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Learn Google™

Michael Busby

Wordware Publishing, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Busby, Michael.
Learn Google / by Michael Busby.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-55622-038-3 (pbk.)
1. Google. 2. Web search engines. I. Title.
TK5105.885.G66B87 2003
025.04—dc22 2003019756
CIP

© 2004, Wordware Publishing, Inc.

All Rights Reserved

2320 Los Rios Boulevard

Plano, Texas 75074

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means

without permission in writing from Wordware Publishing, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 1-55622-038-3

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0310

Google is a trademark of Google Inc.

All screen shots used in this book copyright 2003 Google Inc.
All brand names and product names mentioned in this book are trademarks or service marks of their
respective companies. Any omission or misuse (of any kind) of service marks or trademarks should not
be regarded as intent to infringe on the property of others. The publisher recognizes and respects all
marks used by companies, manufacturers, and developers as a means to distinguish their products.
This book is sold as is, without warranty of any kind, either express or implied, respecting the contents
of this book and any disks or programs that may accompany it, including but not limited to implied
warranties for the book’s quality, performance, merchantability, or fitness for any particular purpose.
Neither Wordware Publishing, Inc. nor its dealers or distributors shall be liable to the purchaser or any
other person or entity with respect to any liability, loss, or damage caused or alleged to have been
caused directly or indirectly by this book.

All inquiries for volume purchases of this book should be addressed to Wordware
Publishing, Inc., at the above address. Telephone inquiries may be made by calling:
(972) 423-0090
Dedication

For Shane, Drew, and Stuart Busby.

iii
This page intentionally left blank.
Contents

Preface: Searching for and Finding the Golden Fleece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Chapter 1 All about Search Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
What Do We Search For? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
How Much Do We Search? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Why Search? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
What Is the Web? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
What Is a Web Page? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
What Is a Search Engine? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Search Engine History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Robots, Spiders, and Metacrawlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Relevancy Ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
How Does a Search Engine Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Issues Searching the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Search Integrity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The Race to Be Number One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
What Is Google? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
How Google Ranks Its Search Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
How Is Google Getting Better? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Next Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 2 Google Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Google Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Froogle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Google Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Google Catalogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Google Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Google Image Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
The Hard (Google) Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Wrong (Bright Spark) Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
The Easy (My) Way … That Works! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Google Labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Google News Alerts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Google Compute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

v
Contents

Google Viewer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Google WebQuotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Google Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Google Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Google Voice Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Keyboard Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Google News. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Google Special Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Google University Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Google Web Directory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Google Web Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Wireless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 3 Google Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Interface Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Search Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
SafeSearch Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Number of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Results Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Save Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Chapter 4 Basic Google Search Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
The Quote (") Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
The Arithmetic (+, –) Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Boolean Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Complex Boolean Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Search Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Chapter 5 Advanced Google Search Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Advanced Search Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Find Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Occurrences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Language Tools and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

vi
 Contents

Google in Your Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Searching for Hilux: A Real-life Search Example . . . . . . . . 169
SafeSearch Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Similar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Topic-Specific Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Chapter 6 Advanced Alternate Query Search Operators. . . . . . . 181
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Advanced Alternate Query Search Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
cache: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
link: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
related: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
info: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
stock: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
site: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
allintitle: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
intitle: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
allinurl: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
inurl: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Chapter 7 Advanced Image Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Advanced Image Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Find Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Related to All of the Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Related to the Exact Phrase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Related to Any of the Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Not Related to the Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Filetypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Coloration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
SafeSearch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chapter 8 The Google Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Google Toolbar Privacy Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Toolbar Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Toolbar Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

vii
Contents

Drag-and-Drop Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Right-click Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Toolbar Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Google Toolbar Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Google Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Search Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
PageRank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Page Info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Highlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Toolbar Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Google Home Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Google Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Google Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Google Web Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Google News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Google Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Advanced Search Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Search Preferences Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Language Tools Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Toolbar Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
General Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Search Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Search Buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Advanced Features Are ENABLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Page Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Finding Words within a Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Google Compute Is ENABLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Experimental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Default Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Clear Search History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Privacy Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
About Google Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Contact Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Uninstall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Toolbar Version 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

