UNIT – 2

 Image Transformation :

G(x,y) = T{ f(x,y) }

In this equation,

F(x,y) = input image on which transformation function has to be applied.

G(x,y) = the output image or processed image.

T is the transformation function.

This relation between input image and the processed output image can also be
represented as.

s = T (r)

where r is actually the pixel value or gray level intensity of f(x,y) at any point. And s is the
pixel value or gray level intensity of g(x,y) at any point.

straight transition line between input image and output image.

It shows that for each pixel, there is a same intensity value of output image. That means the
output image is exact replica of the input image.

It can be mathematically represented as:

g(x,y) = f(x,y)

 Intensity transformation :

is a fundamental operation in digital image processing (DIP) that modifies the pixel values
of an image to enhance its visual quality or to prepare it for further analysis.
This process involves applying mathematical functions to the intensity values of the
pixels in an image, which can lead to various e ects such as contrast enhancement,
brightness adjustment, and thresholding.

Key Concepts of Intensity Transformation

1. Pixel Intensity:

 In grayscale images, each pixel is represented by a single intensity value,

typically ranging from 0 (black) to 255 (white) in an 8-bit image.

2. Transformation Functions:

 Intensity transformations can be linear or nonlinear, depending on the

desired e ect. The transformation can be expressed as:

 [ s = T(r) ] where ( r ) is the input intensity, ( s ) is the output intensity, and ( T )

is the transformation function.

Common Types of Intensity Transformations

1. Linear Transformations:

 Brightness Adjustment: This involves adding a constant value to all pixel

intensities, e ectively shifting the histogram of the image. [ s = r + c ] where (
c ) is a constant. If ( c > 0 ), the image becomes brighter; if ( c < 0 ), it becomes
darker.

 Contrast Stretching: This enhances the contrast of an image by stretching

the range of intensity values to cover the full range of possible values.

2. Logarithmic Transformation: This transformation is useful for enhancing the

details in darker regions of an image.

3. Power-Law (Gamma) Transformations : Gamma correction is important for

displaying images on a screen correctly, to prevent bleaching or darkening of
images when viewed from di erent types of monitors with di erent display settings.
This is done because our eyes perceive images in a gamma-shaped curve,
whereas cameras capture images in a linear fashion.

 Histogram :

is a type of graphical representation used in statistics to show the distribution of

numerical data. It looks somewhat like a bar chart, but unlike bar graphs, which are used
for categorical data, histograms are designed for continuous data, grouping it into logical
ranges which are also known as "bins."

A histogram helps in visualizing the distribution of data across a continuous interval or

period which makes the data more understandable and also highlights the trends and
patterns.

 Spatial Filtering :

Spatial filtering is a technique used in image processing to enhance or modify an image by

manipulating the pixel values based on their spatial relationships.

It involves applying a filter (or kernel) to an image, where the filter is a small matrix that
defines how the pixel values in the neighborhood of a target pixel should be combined to
produce a new pixel value.

Key Concepts

1. Kernel/Filter: A small matrix (e.g., 3x3, 5x5) that defines the operation to be
performed on the image. Each element of the kernel corresponds to a weight that is
applied to the pixel values in the neighborhood.

2. Convolution: The process of applying the kernel to the image. For each pixel in the
image, the kernel is centered on that pixel, and the weighted sum of the pixel values
covered by the kernel is computed to produce the new pixel value.

3. Types of Spatial Filters:

 Linear Filters:

 Linear spatial filters apply a linear operation to an image, such as

convolution with a kernel or mask. They are used to enhance or extract
 features from an image, such as edges or textures such as Sobel, and linear
image enhancement techniques, such as histogram equalization. Common
linear filters include:

 Smoothing Filter (Averaging Filter) : An averaging filter smooths an

image by averaging the pixel values in the neighborhood.

 Sharpening Filter (Laplacian Filter)

A Laplacian filter enhances edges by highlighting regions of rapid

intensity change.

 Non-Linear Filters:

 Nonlinear spatial filters apply a nonlinear operation to an image. They are

used to enhance or extract features from an image in a more complex way
than linear filters.

 Examples include median filters, which are used to remove noise from an
image by replacing each pixel with the median value of the pixels in its
neighborhood, and morphological filters, which are used to extract specific
shapes or structures from an image.

 Median Filter: Replaces the pixel value with the median of the pixel
values in the neighborhood.

 Max/Min Filters: Replace the pixel value with the maximum or

minimum value in the neighborhood.

Applications of Spatial Filtering

 Noise Reduction: Smoothing filters are commonly used to reduce noise in images.

 Edge Detection: Sharpening filters are used to detect edges and enhance features
in images.

 Image Enhancement: Filters can be used to improve the visual quality of images for
better interpretation.

 Feature Extraction: Spatial filtering is often a preliminary step in computer vision

tasks to extract relevant features from images.

 Fourier Transform:

Fourier transform is the input tool that is used to decompose an image into its sine and
cosine components.
Properties of Fourier Transform:

 Linearity:
Addition of two functions corresponding to the addition of the two frequency
spectrum is called the linearity. If we multiply a function by a constant, the Fourier
transform of the resultant function is multiplied by the same constant. The Fourier
transform of sum of two or more functions is the sum of the Fourier transforms of
the functions.

 Case I.

 If h(x) -> H(f) then ah(x) -> aH(f)

 Case II.

If h(x) -> H(f) and g(x) -> G(f) then h(x)+g(x) -> H(f)+G(f)

 Scaling:
Scaling is the method that is used to the change the range of the independent
variables or features of data. If we stretch a function by the factor in the time
domain then squeeze the Fourier transform by the same factor in the frequency
domain.

If f(t) -> F(w) then f(at) -> (1/|a|)F(w/a)

 Di erentiation:
Di erentiating function with respect to time yields to the constant multiple of the
initial function.

If f(t) -> F(w) then f'(t) -> jwF(w)

 Convolution:
It includes the multiplication of two functions. The Fourier transform of a
convolution of two functions is the point-wise product of their respective Fourier
transforms.

 If f(t) -> F(w) and g(t) -> G(w)

then f(t)*g(t) -> F(w)*G(w)

 Frequency Shift:
Frequency is shifted according to the co-ordinates. There is a duality between the
time and frequency domains and frequency shift a ects the time shift.

If f(t) -> F(w) then f(t)exp[jw't] -> F(w-w')

  Time Shift:
The time variable shift also e ects the frequency function. The time shifting property
concludes that a linear displacement in time corresponds to a linear phase factor in
the frequency domain.

If f(t) -> F(w) then f(t-t') -> F(w)exp[-jwt']