1.

1 Data communication and its characteristics

What is Data Communication?

Data communications means the exchange of data between two devices

via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be
part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs).
Characteristics of Data Communications:

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four

fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered
in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.

4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us
assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality
in the video is the result.

1.2 Components of data communication Transmitter, Receiver, Medium, Message, Protocol.

Standards, Standard organizations. Basic block diagram of data communication.

Following are the five components of a data communication

network.
 1. Data
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Protocol

Five ( 5 ) Components of a Data Communication Network.

1. Data:
Communication of data means a message or data will be transmitted from one
device and will be received in the destination or target device. Thus the first
component in a data communication network is data or message to that needs to be
delivered and received. Data or message can be of various forms such as text,
audio, video, image or combinations of these forms etc.

2. Sender:
A data must has to be sent to a destination from a source. This source is called the
sender. The device that sends the data to the destination or target is the Sender. It
can be a computer, cell phone, video camera and so on.

3. Receiver:
The destination of a transmitted data is the receiver which will receive the data. The
device that receives the data that was sent by the Sender is the Receiver. A receiver
can again be a computer, cell phone, video camera and so on.

4. Transmission medium:
In data communication network, the transmission medium is the physical path for the
data to travel to its destination after being sent by the Sender. Receiver receives the
data at one end of this path and the sender sent from another end of the path.
Transmission medium could be like twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable etc.

5. Protocol:
A protocol is nothing but a set of rules that applies on the full data communication
procedure. This is like an agreement between the two devices to successfully
communicate with each other. For example, how the data will be sent, how the data
will be traveling, how to ensure that full data has received, how to handle errors in
transmission etc. Both devices follow the same set of rules or protocol so that they
understand each other.

Network Standards
Networking standards define the rules for data communications that are needed for
interoperability of networking technologies and processes. Standards help in creating
and maintaining open markets and allow different vendors to compete on the basis
of the quality of their products while being compatible with existing market products.
During data communication, a number of standards may be used simultaneously at
the different layers. The commonly used standards at each layer are:

1. Application layer : HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP

Post Office Protocol (POP) is a type of computer networking and Internet

standard protocol that extracts and retrieves email from a remote mail server
for access.

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a standard protocol for accessing

email on a remote server from a local client. IMAP is an application layer
Internet Protocol using the underlying transport layer protocols to establish
host-to-host communication services for applications.

2. Transport layer: TCP, SPX ( it is Novell Netware OS Sequenced Packet

Exchange)
3. Network layer: IP, IPX ( Inter Network Packet Exchange )
4. Data link layer: Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
5. Physical layer: RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem) IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN

Types of Standards
Standards are of two types

1. De facto: These are the standards that are followed without any formal plan or
approval by any organization. They have come into existence due to traditions
or facts. For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.
2. De jure: These standards are the ones which have been adopted through
legislation by any officially recognized standards organization. Most of the
communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.

Standards Organizations
Some of the noted standards organizations are

1. International Standards Organization (ISO)

2. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
3. Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
5. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
6. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 7. Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI)

Block diagram of Basic Digital communication system.

Input transducer : convert i/p Signal Voice or image into Binary signal .i.e 0 1 1 0

Source encoder : It perform data compression using Huffman’s coding etc.

Channel Encoder : Used Error Detection or correction scheme such as CRC code
and Hamming code .

Digital Modulator : Used carrier and ASK, PSK, QPSK, QAM scheme to Modulate Binary Signal.

1.3 Data Transmission: Serial, Parallel Synchronous, Asynchronous, Isochronous transmission

Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and
synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission:

Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between
data bytes to synchronize the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is
transmitted correctly. The time between sending and receiving data bits is not
constant, so gaps are used to provide time between transmissions.

The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is

required between the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost effective
method. A disadvantage is that data transmission can be slower, but this is not
always the case.
Synchronous Serial Transmission :
Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The
data transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency;
therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used. This means that data moves
faster and timing errors are less frequent because the transmitter and receiver time
is synced. However, data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being synced
correctly between devices. In comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this
method is usually more expensive.