viii
 Contents

Chapter 9 Other Google Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Google Help Central . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Google Site Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
All About Google . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
General FAQ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Saving Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Accepting Cookies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Accepting Cookies from Specific Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Setting Google as Your Default Home Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Netscape 4.0 to 6.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Internet Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
America Online. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Setting Google as Your Default Search Engine . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Netscape Communicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Windows Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Macintosh Operating System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
UNIX Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Internet Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Windows Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Macintosh Operating System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Mozilla/Netscape 6 Search Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
IE QuickSearch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Macintosh OS X Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Additional Google Web Search Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Dictionary Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
I’m Feeling Lucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
PhoneBook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Spell Checker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Street Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Special Tricks and Treats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Double Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Right-Click . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Miscellaneous Google Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Web APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Webmaster’s Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Submit Your URL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Advertising Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Organizing Your Google Bookmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Your Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
The Search Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

ix
Contents

Chapter 10 Searching Newsgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Google Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Posting to Google Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Removing Your Post. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Afterword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

x
Preface: Searching for and Finding the
Golden Fleece

In the mythological account Jason and the Argonauts, Jason and his
heroic pals must sail the seas searching for the Golden Fleece.
Jason must return to his homeland with the fleece in order to
reclaim his rightful position as king of Iolcus. In his quest, he
encounters challenges of every description that he must overcome
by shrewd thinking and more than a little help from the gods.
Finally, he finds the Golden Fleece, guarded by a horrific dragon, in
the kingdom of King Aeetes, king of Colchis. With the help of King
Aeetes’ daughter, Medea, he makes off with the Golden Fleece and
triumphantly returns to Iolcus to claim his birthright.
Sometimes, when I have a particularly difficult time trying to find
some nugget of information on the Internet, I recall the story of
Jason and how he did not yield to seemingly insurmountable obsta-
cles. Always at the right moment, Jason achieved the specific
objective required to pass on to the next step or phase of his quest
because he did not quit. So it seems, too, that I ultimately prevail in
my quest for information by perseverance and determination. Of
course, Jason had help from the gods on occasion in the form of
divine intervention. It is not likely that we will find help in the form
of a (handsome) Greek god or (beautiful) goddess (shucky darn!) in
our search for information on the Internet. But, like Jason, if we
don’t quit and we have a little help from a good book with useful
information, then we will find our golden fleece (of information) too.
This book addresses two perspectives involving a web search. The
first perspective is that of the user. There are an estimated 300 mil-
lion web searches performed each day. While each user may
perform two or three searches per day, that is still a lot of users.
Most users do not know how to use the full array of search tools
available to them. Because the tools are not fully utilized, searching

xi
Preface

becomes a chore often filled with a sense of frustration. When the

proper search tools are used, searching becomes a pleasure.
The second perspective is that of the web page designer. Every
web designer wants the ranking of the web page in the search
results to be as close to the coveted number one position as possi-
ble. How do you design a web page so the page’s position in a
search is in the top 30 or 40 results returned by the web search
engine? You must understand why and how people search and how
search engines rank pages. Simply put, the two perspectives are:
n How do you make your “golden fleece” visible to the world?
n How do you find your “golden fleece”?
Just like the mythical tale of Jason and the Argonauts, searching for
your golden fleece (or nugget, as I refer to a search result through-
out the book) of information on the web can be a long, tedious, and
sometimes hazardous journey, fraught with unknown pitfalls. This
book provides a clearly defined path for your quest that will lead
you to the “golden fleece.” Before we begin that quest, let’s con-
sider where we will be questing and why go on the quest at all. Our
quest will take us through the electronic wilderness known as the
Internet.
In recent years, there have been numerous comparisons of the
Internet and its associated World Wide Web with a library. It
seemed to make sense, as both places are repositories of informa-
tion. But two authors of a recent book about Google make the
astounding claim that the Internet and its associated web are not a
library! They advance the claim based upon their belief that the
Internet lacks:
n A central source for resource information
n A paid staff dutifully indexing new material as it comes in
n A well-understood and rigorously adhered-to ontology
They go on to say, “Thinking of the Internet as a library can be mis-
leading.” For sure, the Internet does not represent a brick and
mortar building located in a downtown metropolitan area where no
one in their right mind would be caught after dark. But the general

