CH6605 Process Instrumentation, Dynamics And Control

UNIT I
INSTRUMENTATION

Principles of measurements and classification of process instruments, measurement of temperature,

pressure, fluid flow, liquid weight and weight flow rate, viscosity, pH, concentration, electrical and
thermal conductivity, humidity of gases.

Functional elements of an instrument

Any instrument operation can be described in terms of functional elements.

1. Primary sensing element.
The first element in any measuring system is the primary sensor: this gives an output that is a function
of the measurand (the input applied to it). For most but not all sensors, this function is at least
approximately linear. Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid-in-glass thermometer, a
thermocouple and a strain gauge. In the case of the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the output reading
is given in terms of the level of the mercury, and so this particular primary sensor is also a complete
measurement system in itself. However, in general, the primary sensor is only part of a measurement
system.
2. Variable conversion element.
Variable conversion elements are needed where the output variable of a primary transducer is in an
inconvenient form and has to be converted to a more convenient form. For instance, the displacement-
measuring strain gauge has an output in the form of a varying resistance. The resistance change cannot
be easily measured and so it is converted to a change in voltage by a bridge circuit, which is a typical
example of a variable conversion element. In some cases, the primary sensor and variable conversion
element are combined, and the combination is known as a transducer.
3. Variable processing(manipulating) element.
Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in some
way. A very common type of signal processing element is the electronic amplifier, which amplifies the
output of the primary transducer or variable conversion element, thus improving the sensitivity and
resolution of measurement. This element of a measuring system is particularly important where the
primary transducer has a low output. For example, thermocouples have a typical output of only a few
millivolts. Other types of signal processing element are those that filter out induced noise and remove
mean levels etc. In some devices, signal processing is incorporated into a transducer, which is then
known as a transmitter.
4. Data presentation element.
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personal handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes. the information conveyed must
be in a form intelligible to the personal or to the intelligent instrumentation system. this function is done

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by data presentation element. in case data is to be monitored, visual display is needed. these devices
may be analog or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. In the case data to be
recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera, C.R.Ts, digital computers, microprocessor
systems maybe used.
Example-bourdon tube pressure gauge.

1. Primary sensing element.-------------------------- Bourdon tube

2. Variable conversion element.---------------------- Bourdon tube
3. Variable processing(manipulating) element.--------Gearing
4. Data presentation element.------------------------Pointer &Dail

Characteristics of an Instrument
Static Characteristics
The static characteristics of an instrument are those that must be considered when the instrument is used
to measure a condition not varying with time.
The characteristics are;
Accuracy – accurate to within ±x percent of instrument span at all points of the scale, unless otherwise
stated.
Note: Suppose that the highest point of calibration is b units and the lowest is a, then the instrument
range is a to b and the instrument span is (b – a).
Static error – It is the difference between the true value of a quantity not changing with time and the
value indicated by the instrument.
Reproducibility - It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured.
Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has do drift.
Drift – the instrument calibration does not gradually shift over a long period of time such as a week, a
month or even a year.
Dead zone – It is the largest range of values of a measured variable to which the instrument dose not
respond. It usually occurs with friction in an indicating or recording instrument.
Sensitivity – It is the smallest change in value of a measured variable to which an instrument responds.
That is, the instrument has a dead zone. Or It may mean that the instrument produces a given deflection
for a given change in value of a measured quantity. That is, the instrument has a given span.

Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element to some known
and predetermined variation in measured quantity.
The three most common variations are;

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1. Step change – in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite change in
measured variable
2. Linear or Ramp change – in which the primary element is following a measured variable, changing
linearly with time.
3. Sinusoidal change – in which the primary element follows a measured variable, the magnitude of
which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.

The dynamic characteristics are;

Speed of response – It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
Measuring Lag – It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured quantity.
Fidelity – It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in measured variable without
dynamic error‘.
Dynamic error – It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.

Temperature Measuring Devices

Temperature is one of the basic engineering variables. Therefore, temperature measurement is
essential to the proper operation of a ship board engineering plant. As a watch stander, you will use
both mechanical and electrical instruments to monitor temperature levels. You will frequently be called
on to measure the temperature of steam, water, fuel, lubricating oil, and other vital fluids. In many
cases, you will enter the results of measurements in engineering logs and records.

Thermometers (Mechanical)
Mechanical devices used to measure temperature are classified in various ways. In this section, we will
discuss only the expansion thermometer types. Expansion thermometers operate on the principle that
the expansion of solids, liquids, and gases has a known relationship to temperature change.
The following types of expansion thermometers are discussed in this section;
 Liquid-in-glass thermometers
 Bimetallic expansion thermometers
 Filled-system thermometers
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometers are the oldest, simplest, and most widely used devices for measuring
temperature. A liquid-in-glass thermometer is shown below;

Liquid-in-glass thermometer

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It has a bulb and a very fine-bore capillary tube. The tube contains alcohol or some other liquid that
uniformly expands or contracts as the temperature rises or falls. The selection of liquid is based on the
temperature range for which the thermometer is to be used.
Almost all liquid-in-glass thermometers are sealed so atmospheric pressure does not affect the reading.
The space above the liquid in this type of thermometer maybe a vacuum, or this space maybe filled with
an inert gas, such as nitrogen, argon, or carbon dioxide. The capillary bore may be round or elliptical.
In either case, it is very small; therefore, a relatively small expansion or contraction of the liquid causes
a relatively large change in the position of the liquid in the capillary tube.
Although the capillary bore has a very small diameter, the walls of the capillary tube are quite thick.
Most liquid-in-glass thermometers have an expansion chamber at the top of the bore to provide a
margin of safety for the instrument if it should accidentally overheat. Liquid-in-
glass thermometers may have graduations etched directly on the glass stem or placed on a separate
strip of material located behind the stem.
Many thermometers used in shipboard engineering plants have the graduations
marked on a separate strip because this type is generally easier to read. You will find liquid-in-
glass thermometers in use in the oil and water test lab for analytical tests on fuel, oil, and water.

Bimetallic Expansion Thermometers

Bimetallic expansion thermometers make use of different metals having different coefficients of linear
expansion. The essential element in a bimetallic expansion thermometer is a bimetallic strip
consisting of two layers of different metals fused together. When such a strip is subjected to
temperature changes, one layer expands or contracts more than the other, thus tending to change the
curvature of the strip.

Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip

The above figure shows the basic principle of a bimetallic expansion thermometer. One end of a
straight bimetallic strip is fixed in place. As the strip is heated, the other end tends to curve away from
the side that has the greater coefficient of linear expansion.
When used in thermometers, the bimetallic strip is normally wound into a flat spiral (shown below), a
single helix, or a multiple helix.

Bimetallic thermometer (flat, spiral strip)

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The end of the strip that is not fixed in position is fastened to the end of a pointer that moves over a
circular scale. Bimetallic thermometers are easily adapted for use as recording thermometers; a pen is
attached to the pointer and positioned so that it marks on a revolving chart.

Filled-System Thermometers
Generally , filled system thermometer s are used in
locations where the indicating part of the instrument must be placed some distance away from the
point where the temperature is to be measured. For this reason, they are often called distant-reading
thermometers. However, this is not true for filled-system thermometers. In some designs, the
capillary tubing is very short or nonexistent. Generally, filled-system thermometers are distant-
reading thermometers. Some distant-reading thermometers have capillaries as long as 125 feet.

There are two basic types of filled-system thermometers. One type has a Bourdon tube that
responds primarily to changes in the volume of the filling fluid. The other type has a Bourdon tube that
responds primarily to changes in the pressure of the filling fluid.
A distant-reading thermometer (shown below) consists of a hollow metal sensing bulb at one end of a
small-bore capillary tube. The tube is connected to a Bourdon tube or other device that responds to
volume changes or pressure changes. The system is partially or completely
filled with a fluid that expands when heated and contracts when cooled. The
fluid may be a gas, an organic liquid, or a combination of liquid and vapor.

Distant-reading, Bourdon-tube thermometer

Electrical temperature
Measuring devices
On newer propulsion plants, you will monitor temperature readings at remote locations. Expansion
thermometers provide indications at the machinery locations or on gauge panels in the immediate
thermometer area. To provide remote indications at a
central location, electrical measuring devices along with signal conditioners are used. The devices
discussed in this section include the resistance temperature detectors (RTD), resistance
temperature elements (RTE), and thermocouples. These devices sense variable temperatures at a
given point in the system and transmit the signals to a remotely located indicator.

Resistance Temperature Detectors

The RTDs operate on the principle that electrical resistance changes in a predictable manner with
changes in temperature. The elements of RTDs are made of nickel, copper, or platinum. Nickel and
copper are used to measure temperatures below 600°F. Platinum elements are used to measure
temperatures above 600°F. Following figure shows two typical types of RTDs;

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Types of RTDs
Like bimetallic thermometers, RTDs are usually mounted in thermowells. Thermowells protect the
sensors from physical damage by keeping them isolated from the medium being measured. This
arrangement also lets you change the RTD without securing the system in which it is mounted. This
makes your maintenance job easier.As temperature increases around an RTD, the
corresponding resistance also increases proportionally. The temperature applied to an RTD, if known,
gives you a known resistance value. You can find these resistance values listed in tables in the
manufacturers’ technical manuals. Normally, only a few resistance values are given.
To test an RTD, you need to heat it to a specific temperature. At this temperature, the resistance of the
RTD should be at the resistance shown in the manufacturer’s table. The most common method of
heating an RTD is to use a pan of hot water and a calibrated thermometer. Some newer ships and repair
activities test RTDs using, a thermobulb tester. This method is more accurate and easier to use. For
specific instructions, refer to the manufacturers’ technical manuals supplied with the equipment.
The most common fault you will find with an RTD is either a short circuit or an open circuit. You can
quickly diagnose these faults by using digital display readings or data log printouts. By observing the
reading or the printout, you may find that the indication is either zero or a very low value. A malfunction
of this type means a short circuit exists in either the RTD or its associated wiring. A very high reading,
such as 300°F on a 0°F to 300°F RTD, could indicate an open circuit.
You should compare these readings to local thermometers. This precaution allows you to ensure
that no abnormal conditions exist within the equipment that the RTD serves.
If an RTD is faulty, you should replace it. Internal repairs cannot be made at the shipboard level. Until
you can replace the faulty RTD, inform the watch standers that the RTD is unreliable. The engine-room
watch standers should take local readings periodically to make sure the equipment is operating
normally.

Resistance Temperature Elements

The RTEs are the most common type of temperature sensor found in gas turbine propulsion plants. The
RTEs operate on the same principle as the RTDs. As the temperature of the sensor increases, the
resistance of the RTE increases proportionally. All RTEs that you encounter have a platinum
element. They have an electrical resistance of 100 ohms at a temperature of32°F. Four different
temperature ranges of RTEs are commonly used, and you will find that the probe sizes vary.
The four temperature ranges and their corresponding probe sizes are as follows:
TEMPERATURE RANGER PROBE LENGTH
(Degree Fahrenheit) (Inches)
-20 to +150 6
0 to +400 2, 4, and 10
0 to +1,000 2
-60 to +500 6

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You may find some RTEs connected to remote mounted signal conditioning modules. These
modules convert the ohmic value of the RTE to an output range of 4 to 20 mA dc. However, most RTEs
read their value directly into the propulsion electronics as an ohmicvalue.
The RTEs with temperature ranges from 0°F to+400°F and from -60° to +500°F are commonly mounted
in thermowells. Since you can change an RTE without securing the equipment it serves, maintenance
is simplified.

Thermocouples
Seebeck in 1821 discovered that thermal electromotive force (t.e.m.f.) is generated in a closed circuit
of two wires made of dissimilar metals if two junction are at different temperatures. One junction is
inserted into a measuring media, and it is called a hot or measuring junction. Another one, called a cold
or reference junction, is kept either at 0 C or at ambient temperature and is connected to a measuring
instrument (millivoltmeter). The electronic explanation of this phenomenon is as follows:
the density of conduction electrons in two dissimilar metals is different. So, in the case when metals are
brought into contact (welded together), the free (or conduction) electrons will flow from the metal with
high their density to the metal with low density of the conduction electrons. As the result of this drift, a
potential difference is produced in the boundary between these two metals. This potential difference
will stop the flow of electrons. Since the metals are different, so they will differently respond to
temperature variations. In other words, the variation of temperature will change the density and
velocities of free electrons in two metals differently. This will cause the change in the magnitude of the
thermal electromotive force.

Schematically shows a thermocouple and a measuring instrument.

6
3
+ +

-
-

1 2
4 5
7 8

Thermocouple and measuring instrument.

1 - hot junction;
2 - metal A;
3 - metal B;
4 - connection head;
5 - extension wires;
6, 7 - positive and negative terminals, respectively, of a measuring instrument;
8 - measuring instrument.
T.e.m.f. is proportional to the difference of temperatures between the two junctions. All tables,
correlated t.e.m.f. of thermocouple (measured in mV) and temperature, are developed when the
temperature of a cold junction is equal to 0 C. T.e.m.f. is the function of temperature difference
between the hot and the cold junctions:
E AB  f (  0 ) ,
where:
E AB - t.e.m.f. developed by a thermocouple, mV ;
 and 0 - temperatures of the hot and the cold junctions of a thermocouple,

C.
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Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)

The principle of resistance temperature detectors (RTD) is based on the variation of electrical resistance
of metals with temperature. For this purpose several metals are used, namely, platinum, copper, nickel.
When temperature increases the resistance of these metals increases. Temperature function of resistance
for metals in a narrow temperature interval can be expressed by a relationship:

R  R0 (1  ) ,
where:
R and R0 - are the values of electrical resistance of a metal conductor at temperatures  and
0,  C , respectively, Ohm ;
1
 - thermal coefficient of electrical resistance, C .

For metals this coefficient is positive.

Thermistors
If semiconductors or heat-treated metallic oxides (oxides of cobalt, copper, iron, tin, titanium, etc.) are
used as the materials for producing temperature sensitive elements, then these temperature transducers
are called thermistors (the name is derived from the term of ‘thermally sensitive resistor’). These oxides
are compressed into the desired shape from the specially formulated powder. After that, the oxides are
heat-treated to recrystallise them. As the result of this treatment the ceramic body becomes dense. The
leadwires are then attached to this sensor for maintaining electrical contact.
The following relationship applies to most thermistors:

 1 1 
B*  
Rt  R0 * e  T T0 
where,

RT0 T0 , K , Ohm ;
- resistance of thermistor at reference temperature
RT - resistance of thermistor at temperature T , K , Ohm ;
B- constant over temperature range, depends on manufacturing process and construction
1
characteristics, K .
Thermistors have negative thermal coefficient of electrical resistance. It means that when temperature
increases the electrical resistance of thermistor decreases. They have greater resistance change (this is
an advantage) compared with RTD in a given temperature range. For example, if we compare what
change in resistance will be caused by variation of temperature in 1 C for Platinum and Copper RTD
3.11) and for thermistor in the temperature range from 273.15 to 423.15 K (ie, from 0 to 150 C), we
will obtain the following values:
Ohm
0.38, 
for platinum RTD - C ;
Ohm
0.04, 
for copper RTD - C ;

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Ohm
0.65, 
for thermistor - C .

550

Thermistor

520

Resistance, Ohm
490

460

430
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550

Temperature, K

Wheatstone bridge and resistance measuring constant current circuits, similar to that used in the case of
RTDs, are used for resistance measurement of thermistors . Despite their high sensitivity, thermistors
have a worse accuracy and repeatability (this is the disadvantage) comparing with metallic RTDs. Since
the resistance vs temperature function for thermistors is non-linear (although, some modern thermistors
have a nearly linear relationship of temperature vs resistance), it is necessary to use prelinearisation
circuits before interacting with related system instrumentation. In addition, due to the negative thermal
coefficient of electrical resistance an inversion of the signal to positive form is required when interfacing
with some analog or digital instrumentation. Therefore, thermistors are not widely used in process
instrumentation field, at least at present. However, they have been well accepted in the food
transportation industry, because they are small, portable and convenient. Another field of their growing
application are heating and air-conditioning systems, where thermistors are used for checking the
temperature in flow and return pipes.

Optical Pyrometer
In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the temperature. As a measure of
the reference temperature, a color change with the growth in temperature is taken. The device compares
the brightness produced by the radiation of the object whose temperature is to be measured, with that
of a reference temperature. The reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose brightness can be
adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the source object. For an object, its light
intensity always depends on the temperature of the object, whatever may be its wavelength. After
adjusting the temperature, the current passing through it is measured using a multimeter, as its value
will be proportional to the temperature of the source when calibrated. The working of an optical
pyrometer is shown in the figure below.

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Optical Pyrometer - Working

As shown in the figure above, an optical pyrometer has the following components.
 An eye piece at the left side and an optical lens on the right.
 A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.
 A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.
 So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an absorption screen is fitted
between the optical lens and the reference bulb.
 A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in narrowing the band
of wavelength.
Working
The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures it. The lens helps in
focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb. The observer watches the process through the
eye piece and corrects it in such a manner that the reference lamp filament has a sharp focus and the
filament is super-imposed on the temperature source image. The observer starts changing the rheostat
values and the current in the reference lamp changes. This in turn, changes its intensity. This change
in current can be observed in three different ways.

1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.
2. Filament is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.
3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and temperature source.
At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is measured, as its value is a measure of the
temperature of the radiated light in the temperature source, when calibrated.

Applications
Used to measure temperatures of liquid metals or highly heated materials.
Can be used to measure furnace temperatures.