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data Transmission

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:

• it is easier to program;
• and data is sent faster.

Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission
channels than serial transmission. This means that data bits can be out of sync,
depending on transfer distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple of example of
where this can be seen is with a voice over IP (VOIP) call when distortion or
interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when there is skipping or interference
on a video stream.
When is parallel transmission used to send data?

Parallel transmission is used when:

• a large amount of data is being sent;

• the data being sent is time-sensitive;
• and the data needs to be sent quickly.

A scenario where parallel transmission is used to send data is video streaming.

When a video is streamed to a viewer, bits need to be received quickly to prevent a
video pausing or buffering. Video streaming also requires the transmission of large
volumes of data. The data being sent is also time-sensitive as slow data streams
result in poor viewer experience.

Isochronous transmission :-

isochronous transmission is designed to provide a steady bit flow for multimedia

applications. Delivering such data at a steady rate is essential. An isochronous
network is designed to accept and send data at a fixed rate. As an example, an
isochronous mechanism designed to transfer voice operates at 64,000 bits/s. The
sender must generate digitized audio continuously at exactly 64000 bit/s. A receiver
must be able to accept and play the stream.So, isochronous, not only is the clock
rate synchronous but so is the data rate.

1.4 Transmission characteristics: Signalling rate, data rate, bit rate, baud rate :

Bit Rate : The speed of the data is expressed in bits per second (bits/s or bps). The
data rate R is a function of the duration of the bit or bit time (TB) (Fig. 1, again): R =
1/TB Rate is also called channel capacity C. If the bit time is 10 ns, the data rate
equals: R = 1/10 x 10–9 = 100 million bits/s This is usually expressed as 100 Mbits/s.

Baud Rate :The term “baud” originates from the French engineer Emile Baudot,
who invented the 5-bit teletype code. Baud rate refers to the number of signal or
symbol changes that occur per second. A symbol is one of several voltage,
frequency, or phase changes. NRZ binary has two symbols, one for each bit 0 or 1,
that represent voltage levels. In this case, the baud or symbol rate is the same as the
bit rate. However, it’s possible to have more than two symbols per transmission
interval, whereby each symbol represents multiple bits. With more than two symbols,
data is transmitted using modulation techniques. When the transmission medium
can’t handle the baseband data, modulation enters the picture. Of course, this is true
of wireless. Baseband binary signals can’t be transmitted directly; rather, the data is
modulated on to a radio carrier for transmission. Some cable connections even use
modulation to increase the data rate, which is referred to as “broadband
transmission.”

By using multiple symbols, multiple bits can be transmitted per symbol. For example,
if the symbol rate is 4800 baud and each symbol represents two bits, that translates
into an overall bit rate of 9600 bits/s. Normally the number of symbols is some power
of two. If N is the number of bits per symbol, then the number of required symbols is
S = . Thus, the gross bit rate is: R = baud rate x log2S = baud rate x 3.32 log10S If
the baud rate is 4800 and there are two bits per symbol, the number of symbols is
= 4. The bit rate is: R = 4800 x 3.32 log(4) = 4800 x 2 = 9600 bits/s If there’s only
one bit per symbol, as is the case with binary NRZ, the bit and baud rates remain the
same.

Signalling Rate :-In telecommunication, data signaling rate (DSR), also known
as gross bit rate, is the aggregate rate at which data pass a point in
the transmission path of a data transmission system.

The DSR is usually expressed in bits per second.

Data Rate : The data rate is a term to denote the transmission speed, or the
number of bits per second transferred. The useful data rate for the user is usually
less than the actual data rate transported on the network. One reason for this is that
additional bits are transferred for e.g. signalling, the address, the recovery of timing
information at the receiver or error correction to compensate for possible
transmission errors.