xii
 Preface

meaning of a library does not necessarily fit within the confines of

someone’s rigid definition. In a broad sense, a library is just a
source of information. While we associated brick and mortar build-
ings with the term “library” in the twentieth century, we will come
more and more to associate the term with the Internet (or at least
certain portions of the Internet) in the twenty-first century. Why?
Why not?
There really is no compelling reason to continue producing paper-
based books other than it is in the vested interest of several indus-
tries to chop down trees, make pulp paper, and have printed matter.
The publishing industry is beginning to recognize the power and
impact of electronic publishing, and they will move, probably slowly,
toward an all-electronic product. Eventually, paper-based books will
become collector’s items of a bygone era. But there is much more
information in the world than what is offered by the (book) publish-
ing industry.
There will probably be brick and mortar libraries around for some
time to come, as the older members of the current generation are
accustomed to visiting a library and checking out books. But, as the
younger generation today moves toward retirement, fewer people
will be comforted with a visit to a library. Instead, they will access
all of their information needs via the computer and Internet. I am a
research-intensive individual, yet I find little need to visit a library
anymore. The Internet will become, if it is not already, the world’s
leading source of information, making it a twenty-first century
library in my book (pun intended).
Information is power. Power is survival in a competitive environ-
ment that is increasingly hostile, as the world’s burgeoning
population struggles for fewer and fewer resources. The easy
access to information that a computer and the Internet provide to a
knowledgeable person in the privacy of his or her own home or
office is awesome. But the access is “easy” only if you know how to
find your golden fleece. This book is essentially a road map that
leads you to your search objectives, making access to information
easy for you in the truest sense of the word.

xiii
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
always remained for him more or less vaguely pleasant, and this
description for him was both ultimate and exhaustive.
Subject B could get no kind of pleasant feeling from any tactual
surface, while to Subject E even the coarsest sandpaper usually
afforded pleasant stimulation. As spoken of above, articulatory
impulses were characteristic of the motor tendencies of Subjects D
and G. To Subject A the experiences seemed richest and fullest, and
the corresponding bodily processes were likewise more pronounced
and varied. In the great majority of the experiments, especially
during the period of training, the feeling itself vanished when the
subjects attempted to analyze the bodily processes. It was chiefly,
however, a matter of training, and this more and more ceased to be
a disturbing element.
Some subjects preferred often to speak of circulatory, or at least,
decidedly internal and usually involuntary changes in addition to, and
sometimes without, the controlled muscular actions. The mood of
the time affects the amount of feeling, and occasionally, but far less
frequently, the quality. The moral significance of the feelings was
most prominent when the subject felt most interested in the
experiment, as may be noted above in their descriptions of the
feelings for red and yellow. What may be termed the "regularity
element" would seem generally to serve as the test especially for the
pleasant-unpleasant character of the feeling-tone. The feeling of
expansiveness never accompanied unpleasant feelings. Feelings of
contraction, on the other hand, very often occurred when the
feelings were not at all disagreeable. In such cases there was a
significance attached to the direction or meaning of the adjustment.