Thermowells
Thermowells are used to protect temperature sensors used to monitor industrial processes while
permitting accurate measurement. They are typically installed in piping systems and subject to both
hydrostatic and aerodynamic forces. Vortex shedding is the dominant concern for thermowell in cross-
flow applications and is capable of forcing the thermowell into resonance with the possibility of fatigue
failure not only of the thermowell but also of the temperature sensor. The conditions for flow-induced
resonance generally govern the design of the thermowell apart from its pressure rating and materials of
construction. Flow-induced motion of the thermowell occurs both in-line with and transverse to the
direction of flow with the fluid forces acting to bend the thermowell. In most applications the transverse
component of the fluid forces resulting from vortex shedding tends to govern the onset of flow-induced
resonance, with a forcing frequency equal to the vortex shedding rate. In liquids and in high pressure
compressible fluids, a smaller but none the less significant component of motion in the flow-direction
is also present and occurs at nearly twice the vortex shedding rate. The in-line resonance condition may
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govern thermowell design at high fluid velocities although its amplitude is a function of the mass-
damping parameter or Scruton number describing the thermowell-fluid interaction.
For drilled bar-stock thermowell, the most common form of failure is bending fatigue at its base where
the bending stresses are greatest. In extreme flow conditions (high velocity liquids or high velocity,
high pressure gases and vapors) catastrophic failure may occur with bending stresses exceeding the
ultimate strength of the material. For extremely long thermowell, the static component of the bending
stresses may govern design. In less demanding services, fatigue failure is more gradual and often
preceded by a series sensor failure. The latter are due to the acceleration of the thermowell tip as it
vibrates, this motion causes the element to lift off the bottom of the thermowell and literally, batter itself
to pieces. In cases where the acceleration stresses have been measured, sensor accelerations at resonant
conditions often exceed 250 G's and have destroyed the accelerometer.

Pressure Measurement
Manometers are generally classified into simple manometers and differential manometers
Types of Simple manometers:
Piezometer
As shown in the figure, one end of the piezometer is open to atmospheric pressure, and the other end is
connected to the point A, where pressure is to be measured. The rise of liquid will be in accordance
with the pressure at point A. If h is the height of liquid in the piezometer, pressure at point A is given
by:
Pressure in N/m2 = ρ × g × h

U-Tube Manometer
It consists of a glass tube bent like the letter 'U'. In this type of manometer, balancing a column of
liquid is done by another column of same or other liquid. One end of the U-tube is attached to the
point where pressure is to be measured, while the other end is open to atmospheric pressure. The
pressure at point B in the figure is given by:
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P = ρ2 g h2 - ρ1g h1
where, ρ2 = density of heavy liquid
h2 = height of heavy liquid above reference line
ρ1 = density of light liquid
h1 = height of light liquid above reference line.

Cistern or Well Type Manometer:

As shown in the figure, the well area is larger than the area of the tube, denoted by A. The rise in liquid
level in the tube is considered while that in the well is ignored. If p1 and p2 are absolute pressures
applied as shown in figure:
h p1 A - p2 A = Ahρg
h = (p1 - p2)/ρg

Inclined Type Manometer:

It is similar to a well type manometer in construction. The only difference being that the vertical
column limb is inclined at an angle θ. Inclined manometers are used for accurate measurement of
small pressure.

Types of Differential Manometers

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Differential Manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two points in a pipe or
between two different pipes. The principle and working of the types of differential manometers are
given below.
U- tube Differential Manometer
In the adjoining figure, the two points A and B are in liquids having different specific gravity. Also, A
and B are at different levels. A liquid which is denser than the two fluids is used in the U tube, which
is immiscible with the other fluids. Let the pressure at point A be PA and that at point B be PB.
PA - PB = g × h (ρg - ρ1)
where, h = difference in mercury level in the U-tube
ρg = density of heavy liquid
ρ1 = density of liquid A.

Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer

This type of manometer is used when the difference between the densities of the two liquids is small.
Similar to the previous type, A and B are points at different levels with liquids having different specific
gravity. It consists of a glass tube shaped like an inverted letter 'U' and is similar to two piezometers
connected end to end. Air is present at the center of the two limbs. As the two points in consideration
are at different pressures, the liquid rises in the two limbs. Air or mercury is used as the manometric
fluid. If PA is the pressure at point A and PB is the pressure at point B;
PA - PB = ρ1 × g × h1 - ρ 2 × g × h2 - ρ g × g × h
where, ρ1 = density of liquid at A
ρ2 = density of liquid at B
ρg = density of light liquid
h = difference of light liquid

McLeod gauge
A McLeod gauge is a scientific instrument used to measure very low pressures, down to 10-6 mbar. It
was invented in 1874 by Herbert McLeod (1841–1923).McLeod gauges were once commonly found
attached to equipment that operates under a vacuum, such as a lyophilizer. Today, however, these
gauges have largely been replaced by electronic vacuum gauges.
The design of a McLeod gauge is somewhat similar to that of a mercury column manometer.
Typically it is filled with mercury. If used incorrectly, this mercury can escape and contaminate the
vacuum system attached to the gauge

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McLeod gauges operate by taking in a sample volume of gas from a vacuum chamber, and then
compressing it by tilting, and infilling with mercury. The pressure in this smaller volume is then
measured by a mercury manometer, and, by knowing the compression ratio, the pressure of the original
vacuum can be determined. Boyle's law is then used to find the initial pressure from the final pressure,
and the initial and final volumes.
This method is fairly accurate for non-condensable gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen. However,
condensable gases, such as water vapor, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and pump oil vapors may be in
gaseous form in the low pressure of the vacuum chamber, but will condense when compressed by the
McLeod gauge. The result is an erroneous reading, showing a pressure much lower than actually
present.
It has the advantage that it is simple to use and that its calibration is the same nearly for all non-
condensable gases.
The device can be manually operated and the scale read visually, or the process can be automated in
various ways. For example, a small electric motor can periodically rotate the assembly to collect a gas
sample. If a fine platinum wire is in the capillary tube, its resistance indicates the height of the mercury
column around it.
Modern electronic vacuum gauges are simpler to use, less fragile, and do not present a mercury hazard,
but their reading is highly dependent on the chemical nature of the gas being measured and their
calibration is unstable. For this reason McLeod gauges continue to be used as a calibration standard for
electronic gauges.

pH measuring devices
pH meter
A pH meter is an electronic instrument measuring the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid (though
special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A typical pH meter
consists of a special measuring probe (a glass electrode) connected to an electronic meter that
measures and displays the pH reading.
The pH probe measures pH as the activity of hydrogen ions surrounding a thin-walled glass bulb at its
tip. The probe produces a small voltage (about 0.06 volt per pH unit) that is measured and displayed as
pH units by the meter.
The meter circuit is no more than a voltmeter that displays measurements in pH units instead of volts.
The input impedance of the meter must be very high because of the high resistance — approximately
20 to 1000 MΩ — of the glass electrode probes typically used with pH meters. The circuit of a simple
pH meter usually consists of operational amplifiers in an inverting configuration, with a total voltage
gain of about -17. The inverting amplifier converts the small voltage produced by the probe (+0.059
volt/pH) into pH units, which are then offset by seven volts to give a reading on the pH scale. For
example:
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 At neutral pH (pH 7) the voltage at the probe's output is 0 volts. 0 * 17 + 7 = 7.

 At basic pH, the voltage at the probe's output ranges from +0 to +0.41 volts (7 * 0.059
= 0.41). So for a sample of pH 10 (3 pH units above neutral), 3 * 0.059 = 0.18 volts),
the output of the meter's amplifier is 0.18 * 17 + 7 = 10.
 At acid pH, the voltage at the probe's output ranges from -0.41 volts to -0. So for a
sample of pH 4 (3 pH units below neutral), -3 * 0.059 = -0.18 volts, the output of the
meter's amplifier is -0.18 * 17 + 7 = 4.

Digital pH meter
For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use
calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. The reason for this is that the glass
electrode does not give a reproducible e.m.f. over longer periods of time.
Calibration should be performed with at least two standard buffer solutions that span the range of pH
values to be measured. For general purposes buffers at pH 4 and pH 10 are acceptable. The pH meter
has one control (calibrate) to set the meter reading equal to the value of the first standard buffer and a
second control (slope) which is used to adjust the meter reading to the value of the second buffer. A
third control allows the temperature to be set. Standard buffer sachets, which can be obtained from a
variety of suppliers, usually state how the buffer value changes with temperature.
The calibration process correlates the voltage produced by the probe (approximately 0.06 volts per pH
unit) with the pH scale. After each single measurement, the probe is rinsed with distilled water or
deionized water to remove any traces of the solution being measured, blotted with a clean tissue to
absorb any remaining water which could dilute the sample and thus alter the reading, and then quickly
immersed in another solution.

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The first commercial pH meters were built around 1936 by Radiometer in Denmark and by Arnold
Orville Beckman in the United States. While Beckman was an assistant professor of chemistry at the
California Institute of Technology, he was asked to devise a quick and accurate method for measuring
the acidity of lemon juice for the California Fruit Growers Exchange (Sunkist). Beckman's invention
helped him to launch the Beckman Instruments company (now Beckman Coulter). In 2004 the Beckman
pH meter was designated an ACS National Historical Chemical Landmark in recognition of its
significance as the first commercially successful electronic pH meter

Measurement of Humidity of gases.

A device used to measure humidity is called a Psychrometer or Hygrometer. A humidistat is used to
regulate the humidity of a building with a dehumidifier. These can be analogous to a thermometer and
thermostat for temperature control.

Hygrometers
Hygrometers are instruments used for measuring the moisture content in the environmental air, or
humidity. Humidity is difficult to measure accurately. Most measurement devices usually rely on
measurements of some other quantity such as temperature, pressure, mass or a mechanical or electrical
change in a substance as moisture is absorbed. From calculations based on physical principles, or
especially by calibration with a reference standard, these measured quantities can lead to a measurement
of humidity. Modern electronic devices use temperature of condensation, changes in electrical
resistance, and changes in electrical capacitance to measure humidity changes.
Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed satellites. These satellites are able
to detect the concentration of water in the troposphere at altitudes between 4 and 12 kilometers.
Satellites that can measure water vapor have sensors that are sensitive to infrared radiation. Water vapor
specifically absorbs and re-radiates radiation in this spectral band. Satellite water vapor imagery plays
an important role in monitoring climate conditions (like the formation of thunderstorms) and in the
development of future weather forecasts.

Hygrometer – for weather forecasting

Psychrometer
Psychrometer consists of two thermometers, one which is dry and one which is kept moist with distilled
water on a sock or wick. The two thermometers are thus called the dry-bulb and the wet-bulb. At
temperatures above the freezing point of water, evaporation of water from the wick lowers the
temperature, so that the wet-bulb thermometer usually shows a lower temperature than that of the dry-
bulb thermometer. When the air temperature is below freezing, however, the wet-bulb is covered with
a thin coating of ice and may be warmer than the dry bulb. Relative humidity is computed from the
ambient temperature as shown by the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in temperatures as shown
by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative humidity can also be determined by locating the
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intersection of the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures on a psychrometric chart. Psychrometers are
commonly used in meteorology, and in the HVAC industry for proper refrigerant charging of residential
and commercial air conditioning systems.

Psychrometer – for outdoor use

Viscosity Measurement
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or
tensile stress. Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure
of fluid friction. All real fluids have some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous, but a fluid
which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.
A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For
liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called ‘rheometer’ is used.
Viscometers only measure under one flow condition.

Ostwald viscometers
Ostwald viscometers, named after Wilhelm Ostwald, which consists of a U-shaped glass tube held
vertically in a controlled temperature bath. In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise narrow
bore (the capillary). Above this is a bulb; with it is another bulb lower down on the other arm. In use,
liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction and then allowed to flow down through the capillary into
the lower bulb. Two marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The
time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is proportional to the kinematic
viscosity. Most commercial units are provided with a conversion factor, or can be calibrated by a fluid
of known properties.
The time required for the test liquid to flow through a capillary of a known diameter of a certain factor
between two marked points is measured. By multiplying the time taken by the factor of the viscometer,
the kinematic viscosity is obtained.

Such viscometers are also classified as direct flow or reverse flow. Reverse flow viscometers have the
reservoir above the markings and direct flows are those with the reservoir below the markings. Such
classifications exists so that the level can be determined even when opaque or staining liquids are
measured, otherwise the liquid will cover the markings and make it impossible to gauge the time the

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level passes the mark. This also allows the viscometer to have more than 1 set of marks to allow for an
immediate timing of the time it takes to reach the 3rd mark, therefore yielding 2 timings and allowing
for subsequent calculation of Determinability to ensure accurate results.

Rotating Cylinder Viscometer

It consists of two co-axial cylinders suspended co-axially as shown in the Fig. The narrow annular space
between the cylinders is filled with a liquid for which the viscosity needs to be measured. The outer
cylinder has the provision to rotate while the inner cylinder is a fixed one and has the provision to
measure the torque and angular rotation. When the outer cylinder rotates, the torque is transmitted to

the inner stationary member through the thin liquid film formed between the cylinders. Let be
the radii of inner and outer cylinders, h be the depth of immersion in the inner cylinder in the liquid

and is the annular gap between the cylinders. Considering N as the speed of rotation of the

cylinder in rpm, one can write the expression of shear stress from the definition of viscosity ,
as given below;

This shear stress induces viscous drag in the liquid that can be calculated by measuring the toque
through the mechanism provided in the inner cylinder.

Here, C is a constant quantity for a given viscometer.

Falling Sphere Viscometer

It consists of a long container of constant area filled with a liquid whose viscosity has to be measured.
Since the viscosity depends strongly with the temperature, so this container is kept in a constant
temperature bath as shown in Fig.

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Schematic diagram of a falling sphere viscometer.

A perfectly smooth spherical ball is allowed to fall vertically through the liquid by virtue of its own
weight (W). The ball will accelerate inside the liquid, until the net downward force is zero i.e. the

submerged weight of the ball is equal to the resisting force given by Stokes' law . After this
point, the ball will move at steady velocity which is known as terminal velocity . The equation of motion
may be written as below;

where, are the specific weights of the liquid and the ball, respectively. If the spherical ball
has the diameter D that moves at constant fall velocity V in a fluid having viscosity , then using

Stokes' law, one can write the expression for resisting force .

Substituting Eq. (7.1.4) in Eq. (7.1.3) and solving for ,

The constant fall velocity can be calculated by measuring the time taken by the ball to fall through

a distance . It should be noted here that the falling sphere viscometer is applicable for the Reynolds
number below 0.1 so that wall will not have any effect on the fall velocity.
Capillary Tube Viscometer : This type of viscometer is based on laminar flow through a circular pipe.
It has a circular tube attached horizontally to a vessel filled with a liquid whose viscosity has to be

measured. Suitable head is provided to the liquid so that it can flow freely through the capillary

tube of certain length (L) into a collection tank as shown in Fig. 7.1.3. The flow rate of the liquid
having specific weight wl can be measured through the volume flow rate in the tank. The Hagen-

Poiseuille equation for laminar flow can be applied to calculate the viscosity of the liquid.

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Schematic diagram of a capillary tube viscometer.

Saybolt and Redwood Viscometer

The main disadvantage of the capillary tube viscometer is the errors that arise due to the variation in the
head loss and other parameters. However, the Hagen-Poiseuille formula can be still applied by
designing a efflux type viscometer that works on the principle of vertical gravity flow of a viscous liquid
through a capillary tube.
The Saybolt viscometerhas a vertical cylindrical chamber filled with liquid whose viscosity is to be
measured It is surrounded by a constant temperature bath and a capillary tube (length 12mm and
diameter 1.75mm) is attached vertically at the bottom of the chamber. For measurement of viscosity,
the stopper at the bottom of the tube is removed and time for 60ml of liquid to flow is noted which is

named as Saybolt seconds. So, Eq. (1) can be used for the flow rate is calculated by recording the
time (Saybolt seconds) for collection of 60ml of liquid in the measuring flask. For calculation purpose
of kinematic viscosity (v), the simplified expression is obtained as below;
(1)

A Redwood viscometer is another efflux type viscometer that works on the same principle
of Sayboltviscometer. Here, the stopper is replaced with an orifice and Redwood secondsis defined for
collection of 50ml of liquid to flow out of orifice. Similar expressions can be written for Redwood
viscometer. In general, both the viscometers are used to compare the viscosities of different liquid. So,
the value of viscosity of the liquid may be obtained by comparison with value of time for the liquid of
known viscosity.

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Concentration measurement
Mass spectrometry
Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique used to quantify known materials, to identify
unknown compounds within a sample, and to elucidate the structure and chemical properties of different
molecules. The complete process involves the conversion of the sample into gaseous ions, with or
without fragmentation, which are then characterized by their mass to charge ratios (m/z) and relative
abundances.

This technique basically studies the effect of ionizing energy on molecules. It depends upon chemical
reactions in the gas phase in which sample molecules are consumed during the formation of ionic and
neutral species.

Basic Principle
A mass spectrometer generates multiple ions from the sample under investigation, it then separates them
according to their specific mass-to-charge ratio (m/z), and then records the relative abundance of each
ion type.
The first step in the mass spectrometric analysis of compounds is the production of gas phase ions of
the compound, basically by electron ionization. This molecular ion undergoes fragmentation. Each
primary product ion derived from the molecular ion, in turn, undergoes fragmentation, and so on. The
ions are separated in the mass spectrometer according to their mass-to-charge ratio, and are detected in
proportion to their abundance. A mass spectrum of the molecule is thus produced. It displays the result
in the form of a plot of ion abundance versus mass-to-charge ratio. Ions provide information concerning
the nature and the structure of their precursor molecule. In the spectrum of a pure compound, the
molecular ion, if present, appears at the highest value of m/z (followed by ions containing heavier
isotopes) and gives the molecular mass of the compound.

Components
The instrument consists of three major components:
Ion Source: For producing gaseous ions from the substance being studied.
Analyzer: For resolving the ions into their characteristics mass components according to their mass-to-
charge ratio.
Detector System: For detecting the ions and recording the relative abundance of each of the resolved
ionic species.