In telecommunications, it is common use to express the data rate in bits per

seconds (bit/s), refer bit rate. In data communication, the data rate is often
expressed in bytes per second (B/s).

1.5 Need of computer networks, Network criteria, advantages of networking

If your business has more than one computer, chances are you could benefit from
networking them. A local area network (LAN) connects your company’s computers,
allowing them to share and exchange a variety of information. While one computer
can be useful on its own, several networked computers can be much more useful.
Here are some of the ways a computer network can help your business:

1.Sharing files. You can access files on other network computers. This can be
very handy, for example, when you’re paying bills on a laptop in the living
room, and you need a file that’s on the computer in your home office. With a
network, you can access that file without having to physically go to the other
computer. And you’re in control: with a network, you can share what you want
to share and keep private what you want to keep private.
2. Streaming media. Media streaming refers to the process of sending digital
media, such as photos, music, or video, over a network to a device that can play
the media. For instance, you can view your photos or movies on some current-
generation TVs, or you can play music on some compatible stereo receivers that
are connected to your network.
3. Organization. A variety of scheduling software is available that makes it
possible to arrange meetings without constantly checking everyone’s schedules.
This software usually includes other helpful features, such as shared address
books and to-do lists.

Sharing an Internet connection. You can share a broadband Internet connection—

which means you don’t have to buy a separate Internet account for each computer.

4. Remote access. Having your own network allows greater mobility while
maintaining the same level of productivity. With remote access in place, users
are able to access the same files, data, and messages even when they’re not
in the office. This access can even be given to mobile handheld devices.
5. Playing network games. You can play computer games with other people on
the Internet, and you can even connect game consoles (such as Microsoft
Xbox, Nintendo Wii, and Sony PlayStation) to your network.
 6. Sharing a printer. Instead of buying a printer to connect to each computer, you
can use one printer and connect it to the network. Then everyone on the
network can use it.
7. Data protection. You should know by now that it’s vital to back up your
computer data regularly. A network makes it easier to back up all of your
company’s data on an offsite server, a set of tapes, CDs, or other backup
systems.

Network Criteria ( The Data Network must meet following Criteria )

The major criteria that a Data Communication Network must meet are:

a. Performance
b. Consistency
c. Reliability
d. Recovery
e. Security

a.Performance :- Performance is the defined as the rate of transferring error free

data. It is measured by the Response Time. Response Time is the elapsed time
between the end of an inquiry and the beginning of a response. Request a file
transfer and start the file transfer. Factors that affect Response Time are:

• Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network will run
• Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured in bits per
second (bps)
• Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes together
• Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as Pentiums
• Software Program: How well is the network operating system (NOS) written

b. Consistency :- Consistency is the predictability of response time and accuracy of

data.

• Users prefer to have consistent response times, they develop a feel for
normal operating conditions. For example: if the "normal" response time is 3
sec. for printing to a Network Printer and a response time of over 30 sec
happens, we know that there is a problem in the system!
• Accuracy of Data determines if the network is reliable! If a system loses data,
then the users will not have confidence in the information and will often not
use the system.

c. Reliability :- Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable. MTBF

(Mean Time Between Failures) is a measure of the average time a component is
expected to operate between failures. Normally provided by the manufacturer. A
network failure can be: hardware, data carrying medium and Network Operating
System.
d. Recovery:- Recovery is the Network's ability to return to a prescribed level of
operation after a network failure. This level is where the amount of lost data is
nonexistent or at a minimum. Recovery is based on having Back-up Files.

e. Security :- Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from

unauthorized access. Restricted physical access to computers, password protection,
limiting user privileges and data encryption are common security methods. Anti-Virus
monitoring programs to defend against computer viruses are a security measure.