PART II
Section A. Here simultaneous stimulations of different sense-
organs were given, and the situation became at once more complex.
For some time only colors and tactual surfaces were employed. Later
tones from tuning-forks and noises were added. Forms with different
colors as fillings still further complicated the experience. Odors as a
rule were unsatisfactory, being so strong as entirely to inhibit all
noticeable effects from the other senses.
For all subjects at first the feeling-tone related only to the one
object directly attended to. Some effort is required to detect the
feeling-tone for these slight stimulations, and while this is being
done, the feeling for the other sensation tends to vanish. If, while
enjoying the soothing contact with the plush, a chosen color is
disclosed in the frame and attended to sufficiently to obtain from it a
decided feeling, there is a distinct awareness of the dropping of the
feeling for the touch. To some subjects, whatever the combinations
used, this almost constantly occurred for perhaps a month. Often
again there seemed to result a total "feeling of the situation," when
the attention was on neither stimulating object.
Frequently, too, the attempted introspection at this point failed to
fix upon any feeling-tone at all definite. The condition was one of
confusion and bewilderment. The state of mind when one cannot
feel at all definitely seems to correspond closely to that state of
mental confusion when thought processes are in a jumble, with no
path for the moment leading anywhere. All these difficulties were
overcome, partially at any rate, by continued training. It was not as
if introspection revealed the fact that there was nothing to be found,
and this was frequently reported by the subjects. After some time
the touch character could be retained, and its peculiar value for
feeling did not disappear when other things came in and contributed
an affective element of their own. The old law of the opposition, or
mutual exclusiveness, of feelings would thus seem to mean little
more than that we, generally speaking, experience one thing at a
time. Without a special analytical purpose in view, we do not find
many distinct elemental feelings, as we do not, until we
psychologize, find elements of cognitive character separable. It has
been, and is now, commonly supposed that myriads of ideational
elements, partially analyzable at any rate, go to make up what we
choose to call a single perception. This experience as a whole is of
some affective nature; but, as generally stated, of one unanalyzable
sort always. It is true just in the same sense as in the cognitive
state, perception. In the sense that every perception is unique, in
this sense every affective state is likewise a unit. The evidence I
submit, however, is that one may be the subject of analysis into
elemental parts just as much as the other. Affection, as Titchener
defines it at the beginning of his treatment of feelings, is merely a
"tilt of the whole organism." If this is the ultimate statement, then
there are no combinations, and no relations of feelings except that
of mutual exclusion from the field of awareness. He has taken only
one of the above possible attitudes toward affective states. Geiger, in
his study of very complex emotions, however, has taken the other
attitude, and bases his whole position upon it. This present
experimental test furnishes evidence that the latter position is also a
legitimate, and perhaps more desirable position, if feeling shall have
scientific analytical treatment.
In this investigation, after considerable training, the subjects,
with a single exception, were all convinced that both feeling-tones,
for tactual and visual impressions, could be present at once. When
three or more were given at once, confusion as to the state of
feeling was usually so great that valuable introspection was always
rendered exceedingly difficult. Impressions from the same field, as,
for example, colors presented in chosen forms as enclosures, were
most often taken as one object with one feeling-tone. This even was
by no means always the case. When it was thus taken, the
experience was still reported as more complex than either element
alone had produced.
When the feeling-tones for simultaneous stimulations from two
different sources came out sufficiently clearly, the kind of feeling was
described in some such terms as indicated in Part I, Section A,
except that almost invariably the introspection was more difficult.
The relations of these various feeling-components of an affective
experience are numerous. There is a frequent tendency to read one
into the other. The soft soothing feeling coming from plush, if in the
particular experience the color be the more prominent partial
element, tends often to make the subject enjoy more the color,
because there seems to be added to it a soft yielding surface
texture. Frequently also, as in the case of red above, the warmth it
suggests is intensified.
In cases of feelings of opposite nature occurring together, the
stronger generally prevails, finally in most cases effacing all specific
tone for the weaker element. An odor, for example, even when
always unpleasant, becomes less so when one looks at a pleasant
color, when a feeling-tone can, or often even when it cannot, be
detected for the color at the time. Again, when a very unpleasant
form or tactual impression is being felt, a slightly unpleasant color
tends to arouse often in this situation, as if by contrast, a
simultaneously pleasant element in the total experience.
For many subjects frequently there results what I shall call a