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In addition, a sample introduction system is necessary to admit the samples to be studied to the ion
source while maintaining the high vacuum requirements (~10-6 to 10-8 mm of mercury) of the
technique; and a computer is required to control the instrument, acquire and manipulate data, and
compare spectra to reference libraries.

Components of a Mass Spectrometer

With all the above components, a mass spectrometer should always perform the following processes:
Produce ions from the sample in the ionization source.
Separate these ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio in the mass analyzer.
Eventually, fragment the selected ions and analyze the fragments in a second analyzer.
Detect the ions emerging from the last analyzer and measure their abundance with the detector that
converts the ions into electrical signals.
Process the signals from the detector that are transmitted to the computer and control the instrument
using feedback.

A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature measurement of an object. The device actually
tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from an object. The thermal heat radiates from
the object to the optical system present inside the pyrometer. The optical system makes the thermal
radiation into a better focus and passes it to the detector. The output of the detector will be related to
the input thermal radiation. The biggest advantage of this device is that, unlike a Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no direct contact between the pyrometer and
the object whose temperature is to be found out.

Fluid flow Measurement

In a differential pressure drop device the flow is calculated by measuring the pressure drop over
an obstructions inserted in the flow. The differential pressure flowmeter is
based on the Bernoulli‘s Equation, where the pressure drop and the further measured signal is a function
of the square flow speed.
The most common types of differential pressure flowmeters are:
•Orifice Plates
•Flow Nozzles
•Venturi Tubes
•Variable Area - Rotameters

Orifice Plate:
With an orifice plate, the fluid flow is measured through the difference in pressure from the upstream
side to the downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe. The plate obstructing the flow offers a
precisely measured obstruction that narrows the pipe and forces the flowing fluid to constrict.

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The orifice plates are simple, cheap and can be delivered for almost any application in any material.
The Turndown Rate for orifice plates is less than 5:1. Their accuracy are poor at low flow rates. A high
accuracy depends on an orifice plate in good shape, with a sharp edge to the upstream side. Wear reduces
the accuracy.

Venturi Tube:
Due to simplicity and dependability, the Venturitube flowmeter is often used in applications where it's
necessary with higher Turndown, or lower pressure drops, than the orifice plate can provide.
In the Venturi Tube the fluid flowrate is measured by reducing the cross sectional flow area in the flow
path, generating a pressure difference. After the constricted area, the fluid is passes through a pressure
recovery exit section, where up to 80% of the differential pressure generated at the constricted area, is
recovered.

With proper instrumentation and flow calibrating, the Venturi Tube flowrate can be reduced to about
10% of its full scale range with proper accuracy. This provides a Turndown Rate 10:1.

Flow nozzles:
They are often used as measuring elements for air and gas flow in industrial applications.
The flow nozzle is relative simple and cheap, and available for many applications in many materials.
The Turndown and accuracy can be compared with the orifice plate.
The Sonic Nozzle - Critical (Choked) Flow Nozzle:
When a gas accelerates through a nozzle, the velocity increase and the pressure and the gas density
decrease. The maximum velocity is achieved at the throat, the minimum area, where it breaks Mach 1
or sonic. At this point it's not possible to increase the flow by lowering the downstream pressure. The
flow is choked.

This situation is used in many control systems to maintain fixed, accurate, repeatable gas flow rates
unaffected by the downstream pressure.

Variable Area Flowmeter or Rotameter:

The rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a larger end at the top, and a
metering float which is free to move within the tube. Fluid flow causes the float to rise in the tube as
the upward pressure differential and buoyancy of the fluid overcome the effect of gravity.

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The float rises until the annular area between the float and tube increases sufficiently to allow a state of
dynamic equilibrium between the upward differential pressure and buoyancy factors, and downward
gravity factors.
The height of the float is an indication of the flow rate. The tube can be calibrated and graduated in
appropriate flow units.
The rotameter meter typically has a Turndown Ratio up to 12:1. The accuracy may be as good as 1%
of full scale rating.
Magnetic floats can be used for alarm and signal transmission functions

Anemometer
An anemometer is an instrument used to measure the speed or velocity of air (gases) either in a contained
flow, such as airflow in a duct, or in unconfined flows, such as atmospheric wind. To determine the air
velocity, anemometers detect change in some physical property of the fluid or the effect of the fluid on
a mechanical device inserted into the flow.
The hot wire anemometer is the most popular kind of constant-temperature devices. It consists of an
electrically heated, fine-wire element (0.00016 inch in diameter and 0.05 inch long) supported by
needles at its ends. While hot wire are best suited for clean gases at low velocities, venturi meters can
also be considered for some liquid (including slurry) flow applications.
The main parts of the arrangement are as follows:
 Conducting wires placed in a ceramic body.
 Leads are taken from the conducting wires and they are connected to one of the limbs of the
wheat stone bridge to enable the measurement of change in resistance of the wire.

Measurement of Thermal Conductivity.

There are a number of possible ways to measure thermal conductivity, each of them suitable for a
limited range of materials, depending on the thermal properties and the medium temperature. Two
classes of methods exist to measure the thermal conductivity of a sample: steady-state and non-steady-
state methods.

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Steady-state methods
In general, steady-state techniques perform a measurement when the temperature of the material
measured does not change with time. This makes the signal analysis straightforward (steady state
implies constant signals). The disadvantage is that a well-engineered experimental setup is usually
needed.
In geology and geophysics, the most common method for consolidated rock samples is the divided bar.
There are various modifications to these devices depending on the temperatures and pressures needed
as well as sample sizes. A sample of unknown conductivity is placed between two samples of known
conductivity (usually brass plates). The setup is usually vertical with the hot brass plate at the top, the
sample in between then the cold brass plate at the bottom. Heat is supplied at the top and made to move
downwards to stop any convection within the sample. Measurements are taken after the sample has
attained equilibrium (same heat over entire sample), this usually takes about 10 minutes.

Transient methods
The transient techniques perform a measurement during the process of heating up. The advantage is
that measurements can be made relatively quickly. Transient methods are usually carried out by needle
probes.
Non-steady-state methods to measure the thermal conductivity do not require the signal to obtain a
constant value. Instead, the signal is studied as a function of time. The advantages of these methods are
that they can in general be performed more quickly, since there is no need to wait for a steady-state
situation. The disadvantage is that the mathematical analysis of the data is in general more difficult.

Transient plane source method

Transient Plane Source Method is also called the Hot disk method. A plane sensor, a special
mathematical model describing the heat conductivity, combined with precise electronics, enables the
method to be used to measure Thermal Transport Properties. It covers a thermal conductivity range of
4–5 orders of magnitude and can be used for measuring various kinds of materials, such as solids,
powder, liquid, paste and thin films etc. In 2008 it was approved as an ISO-standard for measuring
thermal transport properties of polymers (November 2008).
The method was developed by Dr Silas Gustavsson at Chalmers University of technology, Sweden, and
is sometimes referred to as ”the Gustavsson Probe”.
The probe is a flat sensor with a continuous double spiral of electrically conducting nickel (Ni) metal
etched out of thin foil and clad between two layers of Kapton. The thin Kapton provides electrical
insulation and mechanical stability to the sensor. The sensor is placed between the surfaces of two
sample pieces of the sample to be measured. During the measurement a current passes through the
nickel and creates an increase in temperature. The heat generated dissipates through the sample on either
side of the sensor at a rate depending on the thermal transport characteristics of the material. By
recording temperature vs. time response in the sensor, the characteristics of the material can be
calculated.

Example of probe used for transient plane source measurements. Photo shows a hot disk sensor
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Liquid Level measuring devices

There are several instances where we need to monitor the liquid level in vessels. In some cases the
problem is simple, we need to monitor the water level of a tank; a simple float type mechanism will
suffice. But in some cases, the vessel may be sealed and the liquid a combustible one; as a result, the
monitoring process becomes more complex. Depending upon the complexity of the situation, there are
different methods for measuring the liquid level, as can be summarized as follows:
(a) Float type
(b) Hydrostatic differential pressure gauge type
(c) Capacitance type
(d) Ultrasonic type
(e) Radiation technique.

Hydrostatic differential pressure gauge type

The hydrostatic pressure developed at the bottom of a tank is given by:
p=ghρ
where h is the height of the liquid level and ρis the density of the liquid. So by putting two pressure
tapings, one at the bottom and the other at the top of the tank, we can measure the differential pressure,
which can be calibrated in terms of the liquid level. Such a schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. The
drum level of a boiler is normally measured using this basic principle. However proper care should be
taken in the measurement compensate for variation of density of water with temperature and pressure.

Capacitance type
This type of sensors are widely used for chemical and petrochemical industries; and can be used for a
o 2
wide range of temperature (-40 to 200 C) and pressure variation (25 to 60 kg/cm ). It uses a coaxial
type cylinder, and the capacitance is measured between the inner rod and the outer cylinder, as shown
in Fig. The total capacitance between the two terminals is the sum of (i) capacitance of the insulating
bushing, (ii) capacitance due to air and liquid vapour and (iii) capacitance due to the liquid. If the total
capacitance measured when the tank is empty is expressed as C , then the capacitance or the liquid level
1
of h can be expressed as:

where, ε1 is the relative permittivity of the liquid and ε2 is the relative permittivity of the air and liquid
vapour . Hence a linear relationship can be obtained with the liquid level. (≈1)
The advantage of capacitance type sensor is that permittivity of the liquid is less sensitive to variation
of temperature and can be easily compensated.

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Ultrasonic type
Ultrasonic method can be effectively used for measurement of liquid level in a sealed tank. An
ultrasonic transmitter/receiver pair is mounted at the bottom of the tank. Ultrasonic wave can pass
through the liquid, but gets reflected at the liquid-air interface, as shown in Fig.. The time taken to
receive the pulse is measured, that can be related with the liquid level. For accurate measurement,
variation of speed of sound with the liquid density (and temperature) should be properly compensated.

Radiation technique
Radioactive technique also finds applications in measurement of level in sealed containers. Radioactive
ray gets attenuated as it passes through a medium. The intensity of the radiation as it passes a distance
x through a medium is given by:

where is the incidental intensity and α is the absorption co-efficient of the medium. Thus if we measure
the intensity of the radiation, knowing , and α, x can be determined. There are several techniques which
are in use. In one method, a float with a radioactive source inside is allowed to move along a vertical
path with the liquid level. A Geiger Muller Counter is placed at the bottom of the tank along the vertical
path and the intensity is measured. The basic scheme is shown in Fig.
The method used in a batch filling process of bottles, uses a source-detector assembly that can slide
along the two sides of the bottle, as shown in Fig. As soon as the source-detector assembly passes
through the liquid-air interface, there would be a large change in the signal received by the detector.
Radioactive methods, though simple in principle, find limited applications, because of possible
radiation hazards. However radioactive methods are routinely used for level measurement of grains and
granular solids.

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UNIT II
OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS

Laplace Transform
Laplace Transform enables one to get a very simple and elegant method of solving linear differential
equation by transforming them into algebraic equations. It is well known that chemical processes are
mathematically represented through a set of differential equations involving derivatives of process
states. Analytical solution of such mathematical models in time domain is not only difficult but
sometimes impossible without taking the help of numerical techniques. Laplace Transform comes as a
good aid in this situation.
For this reason, Laplace Transform has been included in the text of this “Process Control” course
material though it is purely a mathematical subject.

Definition of Laplace Transform

Consider a function f(t). The Laplace transform of the function is represented by f(s) and defined by the
following expression:
(1)

Hence, the Laplace Transform is a transformation of a function from the t -domain (time domain) to s -
domain (Laplace domain) where both t and s are independent variables.

Laplace transform of a few basic functions

The Fig. 1 shows a few basic functions which are frequently used in process control applications

(a) Step function (b) Ramp function

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(c) Pulse function (d) Impulse function

Fig. 1: Few basic functions which are frequently used in process control applications

Step function : See Fig. 1(a) for the schematic of a step function

Hence,

(2)
(3)

Ramp function : See Fig. 1(b) for the schematic of a ramp function f(t)=at for t>0 where a is a constant
(4)

Hence,
(5)

Exponential function : for t>0 where a is a constant

(6)

Hence,
(7)

Sinusoidal function :

(8)

Hence,

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(9)

Delayed function : , i.e .f(t) is delayed by seconds

(10)

Now, let us take , hence . At and at .

Thus,
(11)1
1

Hence,
(12)

Pulse function : See 1(c) for the schematic of an unit pulse function. The area under the pulse is 1. The

duration of pulse is T and hence it achieves maximum intensity of . Thus the function is defined

by
It can also be defined as the “addition” of two step functions which are equal but with opposite intensity,
however, the second function is delayed by T .

Hence, it is evident that is equal to in intensity however it is delayed by time

Thus, . Since is a step function of intensity , the following

expression will hold.

Hence,
(14)

Impulse function : See Fig.1(d) for the schematic of an unit impulse function. This is analogous to a
pulse function whose duration is shrinked to zero without losing the strength. Hence the area under the
impulse remains 1. The function can be expressed as the following:
(15)

As the duration of the impulse tends to zero, its maximum intensity ideally tends to . Mathematically
it is termed as Dirac Delta function and is represented as . The following relation holds for unit
impulse:
(16)

Thus the Laplace transform of the impulse function can be derived as the following:

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(17)

L'Hospital's rule has been applied in the above derivation. Hence,

(18)

The following table presents the Laplace transforms of various functions.

Laplace transforms of various functions

Function in time domain Laplace Transform
Unit impulse 1

Unit pulse of duration T

Unit step

Ramp : f(t)=at

Laplace Transform of derivatives

The Laplace transform of derivative of a function f(t) is derived in the following manner:
(19)

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Where f(0) is the value of the function at t=0. Similarly it can be proved that
(20)

Where f'(0) is the value of the derivative of the function at t=0. In general, it can be proved that
(21)

Where are the initial conditions of the respective-order

derivatives of the function.

Laplace Transform of Integrals

The Laplace transform of integral of a function f(t) is derived in the following manner:
(22)

Integrate by parts by considering the following: . Then,

and . Hence,
(23
)

Hence,
(24)

Final value theorem

The final value theorem allows one to compute the value that a function approaches as when its
Laplace transform is known.
(25)

Initial value theorem

The Initial value theorem allows one to compute the value that a function approaches as when its
Laplace transform is known.
(26)

Solution of linear ODEs using Laplace Transform

Following example illustrates the method of solving ODEs using Laplace Transform. Consider the
following set of equations arisen from a modeling exercise:
(27)

(28)

With . Task is to find a solution for x(t) and y(t).

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Taking Laplace Transform of eqns. (27) & (28) we obtain,

(29)

(30)

After rearrangement of the above we obtain,

(31)

(32)

Taking the inverse Laplace Transform we obtain,

(33)

(34)
y(t)

Definition of Transfer Function

Transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace Transform of the output variable to the Laplace
Transform of the input variable assuming all the initial condition as zero.

Properties of Transfer Function

 The transfer function of a system is the mathematical model expressing the differential equation
that relates the output to input of the system.
 The transfer function is the property of a system independent of magnitude and the nature of
the
input.
 The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual elements. But at the same
time, it does not provide any information regarding physical structure of the system.
 The transfer functions of many physically different systems shall be identical.
 If the transfer function of the system is known, the output response can be studied for various
typesof inputs to understand the nature of the system.
 If the transfer function is unknown, it may be found out experimentally by applying known
inputs tothe device and studying the output of the system.

How you can obtain the transfer function (T. F.)

 Write the differential equation of the system.
 Take the L. T. of the differential equation, assuming all initial condition to be zero.
 Take the ratio of the output to the input. This ratio is the T. F.

Mathematical Model of control systems

A control system is a collection of physical object connected together to serve an objective. The
mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equation.

First Order Process

A first order process is a process whose output y(t) is modeled by a first order differential equation.
(35)

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where, are input and output of the process espectively. If , then define the

following: and
Hence, the first order differential equation takes the following form:
(36)

At steady state condition , the equation can be re-written as

(37)

Subtracting eq. (36) from eq. (37), we obtain

(38)

Alternatively,
(39)

Where, and are the deviation forms of the input and output variables
of the process around the steady state, whose initial conditions are assumed to be the
following: .
Taking Laplace Transform of the eq. (III.39) we obtain,
(40)
Rearranging the above we obtain,
(41)

Gp(s) is called the transfer function of the process. Kp and τp are called as gain and time constant of the
process. The unit of gain is the ratio of the units of output to that of input, whereas the unit of time
constant is same as that of time.

Examples of a first order process

Mercury in glass thermometer
Assumptions:
Lumped - All thermal resistance resides in fluid film surrounding bulb
Parameter - All thermal capacity is in the mercury and it is uniform throughout
Model - The glass does not expand
- Thermometer is initially at steady state

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H = film coefficient of heat transfer [=] BTU/ hr • ft 2•o F

A = Area of bulb [=] ft2
x = Fluid Temp [=] °F
y = Hg Temp [=]°F
C = Heat capacity of Hg [=] BTU/lb m oF
m = Mass of mercury [=] lbm
t = time [=] hr
It is not convenient to work in terms of absolute temperature, instead solve the problem in terms of
deviations
For t ≤ 0 Thermometer is at steady state

Taking the LaPlace Transform

Where
= Time Constant [=] hours
Step Responseof a first order system
To examine the response of the thermometer to a step input in temperature, we would note that

where: A = the magnitude of the step change in temperature [=] °F

Then:

we can rearrange this equation into the format

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The solution requires that partial fractions are used, so:

Where:
C1 = A
C2 = -A
The solution is

Dynamic response of a first order process upon step change in input

Ramp response of a first order system

We know, the transfer function of a first order system is
Y(s)/X(s) = 1/(𝜏 s + 1)
Where ‗𝜏‘ is the time constant.
We know, the ramp input is X(t) = Aramp t
Where ‗Aramp‘ is the magnitude of ramp input.
Or
X(s) = Aramp/s2
Applying the above into the first order transfer function, we get

By partial fraction technique, we get

Taking Laplace inverse on both sides, we get

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This expression is the response of first order system to a ramp input.