Advantages of Computer Networking:

These are main advantages of Computer Networks:

1. Central Storage of Data –
Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can be shared and
made available to each and every user in an organization.
2. Anyone can connect to a computer network –
There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a modern computer
network. The effortlessness of joining makes it workable for even youthful kids to
start exploiting the data.
3. Faster Problem solving –
Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few littler procedures and
each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets, an explicit issue can be
settled in lesser time.
4. Reliability –
Reliability implies backing up of information. Due to some reason equipment
crash, and so on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on one PC,
another duplicate of similar information is accessible on another workstation
for future use, which prompts smooth working and further handling without
interruption.
5. It is highly flexible –
This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the chance to
investigate everything about fundamental things, for example, programming
without influencing their usefulness.
6. Security through Authorization –
Security and protection of information is additionally settled through system. As
just the system clients are approved to get to specific records or applications, no
other individual can crack the protection or security of information.
7. It boosts storage capacity –
Since you will share data, records and assets to other individuals, you need to
guarantee all information and substance are legitimately put away in the
framework. With this systems administration innovation, you can do the majority
of this with no issue, while having all the space you requirement for capacity.

List of Disadvantages of Computer Networking

1. It lacks independence.
Computer networking involves a process that is operated using computers, so
people will be relying more of computer work, instead of exerting an effort for their
tasks at hand. Aside from this, they will be dependent on the main file server, which
means that, if it breaks down, the system would become useless, making users idle.
2. It poses security difficulties.
Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer
network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security
would be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that would occur,
which you need to be careful about and aware of.
3. It lacks robustness.
As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire
system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking
server that fails, the entire network would also come to a standstill. To deal with
these problems, huge networks should have a powerful computer to serve as file
server to make setting up and maintaining the network easier.
4. It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware.
There would be instances that stored files are corrupt due to computer viruses. Thus,
network administrators should conduct regular check-ups on the system, and the
stored files at the same time.
5. Its light policing usage promotes negative acts.
It has been observed that providing users with internet connectivity has fostered
undesirable behavior among them. Considering that the web is a minefield of
distractions—online games, humor sites ,workers could be tempted during their work
hours. The huge network of machines could also encourage them to engage in illicit
practices, such as instant messaging and file sharing, instead of working on work-
related matters. While many organizations draw up certain policies on this, they have
proven difficult to enforce and even engendered resentment from employees.
6. It requires an efficient handler.
For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high technical
skills and know-how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic
skills cannot do this job. Take note that the responsibility to handle such a system is
high, as allotting permissions and passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network
configuration and connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average
technician who does not have advanced knowledge.
7. It requires an expensive set-up.
Though computer networks are said to be an inexpensive system when it is already
running, its initial set up cost can still be high depending on the number of computers
to be connected. Expensive devices, such as routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add
up to the cost. Aside from these, it would also need network interface cards (NICs)
for workstations in case they are not built in.

Conclusion
Computer networking will always be a fast and convenient means of transferring and
sharing information, but people should be aware of its consequences as well. They
should remember that often relying on this system can put them at certain risks that
can be cause by its flaws and other malfunctions.

1.6 Network topologies: Mesh, Star, Bus, Tree, Ring and Hybrid topologies -
Schematic diagram, working, advantages, disadvantages and applications
Bus Topology :

Bus Topology Working :-

A bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the nodes
are connected to a single cable. The cable to which the nodes connect is called a
"backbone". If the backbone is broken, the entire segment fails. Bus topologies are
relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives.
The bus topology is e.g. used by Ethernet networks.

Ethernet ( IEEE 802.3 )

Ethernet is an international standardized network technology that enables computers
to communicate with each other in a Local Area Network (LAN). Ethernet was
developed in the early 1970s by DEC, Intel and Zerox under the leadership of dr.
Robert Metcalf. The Institue of Electrical and Electronics Engineering standardized it
later as IEEE 802.3.
The original Ethernet supports a data transfer rate of 10 Mbps. A newer version of
Ethernet, called Fast Ethernet, supports data transfer rates of 100 Mbps. Gigabit
Ethernet supports rates of 1,000 Mbps (1 Gbps, see Giga). This version is mainly
used as a backbone to interconnect different LANs. The latest version of Ethernet
can even handle data rates of 10 Gbps.

