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Unit-3 mems&nems - prepared by own

mems an nems (Anna University)

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3.MICRO SENSORS AND MICRO ACTUATORS

CAPACITIVE SENSORS:
Capacitive sensor is an electronic device that can detect solid or liquid
targets without physical contact.

To detect these targets, capacitive sensors emit an electric field from the
sensing end of the sensor. Any target that can disrupt this electric field can be
detected by a capacitive sensor.

Capacitive sensors can sense anything. The object should have a

dielectric different from that of air, or it must be conductive; the only conditions
for the detection by capacitive sensing.

The solid materials which can be detected by a capacitor sensor are

paper, plastic, glass, cloth, and wood. The liquids which can be detected by a
capacitor sensor are oil, paint, water, etc.

Working Principle of Capacitive Sensor:

A capacitive sensor works like a normal capacitor. In this sensor, a metal
plate within the sensing face is electrically connected to an oscillator circuit and
the target which is detected can act as the next plate of the capacitor. Not like
an inductive sensor that generates an electromagnetic field, a capacitive sensor
generates an electrostatic field.

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The block diagram of the capacitive sensor is shown below. The internal
capacitive diagram is shown above. This sensor includes a high-frequency
oscillator with a sensing surface that is formed through two metal electrodes.
Once an object approaches close to the sensing surface, then it moves into the
electrostatic field of the electrodes & changes the oscillator’s capacitance.

Consequently, the oscillator circuit will begin to oscillate & change the
sensor’s output condition once it arrives at a certain amplitude. Once the target
goes away from the capacitive sensor, the amplitude of the oscillator will
reduce, switching the capacitive sensor back to its original position. This
sensor’s typical detecting range is about 1 inch or 25 mm whereas some sensors
range is extended up to 2 inches.

These sensors detect the superior dielectric constant of an object simply.

So, this makes achievable the detection of the material within nonmetallic
containers because the dielectric constant of liquid is much higher as compared
to the container. So this provides the sensor ability to observe throughout the
container & detect the liquid. For better operation, they must utilize in a
situation with a quite constant temperature & humidity.

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Conductive and non-conductive targets

There are two categories of targets that capacitive sensors can detect
the first being conductive and the second is non-conductive. Conductive targets
include metal, water, blood, acids, bases, and salt water. These targets have a
greater capacitance and a targets dielectric strength is immaterial. Unlike an
inductive proximity sensor, reduction factors for various metals are not a factor
in the sensors sensing distance.

The non-conductive target category acts like an insulator to the

sensors electrode. A targets dielectric constant also sometimes referred to as
dielectric constant is the measure of the insulation properties used to determine
the reduction factor of the sensing distance. Solids and liquids have a dielectric
constant that is greater than vacuum (1.00000) or air (1.00059). Materials with a
high dielectric constant will have a longer sensing distance. Therefore materials
with high water content, for example wood, grain, dirt and paper will affect the
sensing distance.

Capacitive Sensor Formula

A capacitance sensor includes two metal plates which are separated by

a distance ‘d’ and area ‘A’. So the capacitance ‘C’ between two terminals can
be given through the following expression.

C = ε0*εr*A/h

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Where,

‘C’ is capacitance within Faradays

‘εr’ is Insulator’s relative dielectric constant

‘εo’ is dielectric constant for free space

‘A’ is the overlapping area of two plates

‘h’ is the width of the gap between two plates.

Types of Capacitive Sensors

Capacitive sensors offer non-contact target detection. These sensors
not only detect the existence or nonexistence of a target; however, they can also
detect pressure, flow, spacing, liquid level, etc. This can be simply done for
different materials in different industries. There are different types of capacitive
sensors which include the following.

Miniature and inductive sensor includes the following.

This type of capacitive sensor is available in a wafer or a cylindrical

shape that can be placed in the most compact places. These sensors are mainly
used to monitor and control, machine processes & work like detectors used for
job counting. To provide the most excellent fit within tight spaces, small sensor
heads need an external amplifier. So on this outside amplifier, the potentiometer
lets for adjusting sensitivity.

