EXPLAIN PROCESS

CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS
● Deals with the measurements of non electrical quantities
● The basic principle is to convert the magnitude of the physical quantity
(Temperature, pressure etc) into an electrical quantity which can be measured
by standard methods
● A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy to another form
● In electrical instrumentation a transducer is a device which converts a
physical quantity or a physical condition into an electrical signal
Classification of transducers
Primary and secondary transducer

● A primary transducer converts a non electrical quantity into another non

electrical quantity which is suitable for conversion into an electrical quantity
subsequently.
● A transducer which converts non electrical quantity directly into electrical
signal is called secondary transducer or simply transducer.
● Eg: To measure gas pressure, first gas pressure is converted to displacement
using bourden tube (Primary transducer) and displacement is converted to
electrical signal using LVDT (Secondary transducer)
Active and passive transducers
Active transducers : Active transducers do not require an auxiliary power source to
produce their output. They are self generating type. They generate an electrical output,
voltage or current proportional to the quantity being measured.
Eg: Thermocouple, piezoelectric material
Passive transducers : To obtain an electrical output from a passive transducer, an
external source of supply is required. Passive transducer require some change in values
of resistance, inductance, and capacitance and can create some variation in voltage,
current or frequency.
Eg: Potentiometer type transducer, LVDT
Passive transducers may be classified as follows
● Resistive transducer- Uses variation in resistance eg: Thermistor used for
the measurement of temperature
● Inductive transducer-Uses variation in inductance eg: Linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT) used for measurement of distance
● Capacitive transducer- USes variation in capacitance-eg: capacitance
gauge used for measurement of pressure/displacement
Active transducers may be classified as follows
● Thermo electric type: Uses thermo electricity-eg: Thermocouple used for
measurement of temperature
● Piezoelectric type: Uses piezoelectricity for the measurement of pressure
● Electromagnetic type: Uses the generation of electricity from magnetism-eg:
electromagnetic pickup used for flow measurement.
● Photovoltaic type: Uses photo electricity
Analog and digital transducer
Analog transducers convert the input quantity to an analog output which is
continuous function of time

Eg: Thermistor, LVDT

Digital transducers provides digital output directly

Eg: Digital encoder

Characteristics of transducers
1. Linearity
Its input vs output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these
characteristics in balanced way.
2. Ruggedness
A transducer should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangements
must be provided with it for overload protection.
3. Repeatability
The device should reproduce the same output signal when the same input signal is
applied again and again under unchanged environmental conditions, e.g., temperature,
pressure, humidity, etc.
4. High Reliability and Stability The transducer should give minimum error in measurement for
temperature variations, vibrations and other various changes in surroundings.
5. High Output Signal Quality
The quality of output signal should be good, i.e., the ratio of the signal to the noise should be
high and the amplitude of0 the output signal should be enough.
6. No Hysteresis
It should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input signal is varied from its low
value to high value and vice versa.
7. Residual deformation
There should not be any deformation on removal of input signal after long period of use
Factors influencing the choice of transducers
Operating Principle:The transducers are many times selected on the basis of
operating principle used by them. The operating principles used may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezoelectric etc.
Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce detectable
output.
Operating Range:The transducer should maintain the range requirements and
have a good resolution over its entire range. The rating of the transducer should
be sufficient so that it does not breakdown while working in its specified operating
range.
Accuracy: High degree of accuracy is assured if the transducer does not require
frequent calibration and has a small value for repeatability.
The transducer should maintain the expected input output relationship as
described by its transfer function so as to avoid errors in transducers.
Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and a low
output impedance to avoid loading effects.
Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer selected
to work under specified environmental conditions maintains its input-output
relationship and does not break down
Usage and Ruggedness. The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical
intensities of transducer versus its size and weight must be considered while
selecting a suitable transducer.
Electrical aspects: The electrical aspects that need consideration while selecting
a transducer include the length and type of cable required. Attention also must be
paid to signal to noise ratio in case the transducer is to be used in conjunction with
amplifiers. Frequency response limitations must also be taken into account.

Stability and Reliability:The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability

to be operative during its operation and storage life.
Measurement of displacement using LVDT (Linear
Variable Differential Transformer
LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one primary winding in the centre
of the former and the two secondary windings placed on both sides of the primary winding.