"Total Mood." This, as to its feeling-character, can be merely
different from, more than, less than, or the same as either
component or of both together. To some the feeling is proportionate
to the degree of concentration of attention, and in all such cases
rarely does the whole complex situation afford a feeling equal to that
given by either component alone, the extra stimulation for the time
being simply a disturbing factor. To others the shifting of the focus of
attention from one to another of the external objects of interest, or
from one feeling-element to the other, is not at all disturbing, "any
more than is any general state of satisfied self-contemplation." This
kind of experience is often and distinctly reported, not as the
enjoyment of two where the discernible elements persist wholly
unrelated, but rather an enjoyment (or disagreeable experience as
the case may be), simply from two sources of stimulation, a total
mood with similar or harmonious constituents. The red color and the
tactual feeling for plush afford this. Similarly the unpleasant color
above combines with certain odors or with the sandpaper. Yellow,
however, does not as a rule produce a feeling that peaceably "falls in
with" the tactual impression brought about by the plush. Low tones
tend to combine thus with the red color or with the softest plush in
the same kind of Total Mood. The feeling-tones usually for pleasant
high tones are described as "falling in with" the feeling for yellow
when the feeling exists as described above, and as nearer to that of
the feeling for the green color than for the particular deep shade of
red. What may be termed the "Congruity or Incongruity of Feeling-
Tones" is perhaps a good name to designate feeling-tone relations.
It implies neither mutual exclusiveness nor total fusion, and some
such term is necessary.
The various phenomena of fusion, summation, partial
reënforcement, merely simultaneous, independent coexistence,
partial and total inhibition, of one by the other occur. The feeling-
tone for yellow tends most readily to fuse with the feeling-tone for
high tones and upright ovals. This is not so marked for the green,
but more so for all other colors than for the red. Red harmonizes and
tends to fuse, for most subjects, with the feeling-tones for soft
plush, low tones, and circular forms. This harmonizing, however, is
not all that contributes to the amount of feeling in these complex
cases. Subjects often prefer the low tones with yellow, even though
there is less harmony. So also upright ovals are in themselves
generally so much more pleasant than the circles that red is
preferred thus presented, though its feeling-character is more akin
to that suggested by the circles. These are cases where the intensity
itself of the feeling-tone is preferred, even though what is felt to be
an harmonious combination is lessened.
When the situation admits of a complete fusion, the one resulting
feeling is almost always greater. When summation of unpleasant
stimuli occurs, the singleness of the attention process is not a
prominent feature of the experience. Rather each unpleasant
element exists throughout, each in turn intensifying the whole
undertone of feeling, but also remaining a feeling-tone of a
particular kind. Partial reënforcement is descriptive of that state
when both feeling-tones contribute to a feeling of the same kind, yet
do retain some individual characteristics which stand out for
themselves. The general state of pleasantness, for example, is
increased by both elements contributed by a low tone and the yellow
color, yet one retains its soothing and the other its exciting character.
Again, the feeling-tone for green may occur when its relation, on the
other hand, to a pleasantly sounding tuning-fork is not at all noticed.
Subjects find in such cases always more effort required to note both
the feeling-tones, and there is probably some diminution in quantity
of feeling for each of the simultaneous elements. Other subjects
have preferred to call this partial inhibition. Cases of total inhibition
have been noted above, and are by far the most frequent, as would
naturally be expected. When sandpaper is being applied, and no
repose is felt in the body, a color, suddenly presented, for a moment
pleases the eye, but quickly loses all feeling-character, and can only
be "intellectually perceived."
Again, the way in which subjects will take certain combinations
seems to depend entirely upon the person. Beautiful colors,
presented in disagreeable forms, bring about for some a feeling
altogether worse than does an unpleasant color in the same form. To
others there is always the tendency to enjoy the color and to
"reconstruct" the form, or stress in it those elements only which do
suggest symmetry and definiteness. All feel, when two or more
elements contribute to the feeling-experience, that a total mood
generally serves as the undertone for them. When there is a clear
strife between the two, they both can exist as equal partial tones
with an undertone of unpleasantness in the failure to coördinate
them. There are still other cases where the total result cannot well
be called a fusion or summation. For example, when an unpleasant
color in an unpleasant form, or for Subject D, a pleasant color in an
unpleasant form, is presented, the feeling for the whole is often out
of all proportion to the value of each alone, or of what might be
expected from the simple summation. The uncommon revulsion here
was frequently so striking that the subjects would afterwards laugh
heartily over the strength with which it first appeared.

