2009

Solar Cell LAB MANUAL

Solar Cell
LAB MANUAL
This manual was designed for use with the Montana Microfabrication
Facility at Montana State University. The intention of the manual is to
provide lab users and MSU students with a complete description of the
methods used to fabricate Solar Cells on 4‐inch silicon substrates.

Special Thanks to: Author: Todd Kaiser

Brian Peterson Montana State University
Phil Himmer July 2009
 SUPPLIERS
University of Minnesota Nano Fabrication Center (NFC): Photomasks
www.nfc.unm.edu

Virginia Semiconductor: Silicon Substrates

www.virginiasemi.com

EL‐CAT Inc.: Silicon Substrates

www.el‐cat.com

JT Baker: Chemical Supplies

www.mallbaker.com/default.asp

Technical Glass Products Inc: Quartz‐ware

www.technicalglass.com

Kurt J Lesker Company: Evaporation Filaments

www.lesker.com

MSU Chem‐store: Labware/Chemical Supplies

www.chemistry.montana.edu/chemstores

Sigma‐Aldrich: Chemical Supplies

www.sigmaaldrich.com

SPI Supplies: Wafer Tweezers

http://www.2spi.com/spihome.html

Gases Plus: Pressurized Gas Tanks

www.gasesplus.com (406)388‐9109
The suggested high temperature process steps for use in Solar Cell EE 580 lab are listed
here.

P+ diffusion 950°C 50 min

N+ diffusion 850°C 50 min

Dry oxidation 1000°C 80 min

How to use this manual…
The manual is broken up into laboratory segments containing multiple sections: Goals, Equipment,
Parameters, Methods and Results. Each lab a set of process goals is presented to the user along with a list of
equipment and the methods used to achieve those goals. The parameters segment is devoted to process dependent
parameters specific to the fabrication methods used that week. The parameters are color coded to correspond to a
specific process method. The methods section describes the processes used within that lab to achieve the desired
goals. The methods are numbered to correspond to a process goal. The result section is left blank for users to record
the results of that lab’s processes.

10‐Lab Overview
Introduction & P+ Rear Diffusion (Cobleigh) Lab 1
Measure Sheet Resistivity & N+ Front Diffusion (Cobleigh) Lab 2
Thermal Oxidation (AR coating) (Cobleigh) Lab 3
Photolithography & Vias Oxide Etch (Front and Back) (EPS) Lab 4
Cleaning & Aluminum Evaporation (Front) (Cobleigh) Lab 5
Photolithography & Aluminum Contact Etch (Front) (EPS) Lab 6
Cleaning & Aluminum Evaporation (Back) (Cobleigh) Lab 7
Initial Characterization & Annealing (Cobleigh) Lab 8
Post‐Anneal Characterization (Cobleigh) Lab 9
Experiments (Cobleigh) Lab 10
Introduction& P+ Rear Diffusion Lab 1
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Familiarize students with the cleanroom • Wafer Scribe
layout, equipment, safety and procedure. • Boron Diffusion Furnace
2. Present an overview of the solar cell • BORONPLUS GS139 Boron Sources
fabrication process and various
processing techniques (i.e.
photolithography, etching, etc)
3. ID individual wafers
4. P+ Diffusion

PARAMETERS
Boron Diffusion Parameters (Back Contact)
Boron Source Temperature (°C) Time (minutes) N2 Flow
BORONPLUS GS‐139 950 50 7
Methods: Lab 1
1. Clean Room Etiquette
The lab employs many hazardous chemicals and
processes. The safety of the lab students and users is the
number one priority when participating in the lab.
Follow all gowning and safety procedures outlined by
the lab Teaching Assistant (TA).
To maintain the integrity of the wafers and the
equipment, adhere to the process descriptions and
details provided by the lab TA.
The most common reason a wafer will not make
it to the end of the fabrication sequence, is poor
handling. The wafer should be handled with the wafer‐
tweezers and with great attention. Limit the handling of
the wafer with gloved hands to the edges and only
during necessary circumstances. Never touch the wafer
with a bare hand and never touch the center of the
wafer, even with gloved hands.
When processing in the cleanroom, sources of
contamination are another factor which may inhibit the
success of the fabrication. Therefore, do not talk next to
the wafers, keep the lid to the wafer box closed and
lastly, do not hastily move about the clean room and do
not get in a hurry to finish a process. When a lab student
gets in a hurry it creates a situation with a greater likely
hood of breaking a wafer or damaging a piece of
equipment.
Follow proper gowning procedure and
remember the clothing you where is to protect your
wafer from you not to protect you from dangerous
chemicals.
Methods: Lab 1
Figure 1 Overview of the fabrication sequence.
2. Process Overview:
These solar cells are fabricated using a
combination of thin film deposition and etching
techniques. The sequence is a simple set of repeating
steps including oxidation, etching, diffusion, cleaning
and patterning. An overview of the sequence is shown to
the right (Figure 1). The fabrication portion of the lab
should take roughly eight labs to complete and the two
additional labs devoted to characterization and testing.
Document everything seen and done in the
clean room. Record all measureable quantities and
procedures and any deviations. It is important to record
every detail which may help explain device failures or
anomalies.