The secondary windings are identical to each other and are connected in series opposition

Working of LVDT

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a
non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy. A sinusoidal voltage is applied to the
primary winding.

Case 1

When no external force is applied, the core is at the centre of the primary winding, sinusoidal
voltages of equal magnitude will be induced in the two secondary windings. Since the secondary
windings are connected in series opposition, the output voltage Vo will be zero.

On the application of a force F, the core will move in either direction, depending on the direction
of the force applied
Case 2

When the core is moved to towards left side of of null position due to the force
applied.

In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S1 is more as compared to
flux linking with S2. Due to this Es1 will be more as that of Es2. Due to this output
voltage Eo is positive.

Case 3

When the core is moved to towards right side of of null position due to the force
applied.

In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S2 is more as compared to
flux linking with S1. Due to this Es2 will be more as that of Es1. Due to this output
voltage Eo is negative.
Features of LVDT
1 Measurement Range 0-50 mm

2 Accuracy ± 1% of the FSR

3 Linearity ±2% of the total range

4 Operating Temperature -20 to 1200C

5 Supply Voltage 5 V
LVDT APPLICATIONS
● Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used to measure force,
weight, pressure etc
● Used as a null detector in feedback positioning system in aeroplanes,
submarines etc
● To control weight and thickness of medicinal products
● For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for
dispatch
● To continuously detect fluid level as part of leak detection system
● To detect the thickness and number of currency bills dispensed by ATM
● To measure distance between approaching metals during friction welding
process
Thermistor

A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical

resistance varies with changes in temperature. Although all resistors’ resistance
will fluctuate slightly with temperature, a thermistor is particularly sensitive to
temperature changes.
Working
● The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on its
temperature. We can measure the resistance of a thermistor using an ohm
meter.
● If we know the exact relationship between how changes in the temperature
will affect the resistance of the thermistor, then by measuring the thermistor’s
resistance we can derive its temperature.
● How much the resistance changes depends on the type of material used in
the thermistor. The relationship between a thermistor’s temperature and
resistance is non-linear. A typical thermistor graph is shown below:
● If we had a thermistor with the above temperature graph, we could simply line
up the resistance measured by the ohmmeter with the temperature indicated
on the graph.
● By drawing a horizontal line across from the resistance on the y-axis, and
drawing a vertical line down from where this horizontal line intersects with the
graph, we can hence derive the temperature of the thermistor
Uses of thermistors
● Digital thermometers (thermostats)
● Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars &
trucks)
● Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
● Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
● Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
● To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
● Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino
starter kit)
● Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects
caused by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)
● Used in wheatstone bridge circuits
Features of thermistors
● It is rugged and compact
● Inexpensive
● Good stability
● Require relatively simple circuitry
● The response time of thermistors vary from a fraction of seconds to minutes
depending upon size of the detecting mass and capacity of thermistors
● Thermistors are generally made up of semiconductor materials
● Thermistors have generally negative temperature coefficient ie; their
resistance decreases with increase in temperature
● Thermistors can measure the temperature from -100oC to 300oC
Thermocouple
A thermocouple is an active transducer that measures temperature. It works on
the principle of see back effect. They are extensively used for temperature
measurement in industrial applications.

See back effect

Construction and working
● A thermocouple consists of two different types of metals joined together at
one end (hot junction) and terminated at another end (cold junction). When
the hot junction is heated or cooled, a voltage created, which can be
correlated back to the temperature.
● Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used for the construction
of a thermocouple. But practically, only a few materials have found useful for
measuring temperature.
● The working principle is see back effect. Thomas Johan Seebeck discovered
that temperature difference(thermal energy) can produce electrical energy.
● In a thermocouple, two conductors of different type of metals are connected
forming two common junctions. When these two junctions are exposed to two
different temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced. The value also
depends on the materials used and is proportional to the temperature
difference between hot and cold junctions.
● The output of a thermocouple can be measured directly by a millivoltmeter. It
can be also measured with the help of a dc potentiometer or using amplifiers
with an output device.
Applications of thermocouple
● These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes, offices &
businesses.
● These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron, aluminum, and
metal.
● These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature applications.
Thermocouples are used as heat pumps for performing thermoelectric cooling.
● These are used to test temperature in chemical plants, petroleum plants.
● These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.
● Plastic injection moulding machinery
● Used in food processing equipment
● Used in semiconductor processing
● Used in heat treating
● Used in medical equipment
Advantages of Thermocouple

● Cheaper than resistance thermometers.