Cylindrical

This cylindrical capacitive sensor is larger as compared to the miniature

type sensors which range from ∅6.5 – M12 & M12 – M30. This sensor mainly
comprises an adjustable sensing distance, range of housing diameters, and flush
& non-flush mounting options. These sensors mainly provide level detection or
contact-free proximity detection directly otherwise throughout a container wall.

High Temperature

High-temperature capacitive sensors are used where the sensor head is

exposed to extreme temperatures. These sensors can still work even in direct
contact through hot materials & temperatures to detect liquids temperature
levels & bulk goods even in the most severe circumstances.

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Analog Capacitive Sensor

The analog capacitive sensor simply works like typical capacitive

sensors, although it includes different benefits based on how it is utilized. For
example, these sensors are brilliant for the selection of material, monitoring of
thickness & concentration difference as compared to other uses.

Capacitive Sensor vs Inductive Sensor

The difference between the capacitive sensor

Capacitive Sensor Inductive Sensor
Capacitive sensors detect objects by using an Inductive sensors detect objects by using a
electric field. magnetic field.
In order to detect an object through the
capacitive sensor, the object doesn’t need to be
conductive. In order to detect an object through an
inductive sensor, the object must be
conductive.
These sensors are used to detect both metals &
non-conductive materials. This sensor is used to detect metal objects.
The working of capacitive sensors is, it
measures changes within an electrical property These sensors work on the change of
known as capacitance. inductance principle.
Capacitive sensors are available in four types Inductive sensors are available in three types
miniature, cylindrical, high temperature &. High-frequency oscillation, magnetic and
Analog Electrostatic capacity.
It has a lower switching frequency. It has a higher switching frequency.
Accuracy is not good due to the possibility of
false triggers. Very good accuracy.
The detection range of a capacitive sensor is The detection range of an inductive sensor is
from 2 to 50mm. from 0.8 to 100mm.

Pin Configuration of MPR121

The pinout of the MPR121 capacitive touch sensor includes the following. This
sensor module includes 6 pins on the left which are discussed below and 12 pins
(0 to 11) on the right are touch buttons.

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 VCC is the power supply of a module like 3.3V.

 IRQ is an Interrupt output.
 SCL is a serial CLK input for the I2C protocol.
 SDA is a serial data I/O for the I2C protocol.
 ADD is an adjusting address for the I2C protocol.
 GND is a Ground terminal.

Capacitive Sensor Characteristics

The characteristics of the capacitive sensor include the following.

 These sensors can sense small or lightweight objects that cannot be

noticed through mechanical limit switches.
 These sensors provide a maximum switching rate for a quick
response within object counting-based applications.
 They can sense liquid targets throughout nonmetallic barriers like
plastic, glass, etc.
 Their operational life is long including an almost boundless no. of
operating cycles.
 The solid-state o/p generates a bounce-free contact signal.
 Standoff or Range Distance: Usually these sensors have a larger
sensing distance as compared to other sensors which range in
between 5& 40 millimeters.
 These sensors provide a combination of linearity, accuracy, stability,
bandwidth & resolution which are better than conventional sensors
like strain gauge & LVDTs.

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Advantages
The advantages of the capacitive sensor include the following.

 These sensors detect non-metallic targets.

 They can detect by using certain types of containers
 Construction is simple
 A capacitive sensor is adjustable to different types of materials.
 These sensors detect solid & liquid targets
 Less cost
 It has high sensitivity & can be operated through a small magnitude of
energy.
 It is used applicable in measuring pressure, humidity, force, etc.
 It has a good frequency response & resolution (<0.003 mm)

Disadvantages

The drawbacks of the capacitive sensor include the following.

 It is very responsive to changes within environmental conditions like

humidity, temperature, etc so this will affect the performance.
 The capacitance measurement is not easy as compared
to resistance measurement.
 These sensors are not accurate as compared to inductive-type sensors.
Applications
The applications of the capacitive sensor include the following.