3. Wafer Characterization and ID:

Semiconductor substrates, referred to as wafers,
can easily be ordered through retailers and customized
for specific applications. The wafers used for the lab are
100mm in diameter, 525±25 µm thick, <100>, single‐side
polished, single‐crystal silicon, doped with boron (P‐type)
to a resistivity of 1‐10 Ω‐cm.
A simple test to determine if the substrate is P‐
type or N‐type silicon is known as the “Hot Probe Test.”
Using a Digital Multi Meter (DMM) and a soldering iron,
heat the positive probe of the DMM for several minutes
with the soldering iron. Make sure the DMM is set to
measure “mV.” Place both probe tips, positive and
negative(ground) to the wafer surface. If the DMM
indicates a positive voltage the substrate is N‐type, if the
voltage is negative the substrate is P‐type. This test
should be accurate up to a resistivity of 1000 Ω‐cm.
Figure 2 Figure showing determination of silicon substrate type.
Methods: Lab 1
Figure 3 Scribing the surface of a wafer using a steel‐tipped scribe.
3. Wafer Characterization and ID:
Continued…
To keep track of individual wafers, a scribe can
be used to mark the back of the wafer with an
identification mark, typically a number or letter (Figure
3).
Proceed by lightly pressing the tip of the scribe
against the surface of the wafer and with as few strokes
as possible ‘scribe’ a section number and wafer number.
Scribing should be done as close to the edge as possible
and opposite of the flat to limit the effect on fabricated
devices.

4. Boron Diffusion:
(Check Parameters section for details)
The goal of the boron diffusion is to create highly doped
P‐type silicon that will improve the contact between the
silicon and the metal on the back of the cell.
To diffuse P‐type (Boron) material, ramp the Lindberg
Blue Boron Diffusion Furnace to 600°C and set the
nitrogen flow. Remove the quartz boat with the solid,
white, BORONPLUS GS‐139 sources already in place.
Load the silicon wafers next to the sources with the back
side facing a source (Figure 4). Insert the quartz boat to
the center of the furnace and ramp the furnace to the
desired temperature (Figure 5). When the desired
temperature is reached start the timer. After the
allotted time, ramp the furnace down to 600°C (or 0°C if
finished with furnace), pull the quartz boat and remove
the wafers and set them aside to cool. When the
temperature drops below 400°C the nitrogen can be Figure 4 An illustration of how the wafers are loaded into the quartz
turned off. boat next to the diffusion sources.
Figure 5 Inserting the boat into the Boron Diffusion Furnace.
 RESULTS: Lab 1
Wafer Number:
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N+ Front Diffusion Lab 2
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Strip the Borosilicate Glass • 6:1 BOE
2. Measure Sheet Resistivity • Teflon Dish
3. Phosphorus Diffusion
• JANDEL 4‐point Probe Station
• Phosphorous Diffusion Furnace
• PHOSPLUS TP‐250 Phosphorous Sources

PARAMETERS:
SiO2 Etch Parameters*
BOE concentration SiO2 Etch Rate (Ǻ/min) Approx. Etch Time (minutes) Etch Mask
6:1 900 5* none
Phosphorous Diffusion Parameters ( N+)
Phosphorous Source Temperature (°C) Time (minutes) N2 Flow
PHOSPLUS TP‐250 850 50 7
Methods: Lab 2
1. Etching the SiO2: Increase the current by another order of
(Check Parameters section for details) magnitude but do not exceed 100 mA, the voltage
should also increase by an order of magnitude. Record
There is a layer of borosilicate glass on the
the value Press ‘FWD’ Record the value for the new
surface of the wafer that needs to be removed before
forward current, it should be an order of magnitude
the wafers can go into the diffusion furnace. This step
should be carried out with extreme care. Begin by larger than the previously recorded value. Press ‘Ω/□’.
pouring enough 6:1 BOE into a Teflon or plastic dish. This is the sheet resistivity measurement.
Submerge the wafer in the 6:1 BOE for the appropriate 3. Phosphorous Diffusion:
amount of time or until the exposed SiO2 is completely (Check Parameters section for details)
removed. Rinse in DI water and dry with the nitrogen The goal of the phosphorous diffusion is to create highly
gun. doped N‐type silicon to create the pn junction of the
2. Sheet Resistivity Measurements: solar cell.
The back of the wafer now has a higher To diffuse N‐type (Phosphorous) material, ramp the
conducting layer on the surface. To characterize the MODULAB Phosphorous Diffusion Furnace to 600°C and
doping the sheet resistivity is measured. Use the JANDEL set the nitrogen flow. Remove the quartz boat with the
4‐point probe (Figure 6) to measure the sheet resistivity solid, white, PHOSPLUS TP‐250 sources already in place.
of the diffusion. Start by raising the probe arm, Load the silicon wafers next to the sources with the
uncapping the tip and placing the wafer on the stage. patterned side facing a source. Insert the quartz boat to
Align the probes over the rear of the wafer opposite of the center of the furnace and ramp the furnace to the
the flat, then lower the probe arm to make contact with desired temperature. When the desired temperature is
the wafer. Set the current to 1uA (press ‘1’ and ‘uA’) reached start the timer. After the allotted time, ramp
Press ‘FWD’ The unit is now passing a current through the furnace down to 600°C (or 0°C if finished with
the sample. It should be giving a positive voltage furnace), pull the quartz boat and remove the wafers
reading. If the voltage reading is negative or less than a and set them aside to cool. When the temperature
millivolt, increase the current by an order of magnitude drops below 400°C the nitrogen can be turned off.
until you get a voltage reading of greater than one
millivolt. Record the voltage value. Press ‘REV’ The unit
is now passing a current through the sample in the
reverse direction. It should be giving a negative voltage
Figure 7 Placing the boat tray on the front of the Phosphorus
reading about the same magnitude as the FWD
Diffusion Furnace .
measurement. Record the value.