Advantages of Bus Topology :-

1) Easy to implement and extend

2) Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry
3) Typically the least cheapest topology to implement
4) Failure of one station does not affect others.

Dis –Advantages of Bus Topology :-

1) Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
2) Limited cable length and number of stations
3) A cable break can disable the entire network; no redundancy
4) Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
5) Performance degrades as additional computers are added
Star Topology :- diagram

Star Topology working :- A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network
(LAN) in which all nodes are individually connected to a central connection point, like
a hub or a switch. A star takes more cable than e.g. a bus, but the benefit is that if a
cable fails, only one node will be brought down.
All traffic emanates from the hub of the star. The central site is in control of all
the nodes attached to it. The central hub is usually a fast, self contained computer
and is responsible for routing all traffic to other nodes. The main advantages of a star
network is that one malfunctioning node does not affect the rest of the network.
However this type of network can be prone to bottleneck and failure problems at the
central site.
Application of Star topology :-

Tree Topology :-
Tree or Expanded Star Topology :- A tree topology combines characteristics of linear
bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations
connected to a linear bus backbone cable as shown in above figure. Tree topologies
allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.

There are certain special cases where tree topology is more effective:
• Communication between two networks
• A network structure which requires a root node, intermediate parents node,
and leaf nodes (just like we see in an n-tree) or a network structure which
exhibits three level of hierarchy because two level of hierarchy is already
displayed in the star topology.

Advantages of tree topology:

• Scalable as leaf nodes can accommodate more nodes in the hierarchical
chain.
• A point to point wiring to the central hub at each intermediate node of a tree
topology represents a node in the bus topology
• Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them gets damaged
• Easier maintenance and fault finding

Disadvantages of tree topology:

• Huge cabling is needed
• A lot of maintenance is needed
• backbone forms the point of failure.
Mesh Topology :-

A mesh topology is a network topology in which all the network nodes are
individually connected to most of the other nodes. There is not a concept of a central
switch, hub or computer which acts as a central point of communication to pass on
the messages.

Unlike other network topologies, it can be divided into two kinds:

• Fully connected mesh topology and,

• Partially connected mesh topology
A fully connected mesh topology has all the nodes connected to every other
node. If you know the graph theory, then it is like a fully connected graph where all
the nodes are connected to every other node.

On the other hand, a partially connected mesh topology does not have all the
nodes connected to each other.

Advantages of mesh topology:

• Each connection can carry its own data load
• It is robust
• A fault is diagnosed easily
• Provides security and privacy

Disadvantages of mesh topology:

• Installation and configuration are difficult if the connectivity gets more
• Cabling cost is more and the most in case of a fully connected mesh topology
• Bulk wiring is required.
Ring Topology :-

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a

circular data path. Each networked device is connected to two others, like points on
a circle. Together, devices in a ring topology are referred to as a ring network.

In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach
their destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction,
called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction,
called bidirectional.

The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the
ring is broken, the entire network is affected.

Ring topologies may be used in either LANs (local area networks) or WANs (wide
area networks). Depending on the type of network card used in each computer of the
ring topology, a coaxial cable or an RJ-45 network cable is used to connect
computers together.

Advantages of ring topology :-

1) All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
2) A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between
each workstation.
3) Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
4) Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of
the network.

Disadvantages of ring topology :-

1) All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
workstation on the network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
2) The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
3) The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more
expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
Hybrid Topology :-

Hybrid topology is an interconnection of two or more basic network topologies,

each of which contains its own nodes. The resulting interconnection allows the
nodes in a given basic topology to communicate with other nodes in the same basic
topology as well as those in other basic topologies within the hybrid topology.
Advantages of a hybrid network include increased flexibility as new basic topologies
can easily be added or existing ones removed and increased fault tolerance.
Types of Hybrid Network Topologies
There are different types of hybrid network topologies depending on the basic
topologies that make up the hybrid and the adjoining topology that interconnects the
basic topologies.
The following are some of the hybrid network topologies:
1. Star-Wired Ring Network Topology
In a star-wired ring hybrid topology, a set of star topologies are connected by a
ring topology as the adjoining topology. Joining each star topology to the ring
topology is a wired connection.