 Capacitive sensors detect as well as measure things that are conductive

otherwise having dielectric except air.
 These sensors are most frequently used to determine the change within
a conductive target position. However, these types of sensors can also
be very effective in measuring density, presence, thickness & non-
conductors location. Non-conductive materials such as plastic have a
dissimilar dielectric constant as compared to air.
 Capacitive sensors are used to detect or measure position, proximity,
acceleration, displacement, fluid level & humidity.
 As input devices, capacitive sensing touch screens are used in mobile
phones, tablets, digital audio players, etc
 These sensors replace mechanical buttons.

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PIEZORESISTIVE SENSOR:
Piezoresistive sensor is a pressure sensors which are highly sensitive
devices used to measure pressure across various industries, offering accuracy
and a wide measurement range.
The work is based on the principle of piezoresistive effect.

PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT:

The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of

a semiconductor or metal when mechanical strain is applied. In contrast to
the piezoelectric effect, the piezoresistive effect causes a change only in
electrical resistance, not in electric potential.

MECHANISM:
In conducting and semi-conducting materials, changes in inter-
atomic spacing resulting from strain affect the bandgaps, making it easier (or
harder depending on the material and strain) for electrons to be raised into
the conduction band. This results in a change in resistivity of the material.
Within a certain range of strain this relationship is linear, so that the
piezoresistive coefficient are constant.

where
∂ρ = Change in resistivity
ρ = Original resistivity
ε = Strain
Working Principle
The basic principle behind piezoresistive pressure sensors is the
piezoresistive effect, which refers to the change in electrical resistance of a
material when subjected to mechanical stress or strain. This phenomenon is
observed in certain materials, such as silicon and germanium, which exhibit a
change in resistance when deformed under pressure.

The piezoresistive effect is typically quantified using a dimensionless

parameter called the gauge factor (GF), which is defined as the ratio of the
fractional change in resistance to the applied strain.

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Piezoresistive pressure sensors consist of a diaphragm, which is a thin,

flexible membrane that deflects under the influence of an applied pressure. The
diaphragm is typically made of silicon or other suitable materials and is attached
to a substrate.

On the surface of the diaphragm, piezoresistive elements, or strain

gauges, are arranged in a specific pattern, usually in the form of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit.

When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it deforms, causing the

strain gauges to experience mechanical stress. This stress leads to a change in
the electrical resistance of the strain gauges, which is proportional to the applied
pressure. The change in resistance can be measured and converted into an
electrical signal that corresponds to the pressure being sensed.

Advantages of Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors

 High sensitivity: Piezoresistive pressure sensors exhibit high sensitivity,
allowing them to detect even minute changes in pressure. This makes
them suitable for use in applications requiring precise pressure
measurements.
 Wide measurement range: These sensors can measure a broad range of
pressures, from very low to very high, making them suitable for a wide
array of applications.
 Fast response time: Piezoresistive pressure sensors typically have a
rapid response to pressure changes, allowing them to provide real-time
measurements in dynamic environments.
 Compact and lightweight: Due to their small size and simple design,
piezoresistive pressure sensors can be easily integrated into various
systems, saving space and reducing the overall weight of the device.

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Disadvantages of Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors

 Despite their many advantages, piezoresistive pressure sensors
also have some limitations that should be considered when
selecting a pressure sensor for a specific application:
 Temperature dependence: The performance of piezoresistive
pressure sensors can be affected by changes in temperature,
which can lead to errors in the measurements. However, this issue
can be mitigated by incorporating temperature compensation
techniques into the sensor design.
 Long-term stability: These sensors may experience drift in their
measurements over time, which can affect the accuracy of the
readings. Regular calibration may be required to maintain optimal
performance.
 Cost: While piezoresistive pressure sensors are generally more
affordable than other types of pressure sensors, such as
capacitive or optical sensors, the cost can still be a limiting factor
for some applications, especially when high accuracy or long-term
stability is required.
Common Applications of Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors
Piezoresistive pressure sensors are widely used in various industries and
applications due to their versatility, sensitivity, and accuracy. Some of the
most common applications include:
 Automotive: These sensors are often used in engine management systems to
monitor fuel pressure, oil pressure, and tire pressure, as well as in safety
systems like airbag deployment and brake systems.
 Medical: Piezoresistive pressure sensors are used in a range of medical
devices, such as blood pressure monitors, ventilators, and infusion pumps, to
ensure accurate pressure control and monitoring.
 Aerospace: In the aerospace industry, these sensors are utilized to measure
altitude, cabin pressure, and fuel levels, as well as for monitoring hydraulic
systems and engine performance.
 Environmental monitoring: Piezoresistive pressure sensors can be used to
measure atmospheric pressure, water level, and depth, helping researchers and
organizations monitor environmental conditions and detect changes in climate
patterns.
 Industrial automation: These sensors are widely used in process control and
monitoring systems to maintain optimal pressure levels in various industrial
processes, such as manufacturing, chemical processing, and power generation.

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PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR:
A piezoelectric actuator is a transducer, used to change an electrical
signal into an accurately controlled physical displacement or stroke by using
piezoelectric effect based on electromechanical coupling rather than
electromagnetic induction. If the stroke is avoided, then useable energy will
develop. The exact movement control afforded by these actuators is mainly used
to change machining tools, mirrors, lenses, or other apparatus finely.

A piezo actuator is used to control hydraulic valves which work like

a special-purpose motor, small-volume pump & in other applications which
uses force or movement. The piezoelectric actuator diagram is shown below.

It is a transducer that uses the piezo-electric effect to develop a

voltage and use that voltage(electric energy) for the movement of the
machine.

The important specifications of piezoelectric actuators mainly include

force, displacement, & operating voltage. The factors that need to consider
while using these actuators are capacitance, stiffness & resonant frequency.

For piezoelectric actuators, stiffness is the energy required to extend

the device through a certain quantity, usually stated in terms of Newtons for
each micrometer. The capacitance is a task of the excitation voltage frequency
and resonance is the frequency where the piezoelectric actuators react with the
highest o/p amplitude.

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Working Principle of Piezoelectric Actuators

They work on the principle of polarisation of piezoelectric materials.
Certain crystalline minerals, when subjected to a mechanical force, the crystals
became electrically polarized. These behaviors were called the piezoelectric
effect

Types of Piezo Actuators

Piezo actuators are available in different types like stack, stripe,
longitudinal, shear, tube, and contracting.

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Piezo Stack Actuators

A Piezo stack actuator is used to provide a low stroke through a high

blocking energy. Based on your design necessities, this type of actuator is either
discrete or co-fired. If it is certainly discrete, then its complex structures are
designed by using discs or individually stacking finished piezoelectric ceramic
rings & metal electrode foil through an adhesive. The typical operating voltage
ranges from 500V to 1,000V.

If the actuators are co-fired stack actuators then these are also known as
monolithic stacks which do not use adhesives. But, they use high-temperature
sintering of the ceramic pile & complete electrode. The operating voltage of
these can be 200 volts. In any case, co-fired or discrete, it is feasible to insulate
them protectively from mechanical stresses & environmental impacts. Attaining
this normally involves coating materials, bare stacks, or covering them within
stainless steel.

Stripe Actuators

The Stripe Actuator is known as a bending actuator, used to generate a

large mechanical deflection reasonably in response to an electrical signal. In
sequence, this deflection gives a big stroke through the least blocking force as
compared to the stack actuator.

This type of actuator uses two thin piezoelectric ceramic layers that are
connected. They are usually in the coinciding polarization direction through an
electrically parallel connection. Once we apply an electrical input, one ceramic
layer bonds whereas the other one enlarges so that the actuator will bend.

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Longitudinal Actuators

Longitudinal actuators are also known as piezo stacks which are formed
by coating several piezo elements on top of each other so that each element’s
expansion effect will generate a useful force & movement. These types of
actuators use the piezoelectric effect for generating linear displacements which
range from 0.1 – 0.15% of the length of the actuator. The force density of these
actuators is high typically 30 N/mm^2 range and also high resonant frequencies
so that these actuators are used in dynamic applications.