Figure 6 The four‐point probe used to measure sheet resistivity

RESULTS: Lab 2
Rear Sheet Resistivity (#1):
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Antireflection Oxidation Lab 3
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Strip the phosphosilicate glass (PSG) • 6:1 BOE
2. Measure Sheet Resistivity • Teflon Dish
3. Dry Oxidation
• JANDEL 4‐point Probe Station
• MODULAB Oxidation Furnace

PARAMETERS:
Oxidation Parameters
Temperature (°C) Time (minutes) Type (wet or dry) N2/O2 Flow Bubbler Setting
1000 80 Dry 7/9 off
M
Methods:
: Lab 3
1. Etching th
he SiO2: 3. Dryy Oxidatio
on: Growing SiO2
(Ch
heck Parameeters section
n for detailss) (Checkk Parameterrs section fo
or details)
There iss a layer of phosphosilica
p te glass on the
t The goal of
o this oxidattion run is to grow the
surrface of the wafer
w that ne
eeds to be removed befo ore antirefflective coating. The oxid de thicknesss should be
thee wafers can go into the oxidation
o furrnace. This sttep approxximately 1300Å thick, wh hich is appro oximately a
shoould be carrried out with extreme care. c Begin by quarter of a wavvelength at the peak off the solar
pouuring enough h 6:1 BOE in nto a Teflon or plastic dissh. spectruum. This oxxide will bee grown in an oxygen
Subbmerge the wafer
w in the 6:1
6 BOE for thet appropriaate environ nment with no water vaapor so it iss called dry
amount of timee or until the exposed SiO O2 is completely oxidatiion.
rem
moved. To oxidize,, insert the wafers into o oxidation
2. Sheet Resiistivity Meeasuremen
nts: furnacee using the quartz rod and quartz boat. b There
REPEAT:T: The front off the wafer noow has a high her should be two dum mmy wafers, one at the frontf of the
connducting layeer on the su urface. To chharacterize the t boat and
a another at the rear, to maintain n uniformity
dopping the sheeet resistivity iss measured. Use
U the JAND DEL across the boat. Raamp the furnace to 600°C C before the
4‐p
point probe to t measure the t sheet reesistivity of the t removing the quarttz boat and loading the wafers.
w Prior
difffusion. Start by raising the e probe arm,, uncapping the t to the temperature reaching 400 0°C, turn on the
t nitrogen
tip and placing the
t wafer on n the stage. Align
A the prob bes to purrge the furnaace. Load thee wafers and d insert the
oveer the rear ofo the waferr opposite off the flat, th hen quartz boat to the center of the furnace an nd ramp the
low
wer the probe arm to maake contact with w the waffer. furnacee to the desired temperaature. When the desired
Sett the current to 1uA (presss ‘1’ and ‘uA A’) Press ‘FW WD’ temperature is reeached startt the timer, stop the
Thee unit is now passing a current through h the sample. It nitrogeen flow and turn
t on the oxygen. After the allotted
shoould be givingg a positive vooltage reading. If the voltaage time, turn
t off the oxygen
o and turn on the nitrogen
n and
reaading is negattive or less than a millivoolt, increase thet ramp the
t furnace down
d to 600°C (or 0°C if fiinished with
currrent by an orrder of magnitude until yo ou get a voltaage furnacee), pull the bo t wafers, and set them
oat, remove the
reaading of greatter than one millivolt. Reccord the voltaage aside to cool.
value. Press ‘REV’ The unitt is now passsing a curreent
through the sam mple in the reeverse directio
on. It should be
giviing a negattive voltage reading about the sam me
Figure 8 After oxidation the wafer will appear
a blue .
magnitude as th he FWD meassurement. Reecord the valu ue.
Increase the currrent by anotther order of magnitude but b
do not exceed 1001 mA, the voltage
v should also increaase
by an order of magnitude.
m Record the value Press ‘FW WD’
Reccord the valu ue for the new w forward cuurrent, it shou uld
be an order off magnitude larger than the previously
reccorded value. Press ‘Ω/□’. This is the sheet
s resistivvity
meeasurement.

The thermal processiing will causee the dopantss to

moove farther into the sub bstrate changging the sheeet
resistivity each time, remeasure the sheeet resistivity of
thee back and compare to thee initial measu urement.
RESULTS: Lab 3
Front Sheet Resistivity (#1):
Rear Sheet Resistivity (#2):
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Photolithography & Vias Oxide Etch Lab 4
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Measure the thickness of the SiO2 layer • Ellipsometer
with the ellipsometer • BREWER Spin‐coater & Hotplate
2. Photolithography (PV Mask 4 Backside
• SHIPLEY 1813 Positive Photoresist
Contacts)
3. Hardbake • ABM Contact Mask Aligner
4. Photolithography (PV Mask 2 SiO2 Etch) • MF 319 Developer
5. Hardbake • 6:1 BOE
6. Oxide Etch • Teflon Cassette