● Can measure rapid changes in temperature.
● Wide temperature range.
● Offers good reproducibility.
● Convenient for measuring the temperature at one particular point.

Disadvantages of Thermocouple

● Lower accuracy.
● The induced emf-temperature characteristics are non-linear.
● Signal amplification is required in many applications.
Comparison between thermocouple and thermistor
Thermocouple Thermistor

Definition The thermocouple is a type of device Thermistor is the thermal resistor

used for measuring the temperature whose resistance changes with the
temperature

Sensing Parameter Voltage generated at the junction Change in resistance

Material Copper, iron, Constantan, Chromel, Manganese, nickel or cobalt

Alloys of metals like chromium and Oxides, semiconductor material
nickel, platinum and rhodium,

Accuracy High Low

Accuracy High Low

Cost Expensive ( Because of external Cheap

power source and circuit devices)

Temperature range -200 to 1250oC -50 to 250oC

Tachometers
● A tachometer is an instrument used for measuring the rotation speed of a
disc or shaft as in a motor or other machine.
● The device usually displays revolutions per minute on a calibrated scale , but
digital displays are increasingly common
Digital tachometers
Optical sensing: An optical sensor consists of an optical disk placed near the
motor which generates pulses proportional to the rotating shaft. A slotted disk and
IR emitter are used to generate these pulses. Revolution per minute will be the
number of pulses per minute.

Signal Conditioning: The output signals from the sensors are noisy, and
therefore, are filtered, amplified, and digitized so that the microcontroller
recognizes these signals for further action

Memory: The memory unit stores the data from the microcontroller.

Display Unit: The function of the display unit is to view the stored values
transmitted from the microcontroller
DC Tacho generator
● A DC tachometer consists of a small armature which is coupled to a machine
whose speed needs to be measured. The armature revolves in field
generated by a permanent magnet.
● Emf generated is proportional to the product of flux and speed. As flux in the
magnet is constant (Permanent magnet), generated voltage is proportional to
speed. The polarity of voltage output indicates direction of rotation.
● Eg=(ΦZNP)/60A
Advantages of the DC Tacho Generator

● The polarity of the induced voltages indicates the direction of rotation of the
shaft.
● The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the induced
voltage.

Disadvantages of DC Tachogenerator

● The commutator and brushes require the periodic maintenance.

● The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as compared to the
input resistance. If the large current is induced in the armature conductor, the
constant field of the permanent magnet will be distorted.
AC Tachogenerator
● The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which have
many disadvantages. The AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the
problems. The AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic
field. Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer
generator.
● The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator.
The amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed
of the shaft. Thus, either amplitude or frequency is used for measuring the
angular velocity.
● The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by
considering the amplitude of the induced voltage. The induced voltages are
rectified and then passes to the capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples of
rectified voltages
Data Acquisition System
Block Diagram
● Data acquisition system (DAS) is a computerized system that collects data
from the real world, converts it into the form of electrical signals and do
required processing on it for storage, and presentation on computers.
● The complete system is controlled and operated by a software application
● These systems are used in industrial and commercial fields. They are used
for collecting, storing and processing of data.
● The Important components of Data Acquisition System are Sensors,Signal
conditioners, Multiplexer, Analog to Digital converters, Data Acquisition
Software, PC, Data Acquisition Hardware etc.
Transducers: They are converting physical quantities (such as temperature,
pressure, etc.) into electrical quantities, or measuring electrical quantities directly.
They collect data from the physical world.
Signal Conditioning Unit: The signal produced by the transducers may or may
not be very suitable for our system to work properly. It may be very weak, very
strong or may have some noise. To convert this signal into the most suitable form,
amplification, and filtration is done respectively by signal conditioning unit. So the
signal conditioning unit converts electrical signals in the most suitable form.
Multiplexer: The multiplexer receives multiple analog inputs and provides a single
output signal according to the requirements.
Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters: The data is converted into digital form by
A/D converters.
After the conversion of data into digital form, it is displayed with the help of
oscilloscopes, numerical displays, panel meters to monitor the complete system.
Also, the data can be either permanently or temporarily stored or recorded
according to the requirement. The data is recorded on optical, ultraviolet, stylus or
ink recorders for future use.