Shear Actuators

These types of actuators are related to longitudinal type actuators because

they have multiple piezo elements layers but they vary in how the voltage is
applied & the type of motion formed. In shear piezo actuators, the different
elements are horizontally polarized & the electrical field can be applied
orthogonally.

The resulting displacement takes place within the horizontal plane so that
a shear-type motion can be created. These actuators’ height is restricted through
bending & shear stresses, although they are frequently merged within multi-axis
systems by longitudinal actuators.

Tube Actuators

Tube actuators include radial polarization & also use the transverse
piezoelectric effect to make displacement. These types of actuators experience
radial, axial, or lateral motion based on the voltage applied which is relative to
the electrodes. These actuators are not appropriate for generating forces;
however, they supply micron-level travel for pumping, nanoliter dosing &
scanning microscopes applications.

Contracting Actuators

Flat actuators including two piezo elements can generate contracting

motion once both elements operate mutually. These types of actuators utilize the
transverse piezoelectric effect to generate motion in one direction only.
Contracting piezo actuators have little displacement up to 20 microns however
can produce 100’s of Newton’s force.

Once this type of actuator is mounted to a substrate or a base, then a

bending actuator can be created. In a bending type actuator, the voltage applied
can cause one piezo element to increase whereas the other contracts.

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Advantages
The advantages of the piezoelectric actuator include the following.

 Simple design
 Least moving parts,
 High-reliability characteristics
 These are simply optimized for particular applications like a non-
magnetic, cryogenic, ultra-high vacuum & high stiffness.
 High force for each unit areaResolution is unlimited
 Vacuum &Clean Room Compatible
 Generation of High Force
 No Wear & Tear
 Energy consumption is low
 No Magnetic Fields
 Quick Response
 Operates at Cryogenic Temperatures

APPLICATIONS:
The applications of piezoelectric actuators include the following.
 A piezoelectric actuator is used to adjust different types of equipment like
lenses, machining tools, mirrors, etc.
 These are used in various precision motion control-based applications.
 These actuators are also used to control hydraulic valves which work like
a special-purpose motor or a small-volume pump
 These are used in applications where force or movement is required.
 These are used in different industries like aviation, automotive, consumer
electronics, medical, aerospace due to many benefits.
 Piezo actuators are used in braille & precision knitting machines.
 Piezo actuators are used in mobile phones and video cameras equipped
with microphones due to silent drive characteristics.
 These actuators don’t need lubrication to function, so used in vacuum &
cryogenic environments.

What are piezoelectric actuator materials?

The most commonly used piezo actuator materials are modified lead zirconate titanate
ceramics.

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What is a piezo stack actuator?

When various piezo elements are arranged on top of each other then it is known as a
piezo stack actuator. These actuators operate in different environments like cryogenic
conditions, vacuum, & the presence of magnetic fields. These are used in the
aerospace, consumer electronics, and semiconductor industries & automotive.

What are the two parameters which are considered in piezo

actuators?

Two parameters are considered usually in piezo actuators are blocking force (Fb) & free
deflection (Xf). Blocking force is the highest force that can be produced once the
maximum voltage is applied & the actuator is not permitted to move. Similarly, free
deflection is the movement attained once the maximum voltage is applied & no force is
generated.

What does a piezoelectric actuator do?

The piezoelectric actuator changes an electrical signal into an exactly controlled physical
displacement This is used to control hydraulic valves, operate like a special-purpose
motor or a small-volume pump, and is used in applications where force or movement is
required.

Thus, this is all about an overview of the piezoelectric actuator and it’s working. The
main function of this actuator is the inverse piezoelectric effect because once we apply
voltage, then the actuator will expand or contract but, once we block the piezo actuator
from moving, then it will produce a force. Here is a question for you, what are the
disadvantages of a piezoelectric actuator?

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