Information from a given star topology reaching a connecting node in the main ring
topology like A flows either in a bidirectional or unidirectional manner. A bidirectional
flow will ensure that a failure in one node of the main ring topology doesn't lead to
the complete breakdown of information flow in the main ring topology.
2. Star-Wired Bus Network Topology
A star-wired bus topology is made up of a set of star topologies interconnected by
a central bus topology. Joining each star topology to the bus topology is a wired
connection.

In this setup, the main bus topology provides a backbone connection that
interconnects the individual star topologies. The backbone in this case is a wired
connection.

3. Hierarchical Network Topology

Hierarchical network topology is structured in different levels as a hierarchical
tree. For this reason, it's also referred to as tree network topology.
Figure shows a diagrammatic representation of Hierarchical network topology:

Connection of the lower levels like level 2 to higher levels like level 1 is done through
wired connection. The top most level, level 0, contains the parent (root) node. The
second level, level 1 contains the child nodes which in turn have child nodes in level
3. All the nodes in a given level have a higher parent node except for the nodes at
the top most level.
The nodes at the bottom most level are called leaf nodes, since they are peripheral
and are parent to no other node. At the basic level, a tree network topology is a
collection of star network topologies arranged in different levels. Each level, including
the top most, can contain one or more nodes.
Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology
1) Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of
topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the rest of network and
required corrective measures can be taken, without affecting the functioning of rest of the
network.
2) Scalable: It is easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without
disturbing existing architecture.
3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of' the
organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given to nodes
where traffic is high as well as where chances of' fault are high.
4) Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can
design it in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while there
weaknesses are neutralized. For example we saw Ring Topology has good data reliability
(achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has high tolerance capability (as each node is
not directly connected to other but through central device), so these two can be used
effectively in hybrid star Bring topology.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is its design. It is
not easy to design this type of architecture and it is a tough job for designers. Configuration
and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2)Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These
hubs are different from usual hubs, as they need to be intelligent enough to work with
different architectures and should be function even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot
of' cables; cooling systems, and sophisticate network devices.

Application and Uses of Hybrid Topology

There are tremendous applications of using this type of Computer Network. Although
basic purpose of a Network is to share resources for the sake of cost management.
But so far I have made it quite clear that working mechanism of each type is quite
different from the other. In fact, you can apply this scenario anywhere especially in
the offices having multiple departments. Each department may require a different
mechanism. So, the flexibility of this Type of Network Topology offers you with plenty
of options for creating, running and managing your office. However, I am going to
give you some typical Hybrid Topology Applications of it, as below:

• Automated Industry
• Banks
• Multi-National Offices
• Educational Institutes
• Research Organizations
• Air Ports.
Difference between Tree and Hybrid Topology
Differentiating
Tree Topology Hybrid Topology
Factors

Component Topology Bus and Star Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh

Backbone Always Bus Can have Hub as backbone or Ring as

Backbone backbone

Cost Less More

Complexity Less Huge

1.7 Network Classification:

Based on Transmission Technologies: Point to-point, Multipoint, Broadcast .
Based on physical size(scale): PAN, BAN, LAN, MAN, WAN,VPN .

a)Point to Point and Multipoint Transmission.

In a local network, repeater hubs or switches provide basic connectivity. A hub

provides a point-to-multipoint (or simply multipoint) circuit in which all connected
client nodes share the network bandwidth. A switch on the other hand provides a
series of point-to-point circuits, via micro segmentation, which allows each client
node to have a dedicated circuit and the added advantage of having full-
duplex connections.
From the OSI model's layer perspective, both switches and repeater hubs provide
point-to-point connections on the physical layer. However, on the data link layer, a
repeater hub provides point-to-multipoint connectivity – each frame is forwarded to
all nodes – while a switch provides virtual point-to-point connections – each unicast
(single sender to single receiver ) frame is only forwarded to the destination node.
Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a
permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public
building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher.
"Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit
between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when
no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the
studio.