Note: Aramp= 1, for unit ramp input.

Pulse response of a first order system:

We know, the transfer function for a first order system is
Y(s)/X(s) = 1/(𝜏 s + 1)
We know, the pulse input is

Apulse [(1/s) – (e /s)]

Where tois the pulse time.
Substituting the above into the transfer function, we get

(1)
By translation of functions, we have

Now, taking Laplace inverse on equation (1)

At t < to, equation (1) becomes

Taking Laplace inverse, we get

At t > to, the solution to equation (1) becomes

Which on simplification yields

Effect of parameters on the response of First Order Process

Suppose two first order processes have same static gain but different time constants.

It indicates that Process 1 is faster than process 2 as the time constant of Process 1 is smaller than that
of Process 2. The responses of the processes for same unit step change in input are given in the figure
below:

Dynamic profile of two first order processes with same gain but different time constants

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Since the gain of the processes are same, the ultimate response reaches the same value. On the other
hand, suppose two first order processes have different static gains but same time constants.

It indicates that Process 2 has higher static gain than Process 1. The responses of the processes are given
in the figure below:

Dynamic profile of two first order processes with different gain but same time constants.

We observe that the processes have same initial slope of response. Process 2 settles at a higher steady
state value due to its higher static gain.

Problem 1
A thermometer having a time constant of 0.5min is placed in a temperature bath and after thermometer
comes to equilibrium with the bath, the temperature of the bath is increased linearly at the rate of
1oC/min.
(i) What is the difference between the indicated and bath temperature at 0.25min and 3min
after the change in temperature begins?
(ii) What is the maximum deviation between the indicated and bath temperature and when does
it occur?
(iii) How many minutes does the response lag the input after long enough time is elapsed?

From the given statement, it is clear that a (unit) ramp input of magnitude 1oC/min [X(t) = t] to a
First order (thermometer) system.
We know, the unit ramp response of a first order system is

(i) At t = 0.25min, X(t) = 0.25 and Y(t) = 0.0533.

Therefore, X(t) – Y(t) = 0.1967 oC
At t = 3min, X(t) = 3 and Y(t) = 2.5012.
Therefore, X(t) – Y(t) = 0.4988 0C
ii) Maximum deviation between the indicated and bath temperature
= ARamp
= 1 * 0.5 = 0.5 0C

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Dynamics of CSTR
Considering that a first order homogeneous reaction taking place in a CSTR, at unsteady state
operation, we have
Rate of reactant A entering = Rate of reactant A leaving + Rate of disappearance of A within the
reactor + Rate of accumulation of A within the reactor

νo Co = νoC1 + V (k C1) + V (dC1/dt)

Where Co and C1 are the entering and leaving concentrations of reactant A; Vis the volume of reactor;
νo is the volumetric flow rate of A into the reactor.
Or
Co = C1 + (k C1 + (dC1/dt)
Where = V/νo, is the space time or the time constant of the reactor.

Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get

Co(s) = C1(s) + (k C1(s) + [s C1(s)] = [(1 + k + s] C1(s)
C1(s)/Co(s) = 1/ [(1 + k + s]
C1(s)/Co(s) = R/(𝜏’ s + 1)
Where 𝜏’= + k and R = 1/(1 + k , which are the time constant and theresistance for the
reactorprocess.
The above expression represents the transfer function a CSTR, at unsteady state.

Dynamics of Liquid level Tank

Consider tank of uniform cross sectional area A to which is attached a flow resistance R such as a valve,
a pipe, or a weir.

Assume that qO, the volumetric flow rate (volume/time) through the resistance, is related to the head h
by the linear relationship

(1)
A resistance that has this linear relationship between flow and head is referred to as a linear resistance.”
A time-varying volumetric flow 4 of liquid of constant density p enters the tank.This system can be
analyzed by writing a transient mass balance around the tank:
Mass flow in - mass flow out = rate of accumulation of mass in the tank

In terms of the variables used in this analysis, the mass balance becomes

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(2)
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) to eliminate qO(t) gives the following linear differential equation:

(3)
Initially, the process is operating at steady state, which means that dh/dt = 0 and we can write Eq. (3)
as

(4)
where the subscript s has been used to indicate the steady-state value of the variable.
Subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (3) gives

(5)
If we define the deviation variables as

(6)
Taking the transform of Eq. (6) gives

(7)
Equation (7) can be rearranged into the standard form of the first order lag to give

(8)
where τ = AR
In comparing the transfer function of the tank given by Eq. (8) with the transfer function for the
thermometer given by Eq. (7), we see that Eq. (8) contains the factor R.
The term R is simply the conversion factor that relates h(t) to q(t) when the system is at steady state.
For this reason, a factor K in the transfer function K/(τs + 1) is often called the steady-state gain.
If the transfer function relating the inlet flow q(t) to the outlet flow is desired, then from Eq. (1)

(9)
Subtracting Eq. (9) from Eq. (1) and using the deviation variable
Q, = q. - qo, gives

(10)
Taking the transform of Eq. (10) gives

(11)

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Combining Eqs. (11) and (8) to eliminate H(s) gives

(12)
The steady-state gain for this transfer function is dimensionless, which is to be expected because the
input variable q(t) and the output variable qO(t) have the same units (volume/time).

Liquid level process with constant flow outlet

Another example of a transfer function that often arises in control systems may be developed by
considering the liquid level system shown in Fig.
The resistance is replaced by a constant-flow pump.
The same assumptions of constant cross-sectional area and constant density that were used before,
also apply here.
For this system, q(t) is now a constant; thus

(1)
At steady state, Eq. (1) becomes
qs - q0 = 0 (2)

Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) and introducing the deviation variables
Q = q - qs
and
H = h - hs, gives

(3)

Taking the Laplace transform of each side of Eq. (3) and solving for H/Q gives

(4)
The transfer function, 1/As, in Eq. (4) is equivalent to integration. Therefore, the solution of Eq. (4) is

If a step change Q(r) = u(t) were applied to the system shown in Fig. the result is

(6)

The step response given by Eq. (6) is a ramp function that grows without limit. Such a system that
grows without limit for a sustained change in input is said to have non-regulation.

Systems that have a limited change in output for a sustained change in input are said to have regulation.

Mixing Process:
Consider the mixing process shown in Fig. in which a stream of solution containing dissolved salt flows
at a constant volumetric flow rate q into a tank of constant holdup volume V.
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The concentration of the salt in the entering stream, x (mass of salt/volume), varies with time. It is
desired to determine the transfer function relating the outlet concentration y to the inlet concentration
X.
Assuming the density of the solution to be constant, the flow rate in must equal the flow rate out, since
the
holdup volume is fixed.
A transient mass balance for the salt; thus
Flow rate of salt in - flow rate of salt out = rate of accumulation of salt in the tank
Expressing this mass balance in terms of symbols give

(1)
• At steady state, Eq. (1) may be written
qxs - qys = 0 (2)
Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) and introducing the deviation variables
X = x - xs ,
Y=y-ys
Give

Taking the Laplace transform of this expression and rearranging the result give

(3)
where τ = V/q.

LINEARIZATION
All the examples of physical systems discussed so far , including the liquid-level system have been
linear. Actually, most physical systems of practical importance are nonlinear.
Characterization of a dynamic system by a transfer function can be done only for linear systems For
dynamic analysis, non linear systems can be approximated to linear ones. A very important technique
for such approximation is illustrated by the following discussion of the liquid-level system of Fig.

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We now assume that the resistance follows the square-root relationship

q0 = Ch1/2 (1)
where C is a constant.
For a liquid of constant density and a tank of uniform crosssectional area A, a material balance around
the tank gives

(2)
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) gives the nonlinear differential equation

(3)
Owing to the presence of the nonlinear term h1/2, We cannot proceed, for which there is no simple
transform. This difficulty can be circumvented as follows.

By means of a Taylor-series expansion, the function q0(h) may be expanded around the steady-state
value hs; thus

where q0’(hs) is the first derivative of q0 evaluated at hs, q0”(hs) the second derivative, etc. Keeping only
the linear term, gives

(4)
Taking the derivative of q0 with respect to h in Eq. (1) and evaluating the derivative at h = hs, gives
q0’(hs) = (1/2)Chs-1/2
Introducing this into Eq. (4) gives

(5)
where qos = q0(hs)
(R1)-1 =1/2.Chs-1/2
Substituting Eq. (5) into (2) gives

(6)
At steady state the flow entering the tank equals the flow leaving the tank; thus
q0 = q0s, (7)
Introducing this last equation into Eq. (6) gives

(8)
Introducing deviation variables Q = q - qs and H = h - hs into Eq. (8) and transforming give

Where

However, in this case, the resistance R1 depends on the steady-state conditions around

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which the process operates.

Graphically, the resistance R1 is the reciprocal of the slope of the tangent line passing through the
point (q0s, hs) as shown in Fig.

Furthermore, the linear approximation given by Eq. (4) is the equation of the tangent line itself. From
the graphical representation, it should be clear that the linear approximation improves as the deviation
in h becomes smaller.

First Order systems in series:

Non-Interacting System:
The outlet flow from tank 1 discharges directly into the atmosphere before spilling into tank 2 and the
flow through R1 depends only on h1 The variation in h2 in tank 2 does not affect the transient response
occurring in tank 1.
Assume the liquid to be of constant density, the tanks to have uniform cross-sectional area, and the flow
resistances to be linear.
The approach will be to obtain a transfer function for each tank,Q1(s)/Q(s) and H2(s)/Q1(s), by writing
a transient mass balance around each tank; these transfer functions will then be combined to eliminate
the intermediate flow Q1(s) and produce the desired transfer function.

A balance on tank 1 gives

(1)
A balance on tank 2 gives

(2)
The flow-head relationships for the two linear resistances are given by the expressions

(3)
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(4)
Steady state balance around tank 1 gives
qs – q1s = 0 (5)
q1s – q2s = 0 (6)
Subtracting (5) from (1) and using (3) gives

(7)
Subtracting (6) from (2) and using (4) gives

(8)
Introducing deviation variables, Q1 = q1 – q1s, Q = q - qs, and τ1= R1A1

(9)

(10)
Taking Laplace transform of Eqns (9) and (10) gives

(11)

(12)
where H2 = h2 - h2s, and τ2 = R2A2
The overall transfer function H2(s)/Q(s) can be obtained by multiplying Eqs. (11) and (12) to eliminate
Q 1(S):

(13)
Generalization for several Non-interacting systems in series:
The overall transfer function of Eq. (13) is the product of two first-order transfer functions, each one of
which is the transfer function of a single tank operating independently of the other.
We may now generalize by considering n non-interacting first-order systems as represented by the block
diagram of Fig.

Non-Interacting first order systems

The block diagram is equivalent to the relationships

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To obtain the overall transfer function, we simply multiply together the individual transfer functions;
thus

Interacting system:
The flow through R1 depends on the difference between h1 and h2.

The analysis is started by writing mass balances on the tanks as was done for the non-interacting case.
The balances on tanks 1 and 2 are the same as before and are given by Eqs. (1) and (2). However, the
flow-head relationship for tank 1 is now

(14)
The flow-head relationship for R2 is the same as before and is expressed by Eq. (4).
At steady state, Eqs. (1) and (2) can be written
qs – q1s = 0 (15)
q1s – q2s = 0 (16)
Subtracting Eq. (15) from Eq. (1) and Eq. (16) from Eq. (2) and introducing deviation variables give

(17)

(18)
Where,
Q1 = q1 – q1s,
Q = q – qs ,
Q2 = q2 – q2s,
H1 = h1 – h1s,
H2 = h2 - h2s,
Expressing Eqs. (14) and (4) in terms of deviation variables gives

(19)

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(20)
Transforming Eqs. (17) through (20) gives
Q(s) – Q1(s) = A1sH1(s) (21)
Q1(s) – Q2(s) = A2sH2(s) (22)
R1Q1(s) = H1(s) - H2(s) (23)
R2Q2(s) = H2(s) (24)
Substituting Eq (24) in Eq (22) gives

(25)
Substituting Eqs (23) and (25) in Eq (21) gives

The above equation can be simplified to produce the desired transfer function for the interacting
system.

(26)
The term interacting is often referred to as loading. The second tank of Fig.is said to load the first
tank.

Second Order
Transfer Function for Damped vibrator
A block of mass ‗W‘ resting on a horizontal, frictionless table is attached to a linear spring. A viscous
damper (dashpot) is also attached to the block.
Assume that the system is free to oscillate horizontally under the influence of a forcing function F(t).
The origin of the coordinate system is taken as the right edge of the block when the spring is in the
relaxed or un-stretched condition. At time zero, the block is assumed to be at rest at this origin.
the right of Y = 0 and when it is moving toward the
right (positive direction).
Under these conditions, the position Y and the velocity dF/dt are both positive.
At this particular instant, the following forces are acting on the block:
The force exerted by the spring (toward the left) of -KY where K is a positive constant, called Hooke‘s
constant.
The viscous friction force (acting to the left) of -C dY/dt, where C is a positive constant called the
damping coefficient.
The external force F(t) (acting toward the right).

(1)

(2)
Where W= mass of block lb m,
gc = 32.2 (lbm)(ft)/(lbf)(sec2)
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C = viscous damping coefficient , lbf/ (ft/sec)

K= Hookes constant , lbm/ft
F(t) = driving force a function of time lbf

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)
If the block is motionless (dY/dt = 0) and located at its rest position (Y= 0) before the forcing function
is applied , The laplce transform of eq.4 becomes

The transfer function

(11)

Dynamic Response of a Second Order Process to a Step Change in the Input

For a step input of magnitude A , the Laplace Transform of u(t) would be,
(12)

Hence, second order process takes the following form,

(13)

The process response will grossly depend upon the value of ξ and there can be three distinguished cases
of ξ, i.e. ξ >1; ξ = 1 and ξ <1 .

Case A: ξ = 1
In this case the process response equation in the Laplace domain takes the following form:

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(14)

Using the following:

(15)

in eq. (14), we obtain

(16)

or

(17)
For ξ ≠ 1, using the following:

(18)

in eq. (13), we obtain

(19)

Case B: When ξ >1

(19
)

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In the above equations, the following trigonometric identities have been used:

and .
Hence we get the final expression for process response when ξ >1,
(20)

Case C:

(21
)

In the above equations, the following trigonometric identities have been used:
(22)

(23)

One can also use the following trigonometric identity for the above expression:
(24)

Hence,
( 25
)

Hence we get the final expression for process response for ξ < 1,
(26)

The frequency of oscillation is

(27)

whereas the phase lag is

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(28)

Features of the process response

Let us find out the initial and final values as well as initial and final slopes of second order processes.
For
(29)

Hence,
(30)

For
(31)

Hence,

(32)

For either value(s) of ,

( 33)

he figure below is the graphical representations of three cases of discussed so far.

Step response of a second order process

For and , the process response never goes beyond the final steady state value, whereas
for , the response exceeds the ultimate steady state several times during its transient motion. In
other words, some oscillatory behavior is observed in this case. Nevertheless a damping action is active
in all the three cases which is high for and low for . Hence, is called the damping

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coefficient . The response is overdamped if , critically damped if and underdamped if

.
Characteristics of an underdamped process
Following figure is a graphical representation of a typical second order underdamped process.

Step response of a second order underdamped process

Suppose P is the maximum amount by which the underdamped response overshoots its ultimate steady
state value and Q is the ultimate steady state value. Then the ratio is called overshoot . Suppose R is
the second largest value by which the response exceeds its ultimate steady state value. Then the
ratio is called the decay ratio . In general, decay ratio is a measure of how rapidly the oscillations
decrease. It is to be noted that the ratio of two successive peaks is a constant quantity and is equal to
the decay ratio for that underdamped process.
Following are the important features of an underdamped process:
Period of Oscillation : Time elapsed between two successive peaks is called the period of oscillation
(T ). Hence,
(101)

Overshoot : The slope at every zenith and nadir of the oscillation would be zero. The first zenith
indicates the value of . The first zenith appears after a time of . Hence,

(102)

and
(103)
Hence,

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(104)

and,
(105)

Decay Ratio : The second zenith indicates the values of and that appears at a time .

(106)

Hence,
(107)

and,
(108)

Hence,
(109)

Problem 1
Derive the transfer function H/Q for the liquid level system shown below; [H and Q are the deviation
variables in h (m) and q (m3/min) respectively, Area A = 0.75m2].