PARAMETERS:
Spin‐coat & Soft‐bake Parameters
Spin Speed Time Ramp Dispense Soft‐bake Temperature Time
Program (RPM) (seconds) (RPM/s) Type Program (°C) (minutes)
(automatic or
manual)
#9 5250 30 20000 Manual #9 115 1
(static)
Exposure & Development Parameters (MASK #4)
Mask Orientation Wafer UV Intensity UV Dose Exposure Time Development
(writing toward Orientation (flat Channel B (J/cm2) (seconds) Time (seconds)
or away from to the left or the (mW/cm2)
user) right)
Toward Left 30 ~135 4.5 30‐60
Hard‐bake Parameters
Hard‐bake Program Temperature (°C) Time (minutes)
#9 115 1
Exposure & Development Parameters (MASK #2)
Mask Orientation Wafer UV Intensity UV Dose Exposure Time Development
(writing toward Orientation (flat Channel B (J/cm2) (seconds) Time (seconds)
or away from to the left or the (mW/cm2)
user) right)
Toward Left 30 ~135 4.5 30‐60
Hard‐bake Parameters
Hard‐bake Program Temperature (°C) Time (minutes)
#9 115 1
SiO2 Etch Parameters* for 1,200‐1,300Ǻ thick SiO2 layer
BOE concentration Dry SiO2 Etch Rate (Ǻ/min) Approx. Etch Time (minutes) Etch Mask
6:1 150 10* Shipley 1813 Photoresist
Methods: Lab 4
1. Measuring the SiO2 thickness: 3. Photolithography with Mask #4 (Backside
Measure the thickness of the silicon dioxide at Contacts):
the points shown on the wafer using the ellipsometer, Exposure & Development
Figure 9. For reference, the ellipsometer prompts for (Check Parameters section for details)
measuring SiO2 thickness estimate and index they are: Proceed by patterning the photoresist with
Thickness 1300 Å Mask #4.
Index 1.46 Load the mask onto the ABM contact‐aligner
mask stage. Turn the mask‐vac on and raise the mask
1
stage. Carefully, load the wafer onto the substrate chuck
4 5 2 backside up and orient it such that the <110> plane
(wafer flat) is to the left and running straight up and
3 down. Turn on the substrate‐vac to lock the wafer in
place and lower the chuck to avoid hitting the contact
mask. Next, lower the mask stage and raise the
2. Photolithography with Mask #4 (Backside substrate chuck up to meet the mask, fringe lines will
Contacts): become visible as the wafer and mask come into
Spin‐coating & Soft‐baking contact. Align the mask to the wafer using the markers
(Check Parameters section for details) on the sides of the wafer. Turn on the contact‐vac to
remove any air gap between mask and wafer. Adjust the
The fourth mask contains the features of the
exposure time and channel setting then expose. Remove
backside contact via etch. The vias are holes in the SiO2
the wafer by turning off the contact‐vac, lowering the
which allow the rear aluminum electrode to contact the
substrate chuck, raising the mask frame, and turning off
diffused silicon surface.
the substrate‐vac. Transfer the wafer to a dish of MF319
Begin by using the BREWER spin‐coater to spin a
developer (a faint outline of the features can be seen at
thin film of SHIPLEY 1813 photoresist onto the backside
this point), submerge the wafer in MF319 and gently
of the wafer. Next, transfer the wafer to the adjacent
swirl for 30‐60 seconds until the exposed resist is
hotplate and soft‐bake to remove solvents and harden
completely dissolved. If done correctly there should be
the resist. A good coating of photoresist will be barely
no photoresist left in the exposed regions. If there is,
visible to the naked eye and have a minimal number of
resubmerge the wafer in the MF319 developer for
streaks or blotches (see Figure 10). If there are a large
additional time. If unsuccessful, use a solvent clean to
number of defects, solvent clean, dehydrate, and try re‐
strip the photoresist, dehydrate and re‐spin again.
spinning the photoresist a second time.
Figure 9 The oxide thickness is measured using the ellipsometer. It When finished, pour the used MF319 into the MF319
measures the light intensity as a function of polarization reflected off waste container located under the solvent bench next to
the surfaces on the wafer
the photoresist.
Figure 10 Wafers that have been spun with photoresist and exhibit
signs of a poor coating i.e. streaking, blotchiness and color gradients
Methods: Lab 4
4. Hard‐baking: Next, lower the mask stage and raise the
(Check Parameters section for details) substrate chuck up to meet the mask, fringe lines will
become visible as the wafer and mask come into
It has been observed, that without hard‐baking,
contact. Align the mask to the wafer using the markers
the photoresist exhibits adhesion problems and
on the sides of the wafer. Turn on the contact‐vac to
frequently delaminates from the surface during etching.
remove any air gap between mask and wafer. Adjust the
Hard‐baking is very similar to soft‐baking and follows the
exposure time and channel setting then expose. Remove
same procedure. Load a wafer onto a hotplate for a set
the wafer by turning off the contact‐vac, lowering the
time at the appropriate temperature.
substrate chuck, raising the mask frame, and turning off
5. Photolithography with Mask #2 (SiO2 Etch):
the substrate‐vac. Transfer the wafer to a dish of MF319
Spin‐coating & Soft‐baking developer (a faint outline of the features can be seen at
(Check Parameters section for details) this point), submerge the wafer in MF319 and gently
The PV Mask #2 contains the features of the swirl for 30‐60 seconds until the exposed resist is
front side oxide contact etch. The oxide is removed completely dissolved. If done correctly there should be
which allows the aluminum fingers to contact the doped no photoresist left in the diffusion contact regions (see
silicon surface. Figure 10). If there is, resubmerge the wafer in the
REPEAT: Begin by using the BREWER spin‐coater to spin MF319 developer for additional time. If unsuccessful,
a thin film of SHIPLEY 1813 photoresist onto the topside use a solvent clean to strip the photoresist, dehydrate
of the wafer. Next, transfer the wafer to the adjacent and re‐spin again. When finished, pour the used MF319
hotplate and soft‐bake to remove solvents and harden into the MF319 waste container located under the
the resist. A good coating of photoresist will be barely solvent bench next to the photoresist.
visible to the naked eye and have a minimal number of 7. Etching the SiO2:
streaks or blotches (see Figure 9). If there are a large (Check Parameters section for details)
number of defects, solvent clean, dehydrate, and try re‐
This step should be carried out by the lab TA for
spinning more photoresist.
safety reasons. Begin by loading the wafers into a Teflon
6. Photolithography with Mask #2 (SiO2 Etch): cassette with equal spacing between wafers. Using the
Exposure & Development handle, submerge the cassette in 6:1 BOE for the
(Check Parameters section for details) appropriate amount of time or until the exposed SiO2 is
Proceed by patterning the photoresist with completely removed. To determine if the SiO2 is
Mask #2. completely removed, check the regions for color (see
REPEAT: Load the mask onto the ABM contact‐aligner Figure 11) and hydrophobicity. When the silicon dioxide
mask stage. Turn the mask‐vac on and raise the mask etch is complete, remove the cassette. Place the
stage. Carefully, load the wafer onto the substrate chuck cassette in the rinse sink then run the rinse cycle, and
top surface up and orient it such that the <110> plane then dry the wafers with the nitrogen gun when
(wafer flat) is to the left and running straight up and completed.
down. Turn on the substrate‐vac to lock the wafer in
place and lower the chuck to avoid hitting the contact
mask.
M
Masks: Lab 4
FFront silicon dioxide etch to expose the silicon for metal
m
c
contacts. Figurre 11. Wafers that
t have oxidee will have a ch
haracteristic collor
depeending on the thickness of the oxxide.