Section B. Introspection here as to the physiological

accompaniments referring exclusively to one of the two or more
existing feeling-tones is still more meagre, but at times very definite.
When the elements of a total feeling fuse there is of course no
reference to the particular processes which bring this about. It is
then simply a general response to a situation. When, however,
distinct, or opposing feeling-tones are present and detected, they do
often mean opposing inclinations to action. The yellow color can
retain its exciting tone, and refer clearly to such activities as opening
wide the eyes, incipient smiling tendencies, and general alertness of
facial expression, when a soothing touch is also felt as suggesting a
toning-down of the body and a general relaxation of the muscles of
the abdomen. This is the most frequently noticed effect. Tactual
impressions are accompanied by pervading organic feelings in the
trunk, while visual and auditory stimulations, in their incipient
stages, at least, have the more pronounced effect upon facial
muscles of expression, and general sensations in the head. When
any of these feelings are particularly strong, however, the
sensations, whose feeling-tones seem to constitute the feeling in
question, tend to pervade the entire system and to usurp the whole
bodily activity. The motor tendencies noticed above for the irregular
forms are also reported when the color itself remains pleasant.
Yellow, possessing more of this activity itself, is least pleasant when
exposed in these forms. The opposition of tendencies is noticed,
yellow meaning its own peculiar kind of aggressive movement, and
the bad form at the same time calling for that irregular kind of
unpleasant adjustment. Red does not "intrude itself" nor demand
action, and is always less strikingly in opposition to the form than is
the case with yellow or green or blue. Forms, almost perfect, relate
themselves to feelings of tension. One feels that he cannot quite
take them as perfect figures, and this strain and inability to take
them for what they suggest provokes a decidedly unpleasant feeling.
Very irregular forms become "grotesque" or ludicrous, and the bodily
change is indicated as a "jumble of partially carried out reactions."
In many cases sensations or motor tendencies are noted all over
the body during the existence of these complex states. At such times
they are not recognized as referring to either feeling-tone in
particular. When also a favorite color is presented to a subject who is
experiencing a disagreeable feeling from sandpaper, the touch is so
pervasive usually that he feels that this "controls the whole
response" and inhibits any reaction, or even any suggested reaction
to the color. When there does fail to be even any possible incipient
motor suggestion, as a rule the feeling-tone for the object is
extremely vague if it exists at all, and the object appears for the
time "dead" or "valueless." Subjects speak of their own inability to
respond in such cases. It is not at all as if the color is definitely bad,
but rather as if one cannot do two different things with the same
muscular apparatus at once. As often, as has before been noted,
does the opposite occur. Colors in definitely characterized forms
illustrate the relations of similar activities when feeling-tones occur
together. Yellow is preferred in upright ovals, for both accentuate the
same demand for activity, and calling for the same kind of response,
tend to fuse into a single object. Yellow and plush do not harmonize,
and in many cases where both retain their feeling-tones, distinct
activities in different parts of the body are aroused simultaneously.
With the circles the feeling-tone for yellow does not agree with that
for form. The yellow becomes almost unpleasant at times. Circles are
"heavy," "stable," "on their own axes." A yellow thus enclosed seems
"too fat," too "unnaturally heavy," not free and light, and the effect
is less pleasing. Circles suit the red better than they do the yellow or
the green or the blue, and tend to be seen as one object, or to fuse,
more readily than red in an upright oval form. The feeling-tones for
red and for upright ovals are both very pleasant, but not as much in
harmony, and consequently usually taken as two different feelings.
As a general result of introspective analysis at this point, when
different feeling-tones did occur together, they were described in
terms similar to those used when each alone was experienced. The
bodily references, when found, were of the same character, the only
difference being that there was much difficulty in determining to
which feeling-tone the response referred. In many instances,
however, again it seemed quite certain that different kinds of
adaptation in different parts of the body were suggested which
seemed to correspond to distinct affective qualities. Also distinct
feeling-tones, each of which alone could call forth a similar kind of
action, when given together tended to accentuate the total unified
response. The upright ovals mean alertness and soaring motions
with a general suggestion of drawing the shoulders up. The yellow
color accentuated this. The circle with the soothing red, or the fusion
of feelings for red and plush, pleases in quite another fashion.