Writing the material balance for the given liquid level system, we get
q = h [(1/R1) + (1/R2)] + A (dh/dt) ----------- (1)
At steady state, equation (1) becomes
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qs = hs [(1/R1) + (1/R2)] + A (dhs/dt) ----------- (2)

Note: dhs/dt = 0
Subtaracting (2) from (1) gives
q - qs = [h - hs] [(1/R1) + (1/R2)] + A [d(h - hs)/dt] Or Q = H [(1/R1) + (1/R2)] + A [dH/dt]
Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get
Q(s) = H(s) [(R1+R2)/(R1R2)] + A [s H(s) – H(0)] = H(s) [(R1+R2)/(R1R2)] + A [s H(s)];
since H(0) = hs – hs = 0
Or
H(s)/Q(s) = Rtotal/(total s + 1) ------------ (3)
Where Rtotal = [R1R2)/(R1+R2)] and
total = A Rtotal Equation (3) represents the transfer function for the given liquid level system.
Now, substituting the given values into equation (3) gives
H(s)/Q(s) = 0.6667/(0.5s + 1)

Problem 2

A liquid level process is operating at steady state and the input to the tank is 10m3/min. At t = 0, 1m3 of
water is added suddenly (unit impulse) to the tank; at t = 1, 2m3 of water is added suddenly to the tank.
The resistance (R) at the exit is 0.5 and the time constant,  = 1. Plot the response of the level in the
tank and determine the level at t = 0.5, 1 and 1.5
Ans.
Given, Liquid level process (first order) – subjected to two different impulse input at the time interval
of 1 min.
Steady flow rate, qs = qo s = 10 m3/min
Resistance, R = 0.5 min/m2 and
Time constant,  = 1 min
We know, the transfer function for a first order liquid level system is
H(s)/Q(s) = R/( s + 1)
Sub. the given data‘s into the above, we get
H(s)/Q(s) = 0.5/(s + 1) ---------- (1)
At t = 0, Q(t) = 1 (impulse) or Q(s) = 1 ---------- (2)

Sub. (2) into (1), we get

H(s) = 0.5/(s + 1)
Or
H(t) = 0.5 e-t ---------- (3)
Or
h(t) = hs + 0.5 e-t, 0 < t < 1 ---------- (4)
We know, at steady state,
qo s = hs/R or hs = qo s * R
Sub. the given data‘s into the above, we get
hs = 10 * 0.5 = 5 m Equation (4) becomes
h(t) = 5 + 0.5 e-t, 0 < t < 1 ---------- (5)
At t = 1, Q(t)t → t - 1 = 2 (impulse) or Q(s) = 2 ---------- (6)

Sub. (6) into (1), we get

H(s) = 1/(s + 1)
Or
H(t)t → t - 1 = e-(t - 1)
Or
H(t) = 2.7183 e-t, -----------(7)
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The overall response is given by adding equations (3) and (7).

That is, H(t) = 0.5 e-t + 2.7183 e-t = 3.2183 e-t
Or
h(t) = 5 + 3.2183 e-t, t > 1 ----------- (8)
Tabulation: [By using equations (5) and (8)]
Now,

Now, plot the graph between h(t) and ‘t’. Note: the bold numbers in the tabular column indicates the
answer for the second part.

Problem 3
A process of unknown transfer function is subjected to a unit-impulse input. The output of the process
is measured accurately and is found to be represented by the function y(t) = t e-t. Determine the unit
step response of the process.
Given, Unknown transfer function – subjected to unit-impulse input.
The output of the process is Y(t) = t e-t
We know, the unit-impulse input is
X(t) = 1 or
X(s) = 1
Taking Laplace inverse on the given output, we get
Y(s) = 1/(s + 1)2
From the above, we get the transfer function as
Y(s)/X(s) = 1/(s + 1)2
Now, we know the unit step input is
X(t) = 1 or X(s) = 1/s
Substituting this X(s) into the above transfer function, we get
Y(s) = 1/[s (s + 1)2]
By partial fraction technique, the above equation becomes
Y(s) = (1/s) – [1/(s + 1)] – [1/(s + 1)2]
Taking Laplace inverse on both sides, we get Y(t) = 1 – e-t – t e-t = 1 – (1 + t) e-t

Problem 4
A step change of magnitude 4 is introduced into the system having the transfer function;

Determine (i) Percent overshoot (ii) Decay ratio (iii) Period of oscillation (iv) Rise time and (v) Settling
time.
Ans:
G(s) = Y(s)/X(s) = 10/(s2 + 1.6s + 4)
Writing the given second order transfer function in its standard form as
Y(s)/X(s) = 2.5/[0.25s2 + 0.4s + 1] --------- (1)
On comparing equation (1) with the standard second order transfer function,
we get 2 = 0.25 or = 0.5
And 2 ξ  = 0.4 or ξ = 0.4/2 = 0.4/(2*0.5) = 0.4 or ξ < 1
Therefore, the given second order system is under damped.
(i) Overshoot = exp [(-π ξ)/√(1 – ξ2)]

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Sub. ξ = 0.4 into the above, we get Overshoot = 0.2538 or 25.38%

(ii) Decay ratio = exp [(-2 π ξ)/√(1 – ξ2)] = (Overshoot)2

Sub. overshoot = 0.2538 into the above, we get Decay ratio = 0.0644
(iii)Period of oscillation, T = 2π/ω = (2 π )/√(1 – ξ2)
Sub.  = 0.5 and ξ = 0.4 into the above, we get T = 3.4278 time/cycle
(iv) Rise time, tr = (π – φ)/ω
Where, ω = √(1 – ξ2)/  and φ = tan-1[√(1 – ξ2)/ξ] Sub.  = 0.5 and ξ = 0.4 into the above, we get ω =
1.833 rad/min and φ = 1.1593 rad
Then, Rise time, tr = 1.0815 Now,
Given (step input) X(t) = 4 or
X(s) = 4/s ---------- (2) Sub. equation (2)
into (1), we get
Y(s) = 10/[s (0.25s2 + 0.4s + 1)]
Where Ultimate value, Yult = 10
We know, the step response of an under damped second order system is
Y(t) = Yult {1 – [e- ξt//√(1 – ξ2)] sin(ωt + φ)}
Sub. the known values into the above, we get
Y(t) = 10 {1 – [(1.0911 e-0.8t) sin(1.833t+1.1593)]} ---------- (3)
(v) Response time (tR): It is the time requires for the response to come within ± 5 percent of its
ultimate value and remain there.
At t = tR, Y(t) = 0.95 Yult = 0.95 * 10 = 9.5 ---------- (4)
Sub. equation (4) into equation (3), we get e-0.8tR sin(1.833t+1.1593) = 0.04583
This on solving by trial and error method gives tR ≈ 3.8

UNIT III
CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS

Closed loop control systems

Let us a consider a liquid stream at a temperature T’i enters an insulated, well-stirred tank at a constant
flow rate w (mass/time).It is desired to maintain (or control) the temperature in the tank at T R by means
of the controller.If the measured tank temperature Tm, differs from the desired temperature T R, the
controller senses the difference or error, ε = T R - Tm, and changes the heat input in such a way as to
reduce the magnitude of ε. If the controller changes the heat input to the tank by an amount that is
proportional to ε , we have proportional control.

Figure 1. Control System of a Stirred tank heater

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The source of heat input q may be electricity or steam. If an electrical source were used, the final
control element might be a variable transformer that is used to adjust current to a resistance heating
element;
if steam were used, the final control element would be a control valve that adjusts the flow of steam.
In either case, the output signal from the controller should adjust q in such a way as to maintain
control of the temperature in the tank

Components of a Control System

The system may be divided into the following components:
1. Process (stirred-tank heater).
2. Measuring element (thermometer).
3. Controller.
4. Final control element (variable transformer or control valve).

Block Diagram
For computational purposes, it is convenient to represent the control system of Fig.1 above by means
of the block diagram shown in Fig. below. Such a diagram makes it much easier to visualize the
relationships among the various signals. New terms, which appear in Fig.2, are set point and load. The
set point is a synonym for the desired value of the controlled variable. The load refers to a change in
any variable that may cause the controlled variable of the process to change.

Figure 2 .Block Diagram of a Simple Control System

In this example, the inlet temperature T’i is a load variable. Other possible loads for this system are
changes in flow rate and heat loss from the tank. The control system shown in Fig. is called a closed-
loop system or a feedback system because the measured value of the controlled variable is returned or
“fed back” to a device called the comparator. In the comparator, the controlled variable is compared
with the desired value or set point. If there is any difference between the measured variable and the set
point, an error is generated. This error enters a controller, which in turn adjusts the final control element
in order to return the controlled variable to the set point.

Negative Feedback versus positive Feedback

 The feedback principle, which is illustrated by Fig. 2, involves the use of the controlled variable
T to maintain itself at a desired value T R.
 The arrangement of the apparatus of Fig. 2 is often described as negative feedback to contrast
with another arrangement called positive feedback.
 Negative feedback ensures that the difference between T R and T m is used to adjust the control
element so that the tendency is to reduce the error.
 For example, assume that the system is at steady state and that T = T m = TR. If the load Ti should
increase, T and T m would start to increase, which would cause the error ε to become negative.
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 With proportional control, the decrease in error would cause the controller and final control
element to decrease the flow of heat to the system with the result that the flow of heat would
eventually be reduced to a value such that T approaches T R.
 If the signal to the comparator were obtained by adding T R and Tm we would have a positive
feedback system, which is inherently unstable.
 To see that this is true, again assume that the system is at steady state and that T = T m = TR.
 If Ti were to increase, T and Tm would increase, which would cause the signal the comparator
to increase, with the result that the heat to the system would increase.
 However, this action, which is just the opposite of that needed, would cause T to increase
further. It should be clear that this situation would cause T to “run away” and control would not
be achieved.
 For this reason, positive feedback would never be used intentionally in the system of Fig. 2.

Servo Problem versus Regulator Problem

 The control system of Fig. 2.can be considered from the point of view of its ability to handle
either of two types of situations. In the first situation, which is called the servomechanism-type
(or servo) problem, we assume that there is no change in load Ti and that we are interested in
changing the bath temperature according to some prescribed function of time. For this problem,
the set point TR would be changed in accordance with the desired variation in bath temperature.
 If the variation is sufficiently slow, the bath temperature may be expected to follow the variation
in TR very closely.
 There are occasions when a control system in the chemical industry will be operated in this
manner. For example, one may be interested in varying the temperature of a reactor according
to a prescribed time-temperature pattern.
 The tracking of missiles and aircraft and the automatic machining of intricate parts from a
master pattern are well-known examples of the servo-type problem.
 The other situation will be referred to as the regulator problem. In this case, the desired value
TR is to remain fixed and the purpose of the control system is to maintain the controlled variable
at TR in spite of changes in load Ti.
 This problem is very common in the chemical industry, and a complicated industrial process
will often have many self-contained control systems, each of which maintains a particular
process variable at a desired value. These control systems are of the regulator type

Development of Block Diagram

Each block in Fig. 2 represents the functional relationship existing between the input and output of a
particular component.
In block-diagram representations of control systems, the variables selected are deviation variables, and
inside each block is placed the transfer function relating the input-output pair of variables. Finally, the
blocks are combined to give the overall block diagram. This is the procedure to be followed in
developing Fig. 2.

Process
Consider first the block for the process. Here two input variables are present; however, the procedure
for developing the transfer function remains the same.
An unsteady-state energy balance around the tank gives

(1)
where To is the reference temperature.
At steady state, dT/dt is zero, and Eq. (1) can be written
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(2)
where the subscript s has been used to indicate steady state.
Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) gives

(3)
If we introduce the deviation variables
Ti’ = Ti - Tis (4)
Q=q - qs (5)
T’= T - Ts (6)
Eq. (3) becomes

(7)
Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. (7) gives

(8)

(9)
The last expression can be written as

(10)
Where

If there is a change in Q(t) only, then Ti‘(t) = 0 and the transfer function relating T’ to Q is

(11)
If there is a change in Ti’(t) only, then Q(t) = 0 and the transfer function relating T’ to Ti’ is

(12)

Equation (10) is represented by the block diagram shown in Fig.3a. This diagram is simply an alternate
way to express Eq. (10) in terms of the transfer functions of Eqs. (11) and (12).

Superposition makes this representation possible. The summing junction symbol, which is standard in
the control literature, may have several inputs but only one output.

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Figure 3.Block Diagram for process

Rearranging Eq. (10) gives Fig.3b.

(13)
In Fig. 3b, the input variables Q(S) and wCT i’(s) are summed before being operated on by the transfer
function (1/wC)/(τs + 1).
Assume that a supply of steam at constant conditions is available for heating the tank. One method for
introducing heat to the system is to let the steam flow through a control valve and discharge directly
into the water in the tank, where it will condense completely and become part of the stream leaving the
tank.
One method for introducing heat to the system is to let the steam flow through a control valve and
discharge directly into the water in the tank, where it will condense completely and become part of the
stream leaving the tank.
If the flow of steam, f (pounds/time), is small compared with the inlet flow w, the total outlet flow is
approximately equal to w.When the system is at steady state, the heat balance may be written

(14)
where To = reference temperature used to evaluate enthalpy of all streams entering and leaving tank
Hg = specific enthalpy of the steam supplied, a constant
Hls = specific enthalpy of the condensed steam flowing out at T,, as part of the total stream
The term Hls may be written in terms of heat capacity and temperature; thus

(15)
If the steady-state temperature changes, Hls changes. In Eq. (14), fs(Hg - Hls) is equivalent to the steady-
state input qs
Now consider an unsteady-state operation in which ‘f’ is much less than w and the temperature T of the
bath does not deviate significantly from the steady-state temperature Ts. For these conditions, we may
write the unsteady-state balance approximately; thus

(16)
By comparing Eq.(16) with Eq. (l), it is clear that
q = f(Hg - Hls) (17)
Therefore, q is proportional to the flow of steam f, which may be varied by means of a control valve.
The analysis presented here is only approximate. Both f and the deviation in T must be small.
Measuring Element
The temperature-measuring element, which senses the bath temperature T and transmits a signal Tm to
the controller, may exhibit some dynamic lag.From the discussion of the mercury thermometer, we
observed this lag to be first-order. In this example, we shall assume that the temperature measuring
element is a first-order system, for which the transfer function is

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(18)
where the input-output variables T’ and Tm’ are deviation variables, defined as
T’= T - Ts
Tm’= T m - T ms
Note that, when the control system is at steady state, T s= Tms which means that the temperature-
measuring element reads the true bath temperature.

Block Diagram of measuring element

Controller and Final Control Element

For convenience, the blocks representing the controller and the final control element are combined into
one block. It is assumed that the controller is a proportional controller.
The relationship for a proportional controller is
q = Kcε+A (19)
where ε = TR - T m
TR = set-point temperature
Kc = proportional sensitivity or controller gain
A = heat input when ε = 0
At steady state, it is assumed that the set point, the process temperature, and the measured temperature
are all equal to each other; thus
TRs = Ts = Tms (20)
Let ε’ be the deviation variable for error; thus
ε’ = ε-εs (21)
where εs = TRs - T ms
Since TRs = T ms ,εs = 0 and Eq. (21) becomes
ε’ = ε- 0 = ε (22)
This result shows that ε is itself a deviation variable.Since εs = 0, Eq. (19) becomes at steady state
qs = Kcεs, + A = 0 + A = A
Equation (19) may now be written in terms of qs; thus
q = Kcε + qs
or
Q = Kcε (23)
where Q = q - qs
The transform of Eq. (23) is simply
Q(s) = Kcε(s) (24)
Note that ε , which is also equal to ε ‘, may be expressed as
ε = TR - TRs - (T m – T ms) (25)
or
ε = TR’ – T m’ (26)
Equation (25) follows from the definition of ε and the fact that TRs = T ms.
Taking the transform of Eq. (26) gives
ε(S) = TR’(s) – Tm’(s) (27)
The transfer function for the proportional controller given by Eq. (24) and the generation of error given
by Eq. (27) may be expressed by the block diagram shown in Fig. 5.

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Block Diagram of Proportional controller

Block Diagram of Control System

Controllers and Final control elements:
The input signal to the controller is the error and the output signal of the controller is fed to the final
control element. In many process control systems, this output signal is au air pressure and the final
control element is a pneumatic valve that opens and closes as air pressure on the diaphragm changes.
For the mathematical analysis of control systems, it is sufficient to regard the controller as a simple
computer. For example, a proportional controller may be thought of as a device that receives the error
signal and puts out a signal proportional to it. Similarly, the final control element may be regarded as a
device that produces corrective action on the process. The corrective action is regarded as
mathematically related to the output signal from the controller.

Mechanisms
Control Valve
The control valve contains a pneumatic device (valve motor) that moves the valve stem as the pressure
on a spring-loaded diaphragm changes.The stem positions a plug in the orifice of the valve body. As
the pressure increases, the plug moves downward and restricts the flow of fluid through the valve. This
action is referred to as air-to-close. The valve may also be constructed to have air-to-open action. Valve
motors are often constructed so that the valve stem position is proportional to the valve-top pressure.
Most commercial valves move from fully open to fully closed as the valve-top pressure changes from
3 to 15 psig. In general, the flow rate of fluid through the valve depends upon the upstream and
downstream fluid pressures and the size of the opening through the valve. Assume for simplicity that at
steady state the flow (for fixed upstream and downstream fluid pressures) is proportional to the valve-
top pneumatic pressure. A valve having this relation is called a linear valve.

Pneumatic control valve (air–to-close)

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Schematic Diagram of Control System

Controller
The control hardware required to control the temperature of a stream leaving a heat exchanger is
shown in Fig.This hardware, consists of the following components listed here along with their
respective conversions:
Transducer (temperature to current).
Controller-recorder (current to current).
Converter (current to pressure).
Control valve (pressure to flow rate).
Figure shows that a thermocouple is used to measure the temperature; the signal from the thermocouple
is sent to the transducer, which produces an output in the range of 4-20 ma, which is a linear function
of the input.
The output of the transducer enters the controller where it is compared to the set point to produce an
error signal.The controller converts the error to an output in the range of 4-20 ma according to the
control law stored in the memory of the computer.
The output of the controller enters the converter, which produces an output in the range of 3-15 psig,
which is a linear function of the input.Finally, the output of the converter is sent to the top of the control
valve, which adjusts the flow of cooling water to the heat exchanger. We shall assume that the valve is
linear and is the pressure-to open type. Electricity is needed for the transducer, controller, and converter.
A source of 20 psig air is needed for the converter.

Ideal Transfer Functions

Control Valve
A pneumatic valve always has some dynamic lag, which means that the stem motion does not respond
instantaneously to a change in the applied pressure from the controller.
From experiments conducted on pneumatic valves, it has been found that the relationship between flow
and valve-top pressure for a linear valve can often be represented by a first-order transfer function; thus
where K, is the steady-state gain, i.e., the constant of proportionality between steady-state flow rate and
valve-top pressure, and τv is the time constant of the valve.