TThe metal etcch creates the

e electrical co
ontacts and
w
wording on thhe surface.
SiO2 Thickness (Ǻ):
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Cleaning & Al Evaporation (Front) Lab 5
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Solvent Clean • Acetone, Methanol, Isopropyl
2. Aluminum PVD • MODULAB Physical Vapor Deposition
3. Measure Sheet Resistivity System
• JANDEL 4‐point Probe Station

PARAMETERS:
Aluminum Deposit Parameters* for 3000‐4000Ǻ thick Aluminum layer
Al Foil Area (cm2) Al Foil Thickness (µ) Filament to Wafer Distance (cm) Power Level
30 40 13.5 40%
Methods: Lab 5
1. Solvent Clean: 3. Sheet Resistivity Measurements:
To remove the photoresist a solvent clean is REPEAT: The aluminum layer on the wafer
performed. Rinse the wafer with acetone using the creates a higher conducting layer on the surface. To
squirt bottle, and follow with isopropyl and methanol. characterize the aluminum layer the sheet resistivity is
Rinse the wafers in DI water. measured. Use the JANDEL 4‐point probe (Figure 6) to
Place the wafers in the acid bath cassette and measure the sheet resistivity of the aluminum. Start by
clean them in the nanostrip bath. After the allotted time raising the probe arm, uncapping the tip and placing the
spray rinse the cassette and place it in the Semitool wafer on the stage. Align the probes over the rear of the
rinser and dryer. Run the cleaning program. wafer opposite of the flat, then lower the probe arm to
make contact with the wafer. Set the current to 1uA
Figure 12 Use a three solvent clean to remove the photoresist from (press ‘1’ and ‘uA’) Press ‘FWD’ The unit is now passing a
the wafer.
current through the sample. It should be giving a
positive voltage reading. If the voltage reading is less
than a millivolt, increase the current by an order of
magnitude until you get a voltage reading of greater
than one millivolt. Record the value. Press ‘REV’ The unit
is now passing a current through the sample in the
reverse direction. It should be giving a negative voltage
reading about the same magnitude as the FWD
measurement. Record the value. Increase the current by
another order of magnitude but do not exceed 100 mA,
the voltage should also increase by an order of
magnitude. Record the value Press ‘FWD’ Record the
value for the new forward current, it should be an order
of magnitude larger than the previously recorded value.
Press ‘Ω/□’. This is the sheet resistivity measurement.
2. Aluminum PVD:
Figure 13 Hanging the Wafers in the Evaporator.
The goal of the aluminum evaporation is to
create a thin film of aluminum on the topside of the
wafer. The aluminum will be patterned with Mask #3
(Metal 1) to create electrical contact pads for
characterizing the finished devices. The evaporation is
accomplished with the MODULAB PVD system. See the
MODULAB PVD operations manual for more
information.
Approximately 30‐40 cm2 of aluminum should be
evaporated. This will provide roughly 0.5‐0.7µm of
aluminum on the wafer surface. If sufficient coverage is
not obtained the wafers can be rotated in the holder
and a second coat of aluminum can be evaporated over
the first coating.
RESULTS: Lab 5
Front Aluminum Sheet Resistance (Ω/□):
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Ph
hotoliithogrraphy
y & All Conttact Etch L 6
Lab
GO
OALS: EQU
UIPMENTT:
1. Photolitho
ography (P
PV Mask #33 Metal 1) • BREWER spin‐coater anda hotplaate
2. Hardbakee • HIPLEY 181
SH 13 positivee photoresist
3. Aluminumm Etch • ABM Contact Mask Aligner
4. Measure Aluminum m thicknesss • M 319 devveloper
MF
• PA
AN Etch
• W
Wafer Glasssware
• AMBIOS Proofilometer