PART III
In attempting to measure the rate at which feeling-tones for
those slight stimulations develop when no disturbing factors are
consciously present, an interval of from one and one half to two and
one half seconds seemed to be required. At such a time the feeling
was experienced as having reached its maximum. There was no
marked difference for different subjects, nor any constantly
noticeable difference among the kind of stimulations used. A
possible exception was found for Subject I, but this was probably
due, as he himself thought, to his inability to adapt himself easily to
the requirement of the experiment.
After this was sufficiently tested, the interval which was required
for one feeling-tone to arise when another was already present, was
in the same manner tested. The interval in all cases was too long to
be measured by means of a chronometer. A stop-watch was used.
While the subject was consciously enjoying a sound from a
tuning-fork or a tactual impression from some chosen texture
surface, one of the colors was presented to him. The time-interval
thus ascertained as necessary for the new feeling-tone to reach its
maximum was compared in each case with the time-interval when
the color alone was presented. Various combinations were here
employed also. Colors in forms in addition were studied in
comparison with the same colors presented without regard to the
enclosing forms. No definite results could be obtained in most cases.
It was thought that the repose one feels for plush might appreciably
hasten the feeling-tone for the red and probably retard that for the
more exciting yellow. The evidence is not directly conclusive. This
was not found to be the case in much more than half of the tests. It
did, however, in the great majority of the cases with all subjects,
retard the time-interval for the development of the unpleasant
character of ordinarily disagreeable colors. Given at such times also
the normally unpleasant colors not infrequently appeared themselves
as slightly agreeable. In these cases the interval was also
appreciably longer, suggesting evidence that new processes of some
sort were set up. A pleasant low tone hastened the arousal of a
pleasant feeling-tone for red quite perceptibly for three subjects, and
had no influence upon the other subjects. The feeling-tone for
yellow under the same circumstances was for two subjects retarded
regularly, with no marked effect either way for the others. The same
low tone retarded all the unpleasant colors, as did the plush, in
many cases causing them to appear as pleasant.
The effect of forms, as enclosures for colors, upon the time-rate
was more marked and constant. Subject I again was always
disturbed when colors were presented to him in definite forms. For
him feeling-tones never arose so quickly when the form-element
entered. For the other six subjects, available for this part of the
work, upright ovals considerably increased the whole state of
pleasure whether or not fusion of the different elements resulted.
For them the feeling-tone for every pleasing color was hastened
from two fifths to four fifths of a second. These same forms retarded
the unpleasant colors whenever one element of the experience
seemed to be opposed to the other. Occasionally here also the color
appeared as itself directly and unaccountably pleasant, the prepared
situation of the subject being such, apparently, that the ordinary
character of the color did not appear at all. This was very frequently
the case for all subjects.
The irregular unpleasant forms generally retarded the feeling-
tone for the enclosed color when that color appeared to have lost
some of its accustomed agreeableness. When, however, the contrast
in feeling-character between the form-element and the color-
element as such was noted as marked, the feeling-character of the
color was more often hastened than retarded. These same forms in
almost every case (of nearly two months' work for seven subjects)
hastened the feeling-tone for the corresponding disagreeable color.
Often again pleasant colors changed the feeling-tones for these
irregular forms. In such cases the influence could not be attributed
to the effect of unpleasant forms upon feeling-tones.
Statistics alone seem insignificant here. Each variety of affective
experience in itself presents its own peculiar difficulties. In a great
number of tests the affective phases of the experiences were all
described in such terms as to suggest that too general a grouping of
them would not mean much. Often when one thought, after a
careful choice of the stimuli to be used, that the experiment would
show that feelings whose prominent characteristics were those of
excitement or tension, for example, were exerting an influence upon
some other kind of feeling, introspection would reveal the fact that
altogether other phases of the experience were the pronounced
elements. Examples of what at first appeared to be capricious results
illustrate the baffling nature of the problem here dealt with. Red is
very pleasant. The oval with the bulging side is repulsive. This
combination caused no marked retardation in the time required for a
feeling-tone to develop. The blue, not so markedly pleasant alone,
with the same bulging oval as its frame, had its feeling-tone
changed, and the time-development quite perceptibly hastened. This
same blue color with an upright oval as its frame produced a feeling-
tone much more pleasant, also with marked hastening of the speed-
development of its feeling-character. The pleasant-unpleasant
dimension of the feeling clearly cannot alone furnish one with an
explanation of these different phenomena. The red under normal
conditions, i. e., if not influenced by either favorable or unfavorable
coexisting feeling-tones, aroused its peculiar and not necessarily
pervasive kind of physiological process. Likewise all our evidence
goes to show that the feeling for blue is correlated with a peculiar
physiological process, not so deeply seated in the organism, and not
so satisfactorily coördinated, or "definite." Now the specific feeling-
tone for forms arises when the imitative adjustment called for is
successfully accomplished. In the first combination cited above the
feeling-tone for red, being mild, soothing, more pervasive than blue,
but lacking in the exciting character, is correlated with processes not
so easily influenced by the reactions occasioned by the presented
forms. Subjects say that it does not call for "surface reactions." It is
less "intrusive." It does not "fall in with," nor does it strikingly
oppose, the necessary reaction to the forms. Its influence upon the
time-development of feeling-tones for accompanying stimuli is
consequently small. This is not the case with the blue. The
explanation, however, does not here differ in principle. This "volatile,
unstable, indecisive, thin, or shallow" feeling, can be more easily
influenced by the definite and decisive processes characteristic of the
forms. It, indeed, needs something to determine its character, or
coördinate its general reaction. Hence in both the above
combinations the development period of the new feeling-tone for
blue is shortened. The feeling reaches its maximum in either
combination more quickly than when it occurs alone. As one should
expect, fusion or mutual reënforcement quickens coördinated
reaction; and partially independent coexistence, except where the
contrast is sharp, serves as a condition for the lengthening of the
latent period of feelings.