In many practical systems, the time constant of the valve is very small when compared with the time
constants of other components of the control system, and the transfer function of the valve can be
approximated by a constant

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Under these conditions, the valve is said to contribute negligible dynamic lag.
To justify the approximation of a fast valve by a transfer function, which is simply Kv consider a first-
order valve and a first-order process connected in series,
If we assume no interaction, the transfer function from P(s) to Y(s) is

Block Diagram for a first order valve and a first order process
Controllers
The transfer functions for the controllers frequently used in industrialprocesses are discussed in this
section. Because the transducer and the converter will be lumped together with the controller for
simplicity, the result is that the input will be the measured variable x (e.g. temperature, level, etc.) and
the output will be a pneumatic signal p. Actually this form (X as input and p as output) applies to a
pneumatic controller.

Proportional control.
The proportional controller produces an output signal (pressure in the case of a pneumatic controller,
current or voltage for an electronic controller) that is proportional to the error E. This action may be
expressed as
P = Kc ε + ps (1)
where p = output signal from controller, psig or ma
K, = gain, or sensitivity
ε = error = set point - measured variable
ps = a constant

In a controller having adjustable gain, the value of the gain Kc can be varied by moving a knob in the
controller. The value of ps is the value of the output signal when ε is zero, and in most controllers ps
can be adjusted to obtain the required output signal when the control system is at steady state and ε =
0.
To obtain the transfer function, we first introduce the deviation variable
P =p-ps
into Eq. (1). At time t = 0, we assume the error ε, to be zero. Then ε is already a deviation variable.
Equation (1) becomes
P(t) = Kcε(t) (2)
Taking the transform of Eq. (2) gives the transfer function of an ideal proportional controller.

The term proportional band is commonly used among process control engineers in place of the term
gain.
Proportional band (pb) is defined as the error (expressed as a percentage of the range of measured
variable) required to move the valve from fully closed to fully open.

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ON-OFF CONTROL.
A special case of proportional control is on-off control. If the gain Kc is made very high, the valve will
move from one extreme position to the other. if the pen deviates only slightly from the set point. This
very sensitive action is called on-off action because the valve is either fully open (on) or fully closed
(off); i.e., the valve acts like a switch. This is a very simple controller and is exemplified by the
thermostat used in a home-heating system. The bandwidth of an on-off controller is approximately zero.

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROL.

This mode of control is described by the relationship

where Kc = gain
τI = integral time, min
ps = constant
In this case, we have added to the proportional action term, Kcε, another term that is proportional to the
integral of the error. ,The values of Kc and τI may be varied by two knobs in the controller.
To visualize the response of this controller, consider the response to a unit step change in error, as
shown in Fig.. This unit-step response is most directly obtained by inserting ε = 1 into Eq. above, which
yields

(3)
To obtain the transfer function of Eq. (3), we again introduce the deviation variable P = p - ps into Eq.
(3) and then take the transform to obtain

The reciprocal of τI is often termed as reset rate.

Response of a PI controller to a unit step change in error.

PROPORTIONAL-DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROL.

This mode of control may be represented by

(4)
where
Kc = gain
τD = derivative time, min
ps = constant

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In this case, we have added to the proportional term another term, KcτD dε/dt , which is proportional to
the derivative of the error. The values of Kc and τD may be varied separately by knobs on the
controller. Other terms that are used to describe the derivative action are rate control and anticipatory
control.The action of this controller can be visualized by considering the response to a linear change
in error

This response is obtained by introducing the linear function

ε(t) = At into Eq. (4) to
obtain
p(t) = AKct + AKcτD + ps
To obtain the transfer function from Eq. (4) we introduce the deviation variable P = p - ps and then
take the transform to obtain

Response of a PD Controller to a linear input in error

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROL.
This mode of control is combination of the previous modes and is given by the expression

(5)
In this case, the controller contains three knobs for adjusting Kc,τD and τI. The transfer function for
this controller can be obtained from the Laplace transform of Eq. (5); thus

Motivation for Addition of Integral and Derivative Control Modes

Consider the tank-temperature control system after a step change in Ti. The value of the controlled
variable is seen to rise at time zero owing to the disturbance. With no control, this variable continues to
rise to a new steady-state value. With control, after some time the control system begins to take action
to try to maintain the controlled variable close to the value that existed before the disturbance occurred.
With proportional action only, the control system is able to arrest the rise of the controlled variable and
ultimately bring it to rest at a new steady-state value. The difference between this new steady-state value
and the original value is called Offset.
As shown by the PI curve, the addition of integral action eliminates the offset; the controlled variable
ultimately returns to the original value. This advantage of integral action is balanced by the disadvantage

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of a more oscillatory behavior. The addition of derivative action to the PI action gives a definite
improvement in the response. The rise of the controlled variable is arrested more quickly, and it is
returned rapidly to the original value with little- or no oscillation.

Response of a typical control system showing the effects of various modes of control
Standard Block-Diagram Symbols
The block diagram can be redrawn and incorporates some standard symbols for the variables and
transfer functions, which are widely used in the control literature.
These symbols are defined as follows:
R = set point or desired value
C = controlled variable
ε = error
B = variable produced by measuring element
M = manipulated variable
U = load variable or disturbance
Gc = transfer function of controller
G1 = transfer function of final control element
G2 = transfer function of process
H = transfer function of measuring element
In some cases, the blocks labeled Gc and G1 will be lumped together into a single block. The series of
blocks between the comparator and the controlled variable, which consist of Gc, G1, and G2, is referred
to as the forward path. The block H between the controlled variable and the comparator is called the
feedback path. The use of G for a transfer function in the forward path and H for one in the feedback
path is a common convention.
The product GH, which is the product of all transfer functions (GcG1G2H) in the loop, is called the open-
loop transfer function. We call GH the open-loop transfer function because it relates the measured
variable B to the set point R if the feedback loop is disconnected (i.e., opened) from the comparator.

Overall transfer function for Single-Loop Systems

Once a control system has been described by a block diagram, such as the one shown in Fig. 1, the next
step is to determine the transfer function relating C to R or C to U. these transfer functions are called as
overall transfer functions because they apply to the entire system. These overall transfer functions are

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used to obtain considerable information about the control system. The response to a change in set point
R, obtained by setting U = 0, represents the solution to the servo problem. The response to a change in
load variable U, obtained by setting R = 0, is the solution to the regulator problem.

Overall transfer Function for Change in Set point:

For this case, U = 0

In this reduction, simple rule of block-diagram Reduction is used which states that a block diagram
consisting of several transfer functions in series can be simplified to a single block containing a transfer
function that is the product of the individual transfer functions.
This rule can be proved by considering two non interacting blocks in series

This block diagram is equivalent to the equations

Multiplying these equations gives

which simplifies to

Thus, the intermediate variable Y has been eliminated, and the overall transfer function Z/X to be the
product of the transfer functions GAGB.
This proof for two blocks can be easily extended to any number of blocks to give the rule for the general
case. With this simplification the following equations can be written
directly
C = Gε (1)
B = HC (2)
ε=R-B (3)
Since there are four variables and three equations, we can solve the equations simultaneously for C in
terms of R as follows:
C = G(R - B) (From Eq (3))
C = G(R-HC) (From Eq (2))
C = GR-GHC
or finally

Overall Transfer Function for Change in Load

In this case R = 0, From the diagram

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we can write the following equations:

C = G2(U+M) (5)
M = GcG1ε (6)
B = HC (7)
ε = -B (8)
Again the number of variables (C, U, M, B, ε) exceeds by one the number of equations, and we can
solve for C in terms of U as follows:
C = G2(U + GcG1ε) (From Eq(6))
C = G2[U + G2G1(-HC)] (From Eq(7)&(8))
or finally
where G = GcG1G2. The transfer functions for load change or set point change have denominators are
identical, 1 + GH.

Problem 1
A PID controller has a steady output pressure 0.4 kg/cm2. At t = 0, the set point is suddenly raised by
1cm. Plot the variation of output pressure, if the values of the controller parameters are K C = 0.1
(kg/cm2)/cm, I = 1.2 min and D = 0.5 min.

PID controller:
Given ps = 0.4 kg/cm2 KC = 0.1 (kg/cm2)/cm I = 1.2 min
D = 0.5 min Pulse input of 1cm (unit pulse) is given on error
That is, ε(t) = 1 or ε(s) = 1

We know, the transfer function of PID controller is

Sub. the given values into the above, we get

P(s) = 0.1 [1 + 0.5s + (1/1.2s)] = 0.1 + 0.05s + (0.0833/s) Taking

Laplace inverse in both sides, we get
P(t) = 0.0833, which is meaningless.

That is studying the pulse response on a PID controller doesn‘t give any useful information.

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Problem 2
For the control system shown below;

(i) Obtain the closed loop transfer function C/U

(ii) Evaluate the proportional gain for which the closed loop damping coefficient is 2.
(ii) Find the offset for a unit step change in ‗U‘, if KC = 2.
Ans: Given, GC = KC, GV = (s + 1)/(0.25s + 1) and GP = 1/s; Consider H = 1. (i) For the given
Regulator problem (change in Load variable ‗U‘), We know

C/U = GP/(1 + G H); Where G = GC GV GP With

the given transfer functions, we get

C/U = [(0.25S + 1)/KC]/{[0.25/KC] s2 + [(1 + KC)/KC] s + 1}

(ii) Given, damping coefficient (ξ) = 2

On comparing the above C/U with the standard second order transfer function, we get
τ2 = 0.25/K C or Time constant (τ) = 0.5/√(KC)
And 2 ξ τ = (1 + KC)/KC or [2√(KC)] = (1 + KC)
K
Squaring on both side yields C 2 – 2KC + 1 = 0
On solving the above quadratic equation, we get
KC =1
(iii) Now, given KC = 2 and for unit step change in load [U(t) = 1 and U(s) = 1/s] The above
transfer function becomes,

C(s) = [0.125s + 0.5]/{s [0.125s2 + 1.5s + 1]} By

final value theorem, we get

C(∞) = lim (s→ 0) {s C(s)} = 0.5

Therefore, Offset = R(∞) – C(∞) = 0 – 0.5 = -0.5

Problem 3

Discuss the response of a PI controller to a first order process for a step change in set point
disturbance. Also, evaluate offset.
Effect of PI controller to first order process:
We know, GC = KC[1 + (1/τIs)] and GP = 1/(τs + 1). Consider GV = H = 1. Set point
disturbance (Servo control)
The transfer function for Servo problem is given by
C/R = G/[1 + G H] Where G = GC GV GP
Substituting the given into the above, we get
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C/R = [τI s + 1]/{[(τ τI)/KC] s2 + [(1 + KC) τI/KC] s + 1}

For a unit step change in Set point [R(t) = 1 and R(s) = 1/s], the above becomes
C(s) = [τI s + 1 ]/{s {[(τ τI)/KC] s2 + [(1 + KC) τI/KC] s + 1}}

By final value theorem, we get C(∞) =

lim (s→ 0) {s C(s)} = 1
Therefore, Offset = R(∞) – C(∞) = 1 – 1 = 0
Problem 4

Load ‗U1‘ and ‗U2‘ enter at two different points as shown below. Show that for the closed loop the
response frequency is same for both load changes, but the offset is different.

Given, GC = KC = 5, GP1 = 2/(2s + 1) and GP2 = 1/(2s + 1). Consider GV = H = 1.

(i) Consider the load change at point-1 (U1).

We know, the transfer function is

C/U1 = [GP1 GP2]/[1 + (GC GV GP1 GP2) H]

On substituting the given transfer functions, we get C/U1 =

[2/11]/[(4/11) s2 + (4/11) s + 1]
On comparing the above with standard second order transfer function, we get
τ12 = 4/11 or Time constant (τ1) = 0.60302
And 2 ξ1 τ1 = 4/11 or Damping coefficient (ξ1) = 0.30151
Since ξ1 < 1, the given control system is under damped second order. We
know, the response or radian frequency
ω1 = √(1 – ξ12)/τ1 = √(1 – 0.301512)/0.60302 = 1.58115 rads/time

Now, for a unit step change in U1 [U1(t) = 1 and U1(s) = 1/s], the C/U1 becomes
C(s) = [2/11]/{s [(4/11) s2 + (4/11) s + 1]} By
final value theorem, we get
C(∞) = lim (s→ 0) {s C(s)} = 2/11 or 0.18182

Therefore, (Offset)1 = R(∞) – C(∞) = 0 – 0.18182 = -0.18182

(ii) Consider the load change at point-1 (U1).
We know, the transfer function is C/U2 =
[GP2]/[1 + (GC GV GP1 GP2) H]
On substituting the given transfer functions, we get
C/U1 = [(2/11) s + (1/11)]/[(4/11) s2 + (4/11) s + 1]
On comparing the above with standard second order transfer function, we get
τ22 = 4/11 or Time constant (τ2) = 0.60302
And 2 ξ2 τ2 = 4/11 or Damping coefficient (ξ2) = 0.30151
Since ξ2 < 1, the given control system is under damped second order. We
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know, the response or radian frequency

ω2 = √(1 – ξ22)/τ2 = √(1 – 0.301512)/0.60302 = 1.58115 rads/time
Now, for a unit step change in U2 [U2(t) = 1 and U2(s) = 1/s], the C/U1 becomes

C(s) = [(2/11) s + (1/11)]/{s [(4/11) s2 + (4/11) s + 1]}

By final value theorem, we get
C(∞) = lim (s→ 0) {s C(s)} = 1/11 or 0.09091
Therefore, (Offset)2 = R(∞) – C(∞) = 0 – 0.09091 = -0.09091
On comparing the ω1 and ω2, we prove that the response frequency is same for both the load
changes.
Also, on comparing (Offset)1 and (Offset)2, we prove the offset are different.

Problem 5
Consider the feed back control of a first order process with a transfer function G(s) = 1/(s + 1).
Let the controller be PI controller with GC(s) = KC/[1+(1/τI s)]. Assuming the transfer functions of
final control element and measuring instrument to
be unity, compute the overshoot, decay ratio and period of oscillation for a step change in set point
for KC = 1 and τI = 0.5. Also show that the feedback system has
zero offset.
Given, GP = 1/(s + 1), GC = [1 + (2/s)] {KC = 1, τI = 0.5} and GV = H = 1. We know, the
transfer function for Servo problem is
C/R = G/[1 + G H]; Where G = GC GV GP
Substituting the given transfer functions, we get
C/R = [0.5s + 1]/[0.5s2 + s + 1]
On comparing the above with standard second order transfer function, we get
τ2 = 0.5 or Time constant (τ) = 0.70711
And 2 ξ τ = 1 or Damping coefficient (ξ) = 0.70711
Since ξ < 1, the given control system is under damped second order.
(i) We know

= exp (- π*0.70711/√(1 - 0.707112)

= 0.0432 or 4.32%
(ii) We know

= (0.0432)2 = 0.00187
(iii) We know, the period of oscillation (T) is
T = 2π/ω
Where

Substituting the determined values into the above, we get

ω = 1rads/time and T = 6.2832 time/cycle
(iv) For a unit step change in set point [R(t) = 1 or R(∞) = 1 and R(s) = 1/s], the
C/R becomes
C(s) = [0.5s + 1]/{s [0.5s2 + s + 1]}
By final value theorem, we get
C(∞) = lim (s→ 0) {s C(s)} = 1
Therefore, (Offset)1 = R(∞) – C(∞) = 1 – 1 = 0, hence proved.

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Problem 6
The set point of the control system shown below is given a step change of 0.1unit.

Determine (1) The maximum value of ‗C‘ and the time at which it occurs.
(2) The offset (3) The period of oscillation (4) Sketch C(t) as a function of time.
(i) Given, GC = KC = 2 and GP = 5/[(4s + 1) (2s + 1)]. Consider GV = H = 1.
For the given Servo problem, we know
C/R = G/[1 + G H]; Where G = GC GV GP Substituting
the given transfer functions, we get
C/R = [10/11]/[(8/11) s2 + (6/11) s + 1]
On comparing the above with standard second order transfer function, we get
τ2 = 8/11 or Time constant (τ) = 0.8528
And 2 ξ τ = 6/11 or Damping coefficient (ξ) = 0.3198

Since ξ < 1, the given control system is under damped second order.
Now, for step change in set point [R(t) = 0.1 or R(∞) = 0.1 and R(s) = 0.1/s], the C/R becomes
C(s) = [1/11]/{s [(8/11) s2 + (6/11) s + 1]}
1. We know, the unit step response of an under damper second order system is

For the given case, the above becomes [Y(t) = C(t)unit ]

C(t) = [Astep K] C(t)unit; Where Astep (magnitude of step input) = 0.1 and K (gain of the control
system) = 10/11
With the above modifications and substituting the determined values, we get

C(t) = (0.09091) {1 – [(1.0554 e-0.375t) sin (1.11103t + 1.24528)]} -------- (1) To obtain
maximum value of c(t), apply the maxima condition to the above or make use of the concept of
Overshoot. By any one of these method, we get
tmax ≈ 1.2 and Cmax ≈ 0.1224
2. By final value theorem, we get
C(∞) = lim (s→ 0) {s C(s)} = 1/11 or 0.09091
Therefore, Offset = R(∞) – C(∞) = 0.1 – 0.09091 = 0.00909
3. We know, the period of oscillation (T) is
T = 2π/ω where

Substituting the determined values into the above, we get

ω = 1.11103 rads/time and T = 5.6553 time/cycle

4. Using eqn. (1), prepare a plot between C(t) vs. t Note: Show
at least two oscillations.

Problem 7
For a unit step change in set point, find the response ‗C‘ for the system given below and represent
graphically.