PA
ARAMETTERS:
Spin‐coat & Soft‐bake
S Parrameters
Spin Speed Time Ramp Dispen nse Softtbake Temperature Time
P
Program (RPM) (seconds) (RPM/s) Typee Proggram (°C) (minutes)
(automattic or
manuaal)
#9 5250 30 20000 Manual #
#2 115 2
(staticc)
Exposurre & Develop pment Param meters (MASK K #3)
Maask Orientatio
on Waafer UV Intensityy UVV Dose Exposure Tim
me Devvelopment
(w
writing towardd Orientattion (flat Channel B (J//cm2) (seconds)) Timee (seconds)
o away from
or to the le
eft or the (mW/cm2)
user) right)
Away Le
eft 30 ~
~135 4.5 30‐60
Hard‐b
bake Parametters
Hardbaake Program Tem
mperature (°C)) Time (minutess)
#2 115 2
Aluminum Ettch Paramete ers* for 0.5‐1uum thick aluminnum layer
Etchant Appprox. Etch Ratte (Å /min) Approx. Ettch Time (min nutes) Etch Mask
M
PAE 350 15* (Roo om Temperature) Shipley 1813 Photoresist
P
Methods: Lab 6
1. Photolithography with Mask #3 (Metal 1): 2. Photolithography with Mask #3 (Metal 1):
Spin‐coating & Soft‐baking Exposure & Development
(Check Parameters section for details) (Check Parameters section for details)
The third mask contains the features for the top Proceed by patterning the photoresist with
side metal contacts. Mask #3.
REPEAT: Begin by using the BREWER spin‐coater REPEAT: Load the mask onto the ABM contact‐
to spin a thin film of SHIPLEY 1813 photoresist onto the aligner mask stage. Turn the mask‐vac on and raise the
topside of the wafer. Next, transfer the wafer to the mask stage. Carefully, load the wafer onto the substrate
adjacent hotplate and soft‐bake to remove solvents and chuck and orient it such that the <110> plane (wafer flat)
harden the resist. A good coating of photoresist will be is to the left and running straight up and down. Turn on
barely visible to the naked eye and have a minimal the substrate‐vac to lock the wafer in place and lower
number of streaks or blotches (see Figure 7). If there are the chuck to avoid hitting the contact mask. Next, lower
a large number of defects, solvent clean, dehydrate, and the mask stage and raise the substrate chuck up to meet
try re‐spinning more photoresist. the mask, fringe lines will become visible as the wafer
and mask come into contact. Align the mask to the wafer
Figure 14 A student using the ABM mask aligner to align Mask #3 and using the markers on the sides of the wafer. Turn on the
exposing. contact‐vac to remove any air gap between mask and
wafer. Adjust the exposure time and channel setting
then expose. Remove the wafer by turning off the
contact‐vac, lowering the substrate chuck, raising the
mask frame, and turning off the substrate‐vac. Transfer
the wafer to a dish of MF319 developer (a faint outline
of the features can be seen at this point), submerge the
wafer in MF319 and gently swirl for 30‐60 seconds until
the exposed resist is completely dissolved. If done
correctly there should be no photoresist left in the
diffusion contact regions (see Figure 8). If there is,
resubmerge the wafer in the MF319 developer for
additional time. If unsuccessful, use a solvent clean to
strip the photoresist, dehydrate and re‐spin again.
When finished, pour the used MF319 into the MF319
waste container located under the solvent bench next to
the photoresist.
2. Hard‐baking:
(Check Parameters section for details)
REPEAT: It has been observed, that without
hard‐baking, the photoresist exhibits adhesion problems
and frequently delaminates from the surface during
etching. Hard‐baking is very similar to soft‐baking and
follows the same procedure. Load a wafer onto a
hotplate for a set time at the appropriate temperature.
Methods: Lab 6
3. Etching Aluminum: 4. Aluminum Thickness Measurements:
(Check Parameters section for details) Measure the thickness of the patterned
The exposed aluminum is removed in a PAN Acid aluminum film with the AMBIOS Stylus Profilometer,
Etch (PAE) one wafer at a time. The PAN contains three Figure 16. Begin by loading a wafer onto the stage. Using
acids: phosphoric, acetic, and nitric. It etches aluminum the XP2 software move the stage and wafer beneath the
at approximately 350Å/min and is highly selective to stylus. Adjust the stylus height and stage position over a
aluminum compared to photoresist. patterned feature. Scan the feature with an appropriate
Begin by pouring a small amount of PAE into a scan length, speed, and force. Consult the AMBIOS
pyrex or Teflon evaporating dish. Submerge a wafer and operations manual for more details. The results should
gently swirl until the exposed aluminum has been resemble the following figure, Figure 17.
etched. A visible etch front will move across the wafer as
the aluminum is removed (see Figure 15). The etch will Figure 16 The Stylus Profilometer is used to measure steps in thin
films.
take between 10‐15 minutes to complete. The etch rate
increases with temperature. The evaporating dish can be
placed on a hot plate and heated to 70⁰C to increase the
etch rate. The complete etch will then only take several
minutes.

Figure 15 Aluminum being etched in PAE. Note the etch front moving
from left to right. This is a result of a varying thickness in the
aluminum created during the evaporation.

Figure 17 Profilometer data of an aluminum pad. The data reveals

the thickness of the aluminum film.

3. Solvent Clean:
REPEAT: To remove the photoresist a solvent
clean is performed. Rinse the wafer with acetone using
the squirt bottle, and follow with isopropyl and
methanol. Rinse the wafers in DI water.
Place the wafers in the acid bath cassette and
clean them in the nanostrip bath. After the allotted time
spray rinse the cassette and place it in the Semitool
rinser and dryer. Run the rinsing program.
RESULTS: Lab 6
Aluminum Thickness (Ǻ):
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NOTES/CHANGES:
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Cleaning & Al Evaporation (Back) Lab 7
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Solvent Clean • Acetone, Methanol, Isopropyl
2. Aluminum PVD • MODULAB Physical Vapor Deposition
3. Measure Sheet Resistivity System
• JANDEL 4‐point Probe Station

PARAMETERS:
Aluminum Deposit Parameters* for 3000‐4000Ǻ thick Aluminum layer
Al Foil Area (cm2) Al Foil Thickness (µ) Filament to Wafer Distance (cm) Power Level
30 40 13.5 40%
Methods: Lab 7
1. Solvent Clean: 3. Sheet Resistivity Measurements:
REPEAT: To remove the photoresist a solvent The aluminum layer on the wafer creates a
clean is performed. Rinse the wafer with acetone using higher conducting layer on the surface. To characterize
the squirt bottle, and follow with methanol and the aluminum layer the sheet resistivity is measured.
isopropyl. Rinse the wafers in DI water. Use the JANDEL 4‐point probe (Figure 6) to measure the
Place the wafers in the acid bath cassette and sheet resistivity of the aluminum. Start by raising the
clean them in the nanostrip bath. After the allotted time probe arm, uncapping the tip and placing the wafer on
spray rinse the cassette and place it in the Semitool the stage. Align the probes over the rear of the wafer
rinser and dryer. Run the cleaning program. opposite of the flat, then lower the probe arm to make
contact with the wafer. Set the current to 1uA (press ‘1’
2. Aluminum PVD: and ‘uA’) Press ‘FWD’ The unit is now passing a current
REPEAT: The goal of this aluminum evaporation through the sample. It should be giving a positive
is to create a thin film of aluminum on the backside of voltage reading. If the voltage reading is less than a
the wafer. The aluminum will not be patterned. The millivolt, increase the current by an order of magnitude
evaporation is accomplished with the MODULAB PVD until you get a voltage reading of greater than one
system. See the MODULAB PVD operations manual for millivolt. Record the value. Press ‘REV’ The unit is now
more information. passing a current through the sample in the reverse
Approximately 40‐50 cm2 of aluminum should be direction. It should be giving a negative voltage reading
evaporated. This will provide roughly 0.5‐0.7µm of about the same magnitude as the FWD measurement.
aluminum on the wafer surface. If sufficient coverage is Record the value. Increase the current by another order
not obtained the wafers can be rotated in the holder of magnitude but do not exceed 100 mA, the voltage
and a second coat of aluminum can be evaporated over should also increase by an order of magnitude. Record
the first coating. the value Press ‘FWD’ Record the value for the new
forward current, it should be an order of magnitude
Figure 18 The backside of the wafer should be entirely covered with larger than the previously recorded value. Press ‘Ω/□’.
aluminum.
This is the sheet resistivity measurement.