Point to Point Transmission :-

High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols of the
data link layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since it is a
data link protocol, data is organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the
network to the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit - oriented
protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point and multipoint communications.
The Switching technology we used in point to point communication is circuit
switching and packet switching.
Point to point networks consists of many connections between individual pairs of
machines. To go from the source to the destination a packet on these types of
network may have to go through intermediate computers before they reach the
desired computer.
• Often the packets have to follow multiple routes, of different lengths.
• Hence routing algorithms are very important in the point-to-point networks.
• An important general rule is as follows:
Small, localized networks (e.g. LAN) tend to use the broadcasting; whereas networks
located over wide geographical areas (such as WAN) use point-to-point
transmission.

Broadcast

The term broadcast may refer to any of the following:

1.)In general, to broadcast information is to transmit it to many receivers. For

example, a radio station broadcasts a signal to many listeners, and digital TV
subscribers receive a signal that is broadcast by their TV provider.

2)In computer networking, broadcasting is the process of sending data

packets to multiple recipients all at once. For instance, a local area network can be
configured so that any device on the network can broadcast a message to all the
others.

When a networked device wants to broadcast, it transmits a data packet to the

network's broadcast address. The network hardware, such as routers or switches,
does the work of sending the packet to every other device in the group. The group of
eligible devices is called a broadcast domain.
This type of communication is also called all-to-all, because every device can
transmit a message simultaneously to every other device.

Broadcast networking is supported by IPv4, the network protocol used by most of

today's Internet. However, the newer IPv6 protocol deprecates broadcasting in favor
of multicasting.

Broadcasting is one of the five major techniques for routing computer network traffic.
The others are unicast, multicast, anycast, and geocast.

3)Wi-Fi networks announce themselves to all nearby wireless devices

by broadcasting their SSID ( Service Set Identifier or Network Name of Wi-Fi
Network ) . By broadcasting the SSID, it makes it easier for wireless devices to find a
nearby network. It's the reason you see your neighbour's Wi-Fi network name when
your device scans for an access point.

Wi-Fi hardware can be configured not to broadcast an SSID. In this case, the Wi-Fi
network is called a hidden network. Wireless devices can still connect to a hidden
network if the user manually enters the network name.
1.7 Based on physical size of Network (scale):
PAN, BAN, LAN, MAN, WAN,VPN
Based on Architecture: Peer to Peer, Client Server, advantages of Client Sever over
Peer-to-Peer Model.
Virtual Private Network (VPN):-
VPN stands for virtual private network. A virtual private network (VPN) is a
technology that creates a safe and encrypted connection over a less secure network,
such as the internet. Virtual Private network is a way to extend a private network
using a public network such as internet. The name only suggests that it is Virtual
“private network” i.e. user can be the part of local network sitting at a remote
location. It makes use of tunneling protocols to establish a secure connection.
Lets understand VPN by an example:
Think of a situation where corporate office of a bank is situated in
Washington,USA.This office has a local network consisting of say 100 computers.
Suppose another branches of bank are in Mumbai, India and Tokyo, Japan. The
traditional method of establishing a secure connection between head office and
branch was to have a leased line between the branches and head office which was
very costly as well as troublesome job. VPN let us overcome this issue in an
effective manner.
Features of VPN :-
1. VPN also ensures security by providing an encrypted tunnel between client
and vpn server.
2. VPN is used to bypass many blocked sites.
3. VPN facilitates Anonymous browsing by hiding your ip address.
4. Also most appropriate Search engine optimization(SEO) is done by analyzing
the data from VPN providers which provide country wise stats of browsing a
particular product . This method of SEO is used widely by many internet
marketing managers to form new strategies.
Peer to Peer Network Model