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Given GC = 10 [1 + (1/s)], GV = 5 and GP = 6/(10S + 1). Consider H = 1 We know, the

transfer function for Servo problem is
C/R = G/[1 + G H]; Where G = GC GV GP
Substituting the given transfer functions, we get
C/R = [s + 1]/[(1/30) s2 + (301/300) s + 1]
On comparing the above with standard second order transfer function, we get
τ2 = 1/30 or Time constant (τ) = 0.182574
And 2 ξ τ = 301/300 or Damping coefficient (ξ) = 2.74774

Since ξ > 1, the given control system is Overdamped damped second order.
We know, the unit step response of an over damped second order system is

Here Y(t) = C(t). Substituting the determined values into the above, we get

C(t) = 1 – {e-15.05t[cosh(14.018t) + (1.076325) sinh(14.018t)]}

Now, set the time range (t) and find the C(t) using the above. Then, plot C(t) vs. t, showing at
least two cycles.

Definition of Stability (Linear Systems)

A stable system will be defined as one for which the output response is bounded for all bounded inputs.
A system exhibiting an unbounded response to a bounded input is unstable.
A bounded input function is a function of time that always falls withincertain bounds during the course
of time. For example, the step function and sinusoidal function are bounded inputs. The function f(t) =
t is obviously unbounded.

Routh Test for Stability

 The Routh test is a purely algebraic method for determining how many roots of the
characteristic equation have positive real parts; from this it can also be determined whether the
system is stable, for if there are no roots with positive real parts, the system is stable.
 The test is limited to systems that have polynomial characteristic equations. This means that it
cannot be used to test the stability of a control system containing a transportation lag. The
procedure for examining the roots is to write the characteristic equation in the form

(1)
 where a0 is positive. (If a0 is originally negative, both sides are multiplied by -1.) In this form,
it is necessary that all the coefficients ao, a1, a2, . . . , an-1, an be positive if all the roots are to
lie in the left
 half plane.
 If any coefficient is negative, the system is definitely unstable, and the Routh test is not needed
to answer the question of stability.
 If all the coefficients are positive, the system may be stable or unstable. It is then necessary to
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apply the following procedure to determine stability.

Routh Array
 Arrange the coefficients of Eq. (1) into the first two rows of the Routh array, as follows:
 The array has been filled in for n = 7 . For any other value of n, the array is prepared in the
same manner. In general, there are (n + 1) rows.
 For ‘n’ even, the first row has one more element than the second row.

 The elements in the remaining rows are found from the formulas

 The elements in any row are always derived from the elements of the two preceding rows.
During the computation of the Routh array, any row can be divided by a positive constant
without changing the results of the test.
 The following theorems are applied to determine stability.

Problem 8
A feedback control system has the following transfer functions;
Process: Gp(s) = 5/[(2s + 1) (s + 1)]
Measurement: H(s) = 1/(0.5s + 1)
Valve: GV(s) = 0.2/(0.1s + 1)
Controller: GC(s) = KC
Using Routh‘s stability criteria, find out the value of KC for which the system is stable.
Ans: We know the characteristic equation for an control system is
1 + G H = 0 or 1 + (GC GV GP) H = 0
Substituting the given transfer functions into the above and simplifying, we get 0.1s4 +
1.35s3 + 3.85s2 + 3.6s + (1 + KC) = 0
Since all the coefficients of polynomial are positive and non-zero, the system may be stable.
Routh array: n = 4 and no. of rows = n + 1 = 5

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Rows

0.1 3.85 (1 + KC)

1
(a0) (a2) (a4)
1.35 3.6
2 -
(a1) (a3)
3.5833 (1 + KC)
3 -
(b1) (b2)
(3.22325 –
4 0.37675 KC) - -
(c1)
(1 + KC)
5
(d1)

Calculation:
b1 = [(1.35*3.85) – (0.1*3.6)]/1.35 = 3.5833
Since there is no a5, b2 = a4 = (1 + KC)
c1 = [(3.5833*3.6) – 1.35 * (1 + KC)]/3.5833 = 3.22325 – 0.37675 KC
Since there is no a5 and b3, no need for determining c2.
Since there is no c2, d1 = b2 = a4 = (1 + KC)
Now, for the closed system to be stale, the element c1 > 0
Or (3.22325 – 0.37675 KC) > 0
Or KC < 8.5554

UNIT 4
Frequency Response analysis

Frequency Response Analysis

When a linear system is subjected to sinusoidal input perturbation, its ultimate response after a long
time also becomes a sinusoidal wave, however with different amplitude and a phase shift. This
characteristic constitutes the basis of frequency response analysis. One needs to study how the
amplitude and phase shift change with the frequency of the input perturbation.
Response of a First-Order System to a Sinusoidal Input
Consider a simple first order process,
(1)

Let the sinusoidal input u(t) = A sin ωt perturb the system. Then the output of the process will be
(2)

Computing the constants and and taking inverse Laplace Transform of the above equation
we obtain,
(3)

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After sufficiently long time , the first term disappears as

(4)

Hence we observe that

• Sinusoidal output wave has the same frequency as that of input sinusoid

• Amplitude Ratio between the output wave and input wave is

• Output wave lags behind the input wave with a phase difference of

Fig. shows the Input and Output wave profile for a frequency response analysis.

Input and Output wave profile for a frequency response analysis

Complex Plane and Frequency Response Analysis
Consider a complex number

Complex Plane of number

The modulus (or absolute value or magnitude) of W is and the argument (or phase angle)
is . Let us put in the transfer function of the first order process as
(5)

As is now a complex number, the modulus and argument can be calculated as,

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(6)

The last two relationships indicate the amplitude ratio and phase lag for the ultimate response of the
first order process. Hence the observations in the last subsection can also be stated in the light of the
above results as follows:
• Sinusoidal output wave has the same frequency as that of input sinusoid
• Amplitude Ratio between the output wave and input wave is

• Output wave lags behind the input wave with a phase difference of

Frequency response of a second order system

The process is
(7)

Put and calculate

(8)

Then,
(9)

and,
(10)

Bode Diagram
The Bode diagrams are a convinient way of representing the frequency response characteristics of a
system. A Bode diagram consists of a pair of plots that show how the amplitude ratio and phase shift
vary with frequency of the signal that perturbs a process. In order to cover a large range of frequency,
a logarithmic scale of representation is employed.

Bode Diagram of a first order process

The first order process has the following characteristics:
(1)

The Bode Diagram of a first order process is shown in the following figure.

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Fig. III.15: Bode Diagram of a first order process

Expressing AR with logarithmic representation,
(2)

We encounter the following two terminal situations:

• As and hence . That means at very low
frequency, the profile of AR approaches a constant value (equal to gain K of the system) with slope
zero. This is termed as low frequency asymptote .

• As and hence
. That means at very high frequency, the profile of AR approaches a value which is inverse of the
frequency. This is termed as high frequency asymptote .
• The two asymptotes meet at a point where . The frequency is termed as corner
frequency .
• The profile of amplitude ratio transits from one asymptote to the other and the deviation of the true
value of AR is maximum from its asymptote(s) at the corner frequency.
The profile of phase shift can be analyzed in the similar manner:
• As then
• As then
• As then
Note that the gain does not have any effect on the phase shift.

Bode Diagram of a second order process

The second order process has the following characteristics:
(3)

The Bode Diagram of a second order process is shown in the following figure.

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Fig. III.16: Bode Diagram of a second order process

Expressing with logarithmic representation,

(4)

We encounter the following two terminal situations:

• As and hence . That means at very low
frequency, the profile of AR approaches a constant value with slope zero. This is low frequency
asymptote .
•As and hence

.
That means at very high frequency, the profile of approaches a value which is inverse of the square of
the frequency. This is high frequency asymptote .
• The two asymptotes meet at corner frequency
• The profile of amplitude ratio will have three different shapes that depends upon the value of the
damping coefficient. It is understood that

• For overdamped process ,

where is a non-negative quantity. Hence, or is always less

than one.

• For critically damped process , . Hence is

always less than 1

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• For underdamped process , . Hence there will be

some values of frequency where is greater than 1

The profile of phase shift can be analyzed in the similar manner:
• As then
• As then
• As then
Note that the phase shift leaps by a full as the order of the process increases by one.

Gain Margin and Phase Margin

The Bode stability criterion states that the maximum value of the controller gain that can be chosen for
stable closed loop response is called the ultimate gain . In other words, the value of controller gain
must always be less than in order to ensure stability. The gain margin (GM) is a design parameter
such that

Gain margin should always be chosen as greater than one (GM>1) to ensure stability .
Gain margin acts as a safety factor for model uncertainty. Since process parameters such as gain, time
constant and dead time can never be estimated exactly, a safety factor of magnitude more than one is
necessary for stable operation. For relatively well modeled processes, a low safety factor will be
acceptable whereas poorly modeled processes need higher safety factors.
For an example, let us choose GM=2 for the process ,the design value of the controller gain
is ; suppose there exists a modeling error of 50% in estimating the dead time of
the process and the true value of the dead time is 0.45 instead of 0.3, then the revised value of crossover
frequency is

or, , and the corresponding which is still higher than the designed value
of . The system is still stable despite the error by 50% we made in estimation of dead time of
the process.
Phase margin is another safety factor which is used for controller design. Here we are interested to

compute a frequency that satisfies the following expression,

is called phase margin (PM) and it is the extra phase lag needed to destabilize a system. For an

example, let us choose . can be calculated from the following expression

or, . The gain is designed from the expression

or, Suppose there exists a modeling error of 50% in estimating the dead time of the process
and the true value of the dead time is 0.45 instead of 0.3,then the phase lag encountered by the process
would be

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which is 2° more than the safety limit for stability. Hence, the phase margin of is not sufficient for
handling 50% error in dead time estimation. It is left to the reader to verify that a phase margin of 45°
will suffice for handling 50% error in dead time estimation.

Controller Tuning
 The selection of a controller type (P, PI, PID) and its parameters (Kc, tI, tD) is intimately related
to the model of the process to be controlled
 The adjustment of the controller parameters to achieve satisfactory control is called tuning
 The selection of the controller parameters is essentially an optimization problem, an attempts
to satisfy some criterion of optimality is often referred to as good control
 A typical criterion for good control is that the response of the system to a step change in set
point or load should have minimum overshoot and one – quarter decay ratio
 Other criteria may include minimum rise time and minimum settling time

Selection of feedback controller

Proportional control
• Accelerates the response of a controlled process
• Produces an offset
Integral control
• Eliminates any offset
• Elimination of the offset usually comes at the expense of higher maximum deviation
• Produces sluggish, long oscillating responses
Derivative control
• Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate action
• Introduces a stabilizing effect on the closed loop response of a process

Cohen and Coon Controller Tuning Method

The most popular of the empirical tuning methods known as the process reaction curve method
developed by cohen and coon.Consider the control system, which has been opened by disconnecting
the controller from the final control element. Introduce a step change of magnitude A in the variable C
which actuates the final control element .Record the value of the output with respect to time.The curve
is called the process reaction curve. Cohen and coon observed that the response of most processing units
to an input change, such as above, had a sigmodial shape which can be adequately approximated by the
response of a first order system with dead time

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Ziegler Nichols Tuning technique

Unlike process reaction curve method which uses open loop response data, Ziegler Nichols tuning
technique uses closed loop response data. The following settings are given by this technique for
feedback controllers:

Nyquist Stability Criterion

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The Bode stability criterion is valid for systems where amplitude ratio and phase shift decreases
monotonically with Nyquist stability criterion does not have any such limitation and is applicable in
more general sense. The criterion states that:
If open-loop Nyquist plot of a feedback system encircles the point (-1,0) as the frequency varies
from to the closed loop response is unstable.

Problem 1
Plot the Bode diagram for the system whose overall transfer function is given by
0.3 S
K C e

(s 1) (s  5) (s  6)
What value of KC leads to instability?

Ans: Given, G(s) H(s) = [Kc e-0.3s]/[(s + 1) (s + 5) (s + 6)]

Rearranging the above in its standard form, we get

G(s) H(s) = [(Kc/30) e-0.3s]/[(s + 1) (0.2s + 1) (0.1667s + 1)] For

the above, we can write
Gain, K = Kc/30
Amplitude ratio, AR/(Kc/30) = 1/[√(1 + ω2) (1 + 0.04ω2) (1 + 0.0278ω2)]
Phase angle, Φ = – 17.19ω – tan-1(ω) – tan-1(0.2ω) – tan-1(0.1667ω)
Now, from individual transfer functions, we get
Corner frequencies, ωC = 1, 5 and 6 (6)
Tabulation:
ω AR/(Kc/30) Log[AR/(Kc/30)] Φ
0.1 0.9947 -0.002308 -9.5304

0.5 0.8869 -0.052120 -45.6352

1 0.683934 -0.164986 -82.9641

2 0.393904 -0.404610 -116.2603

3 0.242516 -0.615260 -180.6684

5 0.106516 -0.972586 -249.4513

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From the above data‘s prepare the bode plot in a semi-log graph sheet as;
Log[AR/(Kc/30)] vs. ω (log X-axis)
Φ vs. ω (log X-axis)
By using the above plot, at Φ = -180O, we get
Log[AR/(Kc/30)] ≈ -0.61 or [AR/(Kc/30)] = 0.2455
-3
Or AR = (8.1833*10 ) KC
By Bode stability criterion, for unstable system,
AR > 1 or (8.1833*10-3) KC > 1 Or KC > 122.2

Problem 2
Open loop transfer function of a feed back control system is given below;

KC e 5 S
G(s) H (s)  (s 1) (2s 1) (3s 1)
Using Bode stability criteria, calculate the value of KC for which the system is stable.
Ans: For the given G(s) H(s), we can write
Gain = KC
Amplitude ratio, AR/KC = 1/[√(1 + ω2) (1 + 4ω2) (1 + 9ω2)]

Phase angle, Φ = -286.5ω - tan-1(ω) - tan-1(2ω) - tan-1(3ω)

Applying Bode’s stability criterion to the phase angle expression, we get

-180 = -286.5ωCo - tan-1(ωCo) - tan-1(2ωCo) - tan-1(3ωCo) Solving
the above by trial and error method, we get
Cross-over frequency, ωCo ≈ 0.3085
Substituting this into the amplitude ratio expression, we get
AR/KC = 0.596837 or AR = 0.596837KC

By Bode stability criterion, for stable system,

AR < 1 or 0.596837KC < 1
Or KC < 1.6755

Note: For all the trial and error methods, show at least two trials.

Problem 3

A control loop contains first order lags with time constants 10 and 30 secs and a time delay of 6
secs. Plot the open loop Bode diagram and determine the value of KC to give 30o phase margin.
Only a proportional controller is used in the loop.
Ans:
From the given data‘s, we can write
G(s) = [KC e-6s]/[(10s + 1) (30s + 1)] and Phase margin = 30o For the
above, we can write
Gain = KC
Amplitude ratio, AR/KC = 1/[√(1 + 100ω2) (1 + 900ω2)]
Phase angle, Φ = -343.8ω - tan-1(10ω) - tan-1(30ω)
Now, from individual transfer functions, we get
Corner frequencies, ωC = 0.03333 and 0.1

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ω AR/KC log(AR/KC) Φ
0.001 0.9995 -0.000217 -2.635
0.005 0.9877 0.005374 -13.112
0.01 0.9531 -0.020861 -25.85
0.0333 0.67089 -0.173349 -74.889
0.05 0.49614 -0.304396 -100.065
0.1 0.22361 -0.650509 -150.945
0.15 0.12033 -0.919626 -185.35

From the above data‘s prepare the bode plot in a semi-log graph sheet as; Log(AR/KC)
vs. ω (log X-axis)
Φ vs. ω (log X-axis)
By using the above plot, at Φ = -150O (for 30O phase margin), we get
Log(AR/KC) ≈ -0.65 or AR/KC = 0.2239 or AR = 0.2239KC

By Bode stability criterion, for stable system,

AR < 1 or 0.2239KC < 1
Or KC < 4.4663
Problem 4

Draw the Bode diagram for the system having the transfer function
0.5 e 0.4 S

0.25S 10.5S 1


Enlist the Zeigler-Nichols controller settings for different mode of control.
Ans: From the given open-loop transfer function, we can write
Gain = 0.5
Amplitude ratio, AR/0.5 = 1/[√(1 + 0.0625ω2) (1 + 0.25ω2)]
Phase angle, Φ = -22.92ω - tan-1(0.25ω) - tan-1(0.5ω)
Now, from individual transfer functions, we get
Corner frequencies, ωC = 2 and 4
Tabulation:
ω AR/0.5 log(AR/0.5) Φ

0.1 0.9980 -0.00017 -6..5865

0.3 0.9862 -0.00605 -19.6960
0.5 0.9627 -0.01653 -32.6213
0.7 0.9297 -0.03164 -45.2603
1 0.8677 -0.06162 -63.5213
2 0.6667 -0.17609 -117.4051
3 0.44376 -0.35285 -161.9398
4 0.31623 -0.5 -200.1150

From the above data‘s prepare the bode plot in a semi-log graph sheet as;
Log(AR/0.5) vs. ω (log X-axis)
Φ vs. ω (log X-axis)
From the plot, at Φ = -180, we get

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ωCo ≈ 3.45 and Log(AR/0.5) ≈ -0.42

Or AR/0.5 ≈ 0.38 Or AR ≡ A ≈ 0.19

Therefore,
Ultimate gain, KU = 1/A = 1/0.19 = 5.2632
Ultimate period, PU = 2π/ωCo = = 2π/3.45 = 1.8212 time/cycle
By Z-N method, we get
For P-controller, KC = 0.5 KU = 0.5*5.2632= 2.6316

For PI-controller, KC = 0.45 KU = 0.45*5.2632= 2.3684

τI = PU/1.2 = 1.8212/1.2 = 1.5177 time units

For PID-controller, KC = 0.6KU = 0.6 * 5.2632 = 3.158

τI = PU/2 = 1.8212/2 = 0.9106 time units
τD = PU/8 = 1.8212/8 = 0.2277 time units

UNIT V
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEMS

Cascade Control
The primary disadvantage of conventional feedback control is that the corrective action for disturbances
does not begin until after the controlled variable deviates from the setpoint. In other words, the
disturbance must be “felt” by the process before the control system responds. Feedforward control offers
large improvements over feedback control for processes that have large time constant and/or delay.
However, feedforward control requires that the disturbances be measured explicitly and that a model
be available to calculate the controller output. Cascade control is an alternative approach that can
significantly improve the dynamic response to disturbances by employing a secondary measurement
and a secondary feedback controller. The secondary measurement point is located so that it recognizes
the upset condition sooner than the controlled variable, but the disturbance is not necessarily measured.