Figure 19 The sheet resistivity measurement is taken by pressing the

‘Ω/□‘ button.
RESULTS: Lab 7
Rear Aluminum Sheet Resistance (Ω/□):
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Initial Characterization & Annealing Lab 8
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Measure the short circuit current and the • Digital Multi‐Meter (2)
open circuit voltage • Flood Light
2. Anneal the wafer to improve the • Programmable Hot‐Plate
electrical contact between the metal and
semiconductor.

PARAMETERS:
Aluminum Anneal
Hot Plate Temperature (⁰C) Time (minutes)
400 30
Methods: Lab 8
1. Characterization: 2. Annealing:
The two measurements that gives an indication Typically the results of the characterization
of the performance of the solar cell are the Open Circuit measurements are poor. This is because there is not a
Voltage (Voc) and the Short Circuit Current (Isc). Both are good electrical contact between the deposited
measured by placing a Digital Multimeter (DMM) across aluminum and the silicon. This contact can be improved
the contacts of the solar cell. by the inter‐diffusion of the aluminum and silicon during
Place your wafer in the test bed be sure that the annealing of the wafer. The annealing is done by
contact is made to one solar cell front pads and the rear placing the wafer on a hot plate and heating the wafer.
aluminum of the wafer. Connect the front side contact Figure 21 Annealing the solar cell wafer on a hot plate.
to the common terminal of the DDM and the rear
contact to the Voltage terminal. Illuminate the solar cell
and set the DDM to measure DC voltage. Record the
Open Circuit Voltage (Figure 20). Move the Rear contact
to the Current Terminal and set the DDM to measure DC
current. Record the Short Circuit Current.
Figure 20 Set up to measure the Open Circuit Voltage and the Short
Circuit Current of the solar cell.
Post‐Anneal Characterization Lab 9
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Create current – voltage plots for each of • Flood Light
your four solar cells. • Contact station
• Digital Multi Meter (2)
• Decade Resistor Box

PARAMETERS:
Figure 22 Test set up with flood light as source.
Methods: Lab 9
Figure 23 Schematic of the Voltage – Current Measurement System At short circuit, the solar cell produces electric
current but not voltage. At open circuit, the solar cell
produces voltage but no current. Electric power is
defined as the product of the current and the voltage.
Somewhere between these points where zero power is
produced a maximum power operating point exists.
Place the data in a spreadsheet or graphing
program with one column recording the voltage another
column recording the current and a third column that
records the product of the voltage and the current,
which is the power generated. Plot the IV curve with the
current on the vertical or y‐axis and voltage on the
horizontal or x‐axis. Plot the power in the vertical axis
(use the right axis or plot a second graph) and the
Place your wafer in the test bed. Be sure that voltage on the horizontal axis. Find the maximum power
contacts are made to one solar cell front pads and the on the curve and find the corrsponding voltage and
rear aluminum of the wafer. Connect the front side current. This is the maximum power your solar cell can
contact to the common terminal of the DMM and the produce under this illumination condition.
rear contact to the Voltage terminal, turn the knob such Repeat these two plots for each of your solar
that the DMM is acting as a voltmeter (VDC). Connect a cells. Discuss the differences in the four solar cells and
second DMM Current terminal to the Voltage terminal their corresponding IV curves and power plots.
of the first DMM and the common terminal to a decade Calculate the fill factor, FF = Pmax/(IscVoc). For a
resistor box and turn the knob on the DMM to measure good cell this should be 0.7 or greater. It is a measure of
DC current (ADC). Connect the other terminal of the how “square” the IV characterization curve is.
decade resistor box to the common terminal of the first
DMM that is acting as a voltmeter. The set up should be
ready to measure the voltage and current output of the
solar cell as the load resistance is varied as shown in
Figure 23.

Illuminate the solar cell with the flood light and

record the voltage and current readings as the load
resistance is varied. Fill out the following results sheet
for each of your four solar cells. Record your wafer
marking, the fabrication dates, which solar cell you are
testing (top left, top right, bottom left, or bottom right)
the date you tested your solar cell, the final sheet
resistivities and the thermal processing times and
temperatures in the places provided. You will be turning
in a copy of these sheets for each of your solar cells.
They will be used to monitor the process results with the
possibility of improving the process in future offerings of
the class.
RESULTS: Lab 9
Wafer: Fab Dates:

Top Bot
Device: Top Left Right Bot Left Right Test Date:

Isc: Voc:

R (Ohms) I (mA) V (mV) p+ Sheet Resistivity

Isc= 0
0
1
2 n+ Sheet Resistivity
3
4
5
6 Front Al Sheet Resistivity
7
8
9
10 Back Al Sheet Resistivity
20
30
40
50
60 Forward Resistance
70
80
90
100
200 Reverse Resistance
300
400
500
600 N+ Diffusion Time Temperature
700
800
900 P+ Diffusion Time Temperature
1000
2000
10000 Oxidation Time Temperature
∞ 0 Voc=
RESULTS: Lab 9
Wafer: Fab Dates:

Top Bot
Device: Top Left Right Bot Left Right Test Date:

Isc: Voc:

R (Ohms) I (mA) V (mV) p+ Sheet Resistivity

Isc= 0
0
1
2 n+ Sheet Resistivity
3
4
5
6 Front Al Sheet Resistivity
7
8
9
10 Back Al Sheet Resistivity
20
30
40
50
60 Forward Resistance
70
80
90
100
200 Reverse Resistance
300
400
500
600 N+ Diffusion Time Temperature
700
800
900 P+ Diffusion Time Temperature
1000
2000
10000 Oxidation Time Temperature
∞ 0 Voc=
RESULTS: Lab 9
Wafer: Fab Dates:

Top Bot
Device: Top Left Right Bot Left Right Test Date:

Isc: Voc:

R (Ohms) I (mA) V (mV) p+ Sheet Resistivity

Isc= 0
0
1
2 n+ Sheet Resistivity
3
4
5
6 Front Al Sheet Resistivity
7
8
9
10 Back Al Sheet Resistivity
20
30
40
50
60 Forward Resistance
70
80
90
100
200 Reverse Resistance
300
400
500
600 N+ Diffusion Time Temperature
700
800
900 P+ Diffusion Time Temperature
1000
2000
10000 Oxidation Time Temperature
∞ 0 Voc=
RESULTS: Lab 9
Wafer: Fab Dates:

Top Bot
Device: Top Left Right Bot Left Right Test Date:

Isc: Voc:

R (Ohms) I (mA) V (mV) p+ Sheet Resistivity

Isc= 0
0
1
2 n+ Sheet Resistivity
3
4
5
6 Front Al Sheet Resistivity
7
8
9
10 Back Al Sheet Resistivity
20
30
40
50
60 Forward Resistance
70
80
90
100
200 Reverse Resistance
300
400
500
600 N+ Diffusion Time Temperature
700
800
900 P+ Diffusion Time Temperature
1000
2000
10000 Oxidation Time Temperature
∞ 0 Voc=
Experiments Lab 10
GOALS: EQUIPMENT:
1. Conduct angle experiments on your • Flood Light
solar cell • Contact station
2. Other questions and possible • Digital Multi Meter (2)
experiments • Decade Resistor Box

Methods: Lab 10
Figure 23 Schematic of the Voltage – Current Measurement System Lambert’s Law of Illlumination states that the
illumination of a surface is proportional to the cosine of
the angle between the incident light rays and the normal
to the surface.
cos
P is the power obtained, A is a product of the
incoming intensity of the light, area of the solar cell and
its efficiency (the power attained when the light is
perpendicular to the cell) and θ is the angle of the light
to the normal.
Plot the experimental power obtained on the
vertical y‐axis and the angle on the horizontal x‐axis.
Superimpose a plot of the cosine function with an
amplitude (A) equal to the peak power obtained. See
Place your wafer in the test bed be sure that how well the two plots match and discuss the
contact is made to one solar cell front pads and the rear discrepancies.
aluminum of the wafer. Set the resistance to the
optimum power point. Place the solar cell at 0⁰ where
the solar cell is directly facing the light source. Measure
the voltage and the current using the multimeters.
Record the values in a table. Calculate the power by
mulitiplying the voltage by the corresponding current
record this calculation. Now change the angle of the
solar cell and repeat the measurements of the voltage,
current and power. Step the angle ±10⁰ increments
filling in the table from +90⁰ to 0⁰ to ‐90⁰
Wafer Layou
W L ut
The follo
owing image is of the wafeer layout. Eacch wafer conttains 4 devicees as well as a test structurre.
Wafer: Fab Dates:

Top Top Bot

Device: Left Right Bot Left Right Test Date:

Isc: Voc:

R (Ohms) I (mA) V (mV) p+ Sheet Resistivity

Isc= 0
0
1
2 n+ Sheet Resistivity
3
4
5
6 Front Al Sheet Resistivity
7
8
9
10 Back Al Sheet Resistivity
20
30
40
50
60 Forward Resistance
70
80
90
100
200 Reverse Resistance
300
400
500
600 N+ Diffusion Time Temperature
700
800
900 P+ Diffusion Time Temperature
1000
2000
3000 Oxidation Time Temperature
4000
5000
6000
7000
∞ 0 Voc=
Question 1: How does the voltage change when the distance between a bright light and a solar cell is varied?

Measure the distance from the center of a bulb to the face of the solar cell and record the voltage.

Distance 10cm 20cm 30cm 40cm 50cm 60cm 70cm 80cm 90cm 100cm
Voltage (V)

1
V∝
d2

Question 2: How does the current change when the distance between a bright light and a solar cell is varied?

Measure the distance from the center of a bulb to the face of the solar cell and record the voltage.

Distance 10cm 20cm 30cm 40cm 50cm 60cm 70cm 80cm 90cm 100cm
Current (mA)

1
I∝
d2

Question 3: How does the power change when the angle between the light and the solar cell is varied?

Measure the angle from the center of a bulb to the normal of the face of the solar cell and record the voltage,
current, and power.

Angle 0 ±10 ±20 ±30 ±40 ±50 ±60 ±70 ±80 ±90
power(mW)

Question 4: Does the color of the light affect the voltage and current of the solar cell?

Filter the light reaching the solar cell by placing colored cellophane over the solar cell.

Color: Clear Purple Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Voltage (V)
Current (mA)

Question 5: Does the area illuminated affect the voltage and current of the solar cell?

Use the cardboard to cover fractions of the solar cell and record the voltage and current.

Coverage 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Voltage (V)
Current (mA)
Question 6: Does the position where the light strikes the solar cell impact the voltage and current of the solar cell?

Cut a hole smaller than the solar cell in a piece of cardboard. Record the voltage and current as the hole is moved to
different positions on the solar cell. Does the shape of the hole matter? Does the size of the hole matter?

Other Questions:

Affects of temperature
Glass over the solar cell
Water on the solar cell
Reflected light versus direct light
Polarization