree k is (k + 1)n − 2m
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 Introduction to Graphs

Complete Graphs
A simple graph in which there exists an edge between every pair of
vertices is called a complete graph.
A complete graph with n vertices is denoted byKn

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 Introduction to Graphs

Complete Bipartite Graphs

A bipartite graph is said to be complete bipartite,if every vertex

of V1 is connected to every vertex of V2 and is denoted byKm,n
where m and n are number of vertices in V1 and V2 respectively.

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 Introduction to Graphs

Isomorphism

Two graphs G and G ′ are said to be isomorphic to each other,if

there is a one to one correspondence between their vertices and
between their edges such that the incidence relationship is
preserved.
In other words,if the edge e is incident on vertices v1 and v2 in G
then the corresponding edge e ′ in G ′ must be incident on vertices
v1′ and v2′ that correspond to v1 and v2 respectively.

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 Introduction to Graphs

Note:-
It is clear from the definition that two isomorphic graphs must have
the same number of vertices
the same number of edges
equal number of vertices with a given degree
How ever these conditions are not sufficient.

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 Introduction to Graphs

Department of Mathematics MAT206

 Introduction to Graphs

Subgraphs
A graph g is said to be a subgraph of G if all the vertices and
edges of g are in G such that each edge of g has the same end
vertices in g as on G .
We write g ⊂ G .

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 Introduction to Graphs

The following are some properties

Every graph is its own subgraph
A subgraph of a subgraph of G is a subgraph of G
A single vertex in a graph is a subgraph of G
A single edge in G ,together with its end vertices ,is also a
subgraph

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 Introduction to Graphs

Edge disjoint subgraphs

Two subgraphs g1 and g2 of a graph G are said to be edge

disjoint if g1 and g2 do not have any edges in common.
Subgraphs that do not have vertices in common are said to be
vertex disjoint

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 Introduction to Graphs

Walk

A walk is defined as a finite alternating sequence of vertices and

edges,beginning and ending with vertices,such that each edge is
incident with the preceding and following vertices.No edge is
allowed to appear more than once.
Vertices with which a walk begins and ends are called its terminal
vertices.
If in a walk ,terminal vertices are same,walk is said to be a closed
walk,otherwise the walk is an open walk

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 Introduction to Graphs

Path

An open walk in which no vertex appears more than once is called

a path
The number of edges in a path is called the length of the path

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 Introduction to Graphs

Circuit

A closed walk in which no vertex (except the initial and final

vertex) appears more than once is called a circuit

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 Introduction to Graphs

Department of Mathematics MAT206

 Introduction to Graphs

Examples

v4 d v3 c v3 g v1 a v2 b v3 is an open walk
v4 h v5 f v2 b v3 c v3 d v4 is a closed walk
v4 h v5 f v2 b v3 g v1 is a path of length 4
v4 d v3 g v1 a v2 f v5 h v4 is a circuit of length 5

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 Introduction to Graphs

Connected,Disconnected graphs and Components

A graphG is said to be connected if there is at least one path
between every pair of vertices in G .Otherwise G is said to be
disconnected
Every disconnected graphs contain two or more connected
graphs.Each of these connected graphs is called a component

A disconnected graph with 2 components

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 Introduction to Graphs

Degree sequence

3, 4, 4, 1, 0 is a degree sequence

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 Introduction to Graphs

Theorem 2
Theorem 2:- A Graph G is disconnected if and only if its vertex
set V can be partitioned into two non empty disjoint subsets V1
and V2 such that there exists no edge in G whose one end vertex is
in V1 and the other in V2
Proof
Suppose such a partitioning exists.Let a and b be two arbitrary
vertices of G such that a ∈ V1 and b ∈ V2 .If there exists a path
between a and b,there would be one edge whose one end vertex is
in V1 and other in V2 which is a contradiction to our
assumption.Hence no path can exists between a and b.Thus G is
disconnected.
Let G be a disconnected graph.Let a be a vertex in G .Let V1 be
the set of all vertices that are joined by paths to a.Since G is
disconnected V1 does not include all vertices of G .The remaining
vertices will form the setV2 .No vertex in V1 is joined to any vertex
in V2 by an edge.Hence the partion.
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 Introduction to Graphs

Theorem 3

Theorem 3:-If a graph ,connected or disconnected,has exactly two

vertices of odd degree ,there must be a path joining these two
vertices.
Proof
Let G be a graph with all even vertices exceptv1 and v2 ,which are
odd.Since each component is considered as a graph,by theorem 1
no graph can have odd number of vertices.Therefore v1 and v2
must belong to the same component and hence a path exists
between them.

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 Introduction to Graphs

Theorem 4
Theorem 4:-A simple graph with n vertices and k components can
have at most (n − k)(n − k + 1)/2 edges.
Proof
Let the number of vertices in each of the k components be
n1 , n2 , ...nk .
Thus we have
n1 + n2 + ....nk = n, ni ≥ 1
We have
k
X
(ni − 1) = n − k
i=1
.Squaring both sides,
k
X
( (ni − 1))2 = n2 + k 2 − 2nk
i=1
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 Introduction to Graphs

k
X
( (ni2 − 2ni ) + k + nonnegative cross terms = n2 + k 2 − 2nk
i=1

Hence
k
X
ni2 ≤ n2 + k 2 − 2nk − k + 2n
i=1
k
X
ni2 ≤ n2 − (k − 1)(2n − k)
i=1

We know the maximum number of edges in i th component of G is

ni (ni − 1)/2

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 Introduction to Graphs

Therefore the maximum number of edges in G is

k k
1X 1X 2 n
ni (ni − 1) = ni −
2 2 2
i=1 i=1

≤ 21 [n2 − (k − 1)(2n − k)] − n

2

= 12 (n − k)(n − k + 1)

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 Introduction to Graphs

Problems

1 Show that the following graphs are isomorphic

2 Prove that any two simple connected graphs with n

vertices,all of degree 2,are isomorphic.

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 Introduction to Graphs

Problems
1 Are the two graphs isomorphic,Why?

2 Prove that a simple graph with n vertices must be connected

if it has more than(n − 1)(n − 2)/2 edges
3 Prove that a connected graph G remains connected after
removing an edge ei from G ,if and only if ei is in some circuit
in G
4 Show that every u-v walk contains a u-v path
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