Cascade Control Structure

Let us consider the following block diagram of cascade control structure.The outer loop and its
controller are called master loop and master controller whereas the inner loop and its controller are
called slave loop and slave controller respectively.

Simplifying

Similarly

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Again simplifying the above eqn:

Now see what happens if the secondary loop is absent. In that case:

and

Simplifying

Response time of a cascade Controller

First analyze the secondary loop:
In absence of the secondary loop and the slave controller

; Time constant =
In presence of the secondary loop and the slave controller (say a pure gain controller)

V.27

Time constant =

Clearly there is a decrease in time constant in presence of slave loop. This will guarantee that the time
constant of the overall process decreases when a secondary loop is introduced to the system. Eventually
that decreases the overall response time.

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Example :
When multiple sensors are available for measuring conditions in a controlled process, a cascade control
system can often perform better than a traditional single-measurement controller. Consider, for
example, the steam-fed water heater shown in the sidebar Heating Water with Cascade Control. In
Figure A, a traditional controller is shown measuring the temperature inside the tank and manipulating
the steam valve opening to add more or less heat as inflowing water disturbs the tank temperature. This
arrangement works well enough if the steam supply and the steam valve are sufficiently consistent to
produce another X% change in tank temperature every time the controller calls for another Y% change
in the valve opening.

However, several factors could alter the ratio of X to Y or the time required for the tank temperature to
change after a control effort. The pressure in the steam supply line could drop while other tanks are
drawing down the steam supply they share, in which case the controller would have to open the valve
more than Y% in order to achieve the same X% change in tank temperature.
Or, the steam valve could start sticking as friction takes its mechanical toll over time. That would
lengthen the time required for the valve to open to the extent called for by the controller and slow the
rate at which the tank temperature changes in response to a given control effort.
A cascade control system could solve both of these problems as shown in Figure where a second
controller has taken over responsibility for manipulating the valve opening based on measurements
from a second sensor monitoring the steam flow rate. Instead of dictating how widely the valve should
be opened, the first controller now tells the second controller how much heat it wants in terms of a
desired steam flow rate.

The second controller then manipulates the valve opening until the steam is flowing at the requested
rate. If that rate turns out to be insufficient to produce the desired tank temperature, the first controller
can call for a higher flow rate, thereby inducing the second controller to provide more steam and more
heat (or vice versa).
That may sound like a convoluted way to achieve the same result as the first controller could achieve
on its own, but a cascade control system should be able to provide much faster compensation when the
steam flow is disturbed. In the original single-controller arrangement, a drop in the steam supply
pressure would first have to lower the tank temperature before the temperature sensor could even notice
the disturbance. With the second controller and second sensor on the job, the steam flow rate can be
measured and maintained much more quickly and precisely, allowing the first controller to work with

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the belief that whatever steam flow rate it wants it will in fact get, no matter what happens to the steam
pressure.
The second controller can also shield the first controller from deteriorating valve performance. The
valve might still slow down as it wears out or gums up, and the second controller might have to work
harder as a result, but the first controller would be unaffected as long as the second controller is able to
maintain the steam flow rate at the required level.
Without the acceleration afforded by the second controller, the first controller would see the process
becoming slower and slower. It might still be able to achieve the desired tank temperature on its own,
but unless a perceptive operator notices the effect and re-tunes it to be more aggressive about responding
to disturbances in the tank temperature, it too would become slower and slower.
Similarly, the second controller can smooth out any quirks or nonlinearities in the valve's performance,
such as an orifice that is harder to close than to open. The second controller might have to struggle a bit
to achieve the desired steam flow rate, but if it can do so quickly enough, the first controller will never
see the effects of the valve's quirky behavior.
In the water heater example:
 Setpoint - temperature desired for the water in the tank
 Primary controller (master) - measures water temperature in the tank and asks the secondary
controller for more or less heat
 Secondary controller (slave) - measures and maintains steam flow rate directly
 Actuator - steam flow valve
 Secondary process - steam in the supply line
 Inner loop disturbances - fluctuations in steam supply pressure
 Primary process - water in the tank
 Outer loop disturbances - fluctuations in the tank temperature due to uncontrolled ambient
conditions, especially fluctuations in the inflow temperature
 Secondary process variable - steam flow rate
 Primary process variable - tank water temperature

Feedforward control
A feedback controller responds only after it detects a deviation in the value of the controlled output
from its desired set point. On the other hand, a feedforward controller detects the disturbance directly
and takes an appropriate control action in order to eliminate its effect on the process output.
Consider the distillation column shown in Fig The control objective is to keep the distillate
concentration at a desired set point despite any changes in the inlet feed stream.

(a) Feedback control configuration

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(b) Feedforward control configuration

Feedback and Feedforward control configuration of a distillation column

Fig a . shows the conventional feedback loop, which measures the distillate concentration and after
comparing it with the desired setpoint, increases or decreases the reflux ratio. A feedforward control
system uses a different approach. It measures the changes in the inlet feed stream (disturbance) and
adjusts the reflux ratio appropriately. Fig b shows the feedforward control configuration.

The comparative schematic of feedback and feedforward control structure

Fig shows the general form of a feedforward control system. It directly measures the disturbance to the
process and anticipates its effect on the process output. Eventually it alters the manipulated input in
such a way that the impact of the disturbance on the process output gets eliminated. In other words,
where the feedback control action starts after the disturbance is “felt” through the changes in process
output, the feedforward control action starts immediately after the disturbance is “measured” directly.
Hence, feedback controller acts in a compensatory manner whereas the feedforward controller acts in
an anticipatory manner.
Design of feedforward controller
Let us consider the block diagram of a process shown in Fig The Fig (a) presents the open-loop diagram
of the process. The process and disturbance transfer functions are represented by and respectively.
The controlled output, manipulated input and the disturbance variable are indicated
as and respectively.

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(a) Open-loop process diagram (b) Process diagram with feedforward

controller

(c) Process diagram with feedforward controller, sensor and valve

The schematic of a feedforward controller mechanism
The process output is represented by
(1)

The control objective is to maintain at the desired setpoint . Hence the eq (V.1) can be rewritten
as
(2)
The eq. (V.2) can be rearranged in the following manner:

Or

(3)
The eq. (3) can be schematically represented by Fig (b).

For the sake of simplicity, measuring element and final control element were not considered as parts of
the feedforward control configuration as shown in Fig (b). In a more generalized case, when such
elements are added in the controller configuration, the resulting control structure takes the form of Fig
(c).
A generalized form of controller equation can be written as
.4)
And
(5)

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In case of regulatory problem (disturbance rejection) i.e. when , the controller should be able
to reject the effect of disturbance and ensure no deviation in the output, i.e. . In other words,
(6)
or

(7)
In case of servo problem (setpoint tracking), i.e. when , the controller should be able to ensure
that output tracks the setpoint, i.e. . In other words,
(8)
or

(9)

Example of design of feedforward controller

Consider an overflow type continuous stirred tank heater shown in Fig. The fluid inside the tank is
heated with steam whose flow rate is Fst and supplying heat at a rate of Q to the fluid. Temperatures of
the inlet and outlet streams are Ti and T respectively. V is the volume of liquid which is practically
constant in an overflow type reactor. A control valve in the steam line indicates that the steam flow rate
can be manipulated in order to keep the liquid temperature at a desired setpoint. Temperature of the
inlet stream flow is the source of disturbance (change in Ti ) to the process.

(a) Process without a controller

(b) Process with feedforward controller

Feedforward control configuration of an overflow type continuous stirred tank heater

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A simple energy balance exercise will yield the model equation of the above process as:
(10)

All the variables are assumed to be in the deviation form. Hence, taking Laplace transform on both sides
we obtain:
(11)

(12)
or,
(13)
or,
or,
(14)

The feedforward controller is meant for ensuring . Hence,

(15)

or
(V.16)

Hence, one needs to set Fst in such a way that Q amount of heat as given in eq.(16) is transferred to the
process. Fig (b) represents the feedforward structure of the controller.

Remarks
The feedforward controller ideally does not get any feedback from the process output. Hence, it solely
works on the merit of the model(s). The better a model represents the behavior of a process,the better
would be the performance of a feedforward controller designed on the basis of that model. Perfect
control necessitates perfect knowledge of process and disturbance models and this is practically
impossible. This inturn is the main drawback of a feedforward controller.
The feedforward control configuration can be developed for more than one disturbance in multi-
controller configuration. Any controller in that configuration would act according to the disturbance for
which it is designed.
External characteristics of a feedforward loop are same as that of a feedback loop. The primary
measurement (disturbance in case of feedforward control and process output in case of feedback
control) is compared to a setpoint and the result of the comparison is used as the actuating signal for the
controller. Except the controller, all other hardware elements of the feedforward control configuration
such as sensor, transducer, transmitter, valves are same as that of an equivalent feedback control
configuration.
Feedforward controller cannot be expressed in the feedback form such as P, PI and PID controllers. It
is regarded as a special purpose computing machine .

Let us consider a system where process delay is higher than disturbance delay, eg.

and ; in such case, . That means one needs to know the future values of
disturbance in order to decide present control action. This is physically unrealizable controller.

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Combination of Feedforward-Feedback Controller

The following table provides a comparative assessment of feedforward and feedback controllers.
Merits and demerits of feedforward and feedback controllers

Merits Demerits

Feedforward controllers
Takes corrective action before the process “feels” Requires measurement of all disturbances
the disturbance affecting the system

Good for sluggish systems and/or system with Sensitive to variation in process parameters
large deadtime

Does not affect the stability of the process Requires a “near perfect” model of the process

Feedback controllers
Does not require disturbance measurement Acts to take corrective action after the process
“feels” the disturbance

Insensitive to mild errors in modeling Bad for sluggish systems and/or system with large
deadtime

Insensitive to mild changes in process parameters May affect the stability of the process

Ratio Control
A ratio controller is a special type of feedforward controller where disturbances are measured and their
ratio is held at a desired set point by controlling one of the streams. The other uncontrolled stream is
called wild stream. Fig shows the schematic of a ratio controller. The ratio of flow rates of two streams
are being held at a desired ratio by controlling the flow rate of one stream. The flow rates are measured
through flow transmitters (FTs).

The schematic of a ratio control structure

The chemical process industries have various applications for ratio controllers. Following are a few
such examples:

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• Reflux ratio and reboiler feed ratio in a distillation column

• Maintaining the stoichiometric ratio of reactants in a reactor
• Keeping air/fuel ratio in a combustion process

Override Control
During the operation of a process plant it is possible that a dangerous situation may arise due to
unacceptable process conditions which may destruct the process or its personnel. In such case the
normal operation should temporarily be stopped and preventive measures should be initiated to avert
the unacceptable situation. In order to facilitate such measures, a single-purpose “switch” can be used
that can take preferential instruction from one controller over the others to manipulate the final control
element in such a way that the dangerous situation can be averted. This is called override control. The
technique can be illustrated with the following example.

Override control of a boiler

Consider a boiler shown in the It has one water inlet and one steam outlet. The steam outlet is regulated
by the valve in the discharge line that takes the control signal from the control mechanism in Loop1
(pressure transducer and pressure controller). In other words, the discharge of steam is regulated on the
basis of its pressure desired in the supply line elsewhere. However, the water is boiled using a heating
coil that needs to be always submerged below the water level so that the heating coil does not burn out.
Hence, in order to ensure a certain minimum level of water inside the boiler, the control Loop 2 is set
in place that contains a level transducer and a level controller. Both level controller and pressure
controller give the control signal to the valve through an intermediate switch LSS (Low Selection
Switch) that takes the preferential signal from the level controller. In other words, Loop 2 remains
inactive during the normal operation and the Loop 1 regulates the process. Nevertheless, at critical
situation when the water level drops below the minimum allowable limit, the Loop 2 takes over and
takes corrective measures.

Adaptive Control
The task of controller design for a process is very much domain specific. First the model of the process
is linearized around a certain nominal point and the controller is designed on the basis of that linearized
model and finally implemented on the process. Hence, the controller is applicable for certain domain
around the nominal operating point around which the model has been linearized. However, if the process
deviates from the nominal point of operation, controller will lose its efficiency. In such cases, the
parameters of the controller need to be re-tuned in order to retain the efficiency of the controller. When
such retuning of controller is done through some “automatic updating scheme”, the controller is termed
as adaptive controller. The technique can be illustrated with the following figure.

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Adaptive control

One of the most popular adaptive control techniques is gain scheduling technique. The overall gain of
an open loop process is usually given as

It is customary to keep the overall gain constant. In case of changes in the process (or valve
characteristics or measuring element), Kc should be tuned in such a manner that overall gain remains
constant.

The above is called the gain scheduling control law.

When the process is poorly known, one cannot rely much on the correctness of the value of KÞ In such
cases, the self-adaptive control may be helpful. A self adaptive controller optimizes the value of certain
objective function (criterion) in order to obtain updated controller parameters. Two examples of self
adaptive controllers are Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC) and Self-Tuning Regulator (STR)

Model Reference Adaptive Control

The following figure shows the schematic of a Model Reference Adaptive Controller.

Model Reference Adaptive control

It contains of two loops. The inner loop contains the regular feedback mechanism whereas the outer
loop contains an ideal reference model which the process needs to follow. The process and model
outputs are compared and the error function is minimized through a suitable optimization routine in
order to arrive at the re-tuned controller parameters.

Self Tuning Regulator

Self-Tuning Regulator on the other hand estimates the model parameters by measuring process inputs
and outputs. The re-tuned model eventually guides the controller parameter adjustment mechanism.
Figure V.17 shows the schematic of Self Tuning Regulator.

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Self Tuning Regulator

Inferential Control
Often the process plant has certain variables that cannot be measured on-line, however, needs to be
controlled on-line. In such cases, the unmeasured variables to be controlled can be estimated by using
other measurements available from the process. Consider the following example:

Inferential Control
The process has two outputs y1 (unmeasured) and y2 (measured). The disturbance d affects the process
adversely that needs to be nullified by manipulating input u. The open loop model equations can be
written as

In this case disturbance, which is usually not measured can be expressed in terms of two measurable
quantities

And hence,

In other words, the variable y1 is estimated through two measurable quantities y2 and u . The rest is
similar to regular feedback control. This control mechanism is termed as inferential control because
here the controlled variable y1 is never measured, rather it has been estimated through the inference
drawn from measurement of other variables (y2 and u in this case).

Microprocessor based controller

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A microprocessor based controller is essentially a digital computer programmed to perform the function
of a process controller. Microprocessor is synonymous with computer and so microprocessor – based
controller is referred as a computer-based controller. In 1940 the predominant controller was pneumatic.
The development of the high gain operational electronic amplifies during the second world war led to
the electronic controller. In 1960 the chemical industry made its first attempt at computer process
Control. These control systems used large mainframe computers for which the control programs had to
be written from scratch. In 1970 the first generation of digital control hardware, which was based on
the advances in microprocessor-based technology

Hardware component

Controller components for (a) pneumatic control (b) electronic control (c)microprocessor based control
Tasks of a microprocessor-based controller

The primary task of MP based controller is implementation of a control algorithm

•Implement of classical and advanced control algorithm
•Provide static and dynamic displays on the monitor
•Provide process and diagnostic alarms
•Provide mathematical functions
•Provide data acquisition and storage

Implementation of Control Algorithms

•Analog input
•Analog out put
•Conventional control algorithms
•Linearization
•Lead lag
•Dead time
•Self-tuning

Analog input block:

The analog input block is an analog-to-digital device that converts a continuous signal from a
transducer, which is in the form of a current or voltage to a digital signal that can be used in the MP

Analog output block:

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The analog output block reverses the operation of the analog input block by converting a digital signal
to a voltage or a current that can be sent out to a transducer in the process

Control block:
The control block is a block for which many parameter can be specified. Sampling time T in controllers
vary from 0.1 to 0.25 sec. Parameters that can be selected are the controller parameter, limits on setpoint
and controller output and others

Linearization Block:
The linearization block is used to straighten out a nonlinear relation. This aspects of the linearization
block can be useful for linearizing the input-output relation to a valve that is nonlinear in behavior

Lead-Lag block:
The lead-lag block simulates the lead-lag transfer function

Dead-time block:
The dead-time block simulates dead time

Special features of microprocessor based controllers Tracking:

A very useful features of a MP- based controller is tracking. Set-point tracking is useful when a
controller is transferred from manual to automatic. If the operator adjusts the set point to the process
variable after
switching to automatic, there may be a temporary disturbance in the process variable called a bump.Set
point tracking provides bumbless transfer when switching from manual to automatic mode

Anti-Reset windup:
Controller having integral action ends up in reset windup.When the error to a controller remains large
for a long time the integral action of the controller builds up a large value of output which often
approached the saturation value of the controller output. This accumulation of output is called reset
windup .When the process variable returns to the set point, the output of the controller does not
immediately return to a value that will hold the process variable at the set point

Limiting:
Limits are often placed on a controller output for safety reasons or to protect equipment.The limits on
the controller output are active when the controller is in either automatic or manual mode. An example
of a limit on set point is the selection of an upper limit on pressure for a steam-heated sterilizer to
prevent damage to the equipment.

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