PART IV
It is beyond the province of this paper to report the accounts the
subjects have attempted to give of the complex feelings aroused by
the pictures of statues. The primary and limited purpose is to try to
trace out the influences of the feelings before dealt with for colors
when these are also present in some way related to the now
complex æsthetic states. The Einfühlung, often reported for the
simple forms, is here much more easily detected, if the statues
arouse agreeable feelings. They "work themselves into the statue,"
or assume the position, or the facial expression if this is prominent,
or feel very strongly in their own body what seems to be the most
prominent element in the feeling portrayed by the figure. Few
subjects liked all the statues. Incipient if not actual tendencies to
motion of some sort, with the sensory counterparts to these
situations called for when the subject feels that he is in the "proper
attitude" to get most feeling from the presentations, chiefly
constitute what was in different ways reported.
These statues presented on colors as backgrounds are variously
and interestingly modified. The feeling-tones for colors distinctly
affect the meaning of the statues. Of the above colors our shade of
red is preferred with Venus by all subjects. Here the feeling-tones
more nearly fuse. Always the feeling-character of the statue
predominates, and the other feeling-elements of the situation are
accepted or rejected in proportion as they harmonize or fail to
harmonize with the predominant partial tone. Red, for example, here
adds to the "richness and luxuriousness." It accentuates the
strength, poise, grace, balance, ease, rest, wisdom, composure,
endurance, and dignity. It is more soothing, and calls for no
unnecessary action. One subject never liked any color as a
background. In this case colors were good in proportion as "they
kept out of the way." This is the reason for red being always
preferred to yellow or green. With these latter colors there is an
interplay of reactions not coöperating. The color-exciting element is
more immediate, tension is brought about, the color asserts itself, is
pleasant, and tends directly to inhibit the feelings for the statue. The
pleasure in the color is called "thin" in comparison, and the power of
sympathetic appreciation of Venus is lessened. There is suggestion
now in the statue still of its strength, but with no "enduring" quality.
It has become commonplace, merely a "pretty woman," jaunty, self-
sufficient, cynical, and with little dignity. The motion element, now
prominent, is not pertinent. The statue looks "cheap," and as a
figure is volatile and unsteady.
In a similar way one finds these feeling-tones for colors variously
playing their part. The statue of Apollo is not pleasing to some
subjects. They want it "toned down." The red effects this. To some it
is most pleasing by its suggestion of easy grace and springy, elastic
step. The yellow harmonizes and accentuates this chosen feeling.
The blue often destroys its moral meaning. The red hampers the
feeling for the Laocoön group. They become listless, dead, and have
still strength, but no struggle. Yellow increases the amount of
activity, but often lessens the "serious despair." Fierceness is added,
but the liveliness thus furnished is at the expense of the necessary
balancing solemnity. The color again becomes intrusive. "The snakes
fairly dance," and the "flashing action behind" the statue is now too
prominent.
For the Dying Gladiator or Dying Alexander red is preferred. It,
however, as do all the other colors, often produces an overbalance in
the whole situation. Here it suggests no conflicting feelings. It adds
—often too much—to the hopelessness of the situation, and gives to
them an exaggerated solemnity and resignation, which emphasizes a
melancholy cast, not altogether called for. Green and yellow are
always incongruous. They tend to distract the attention to certain
particular muscles, thereby lessening the whole general effect. The
little "prettiness" they still retain is not called for, and is not "of the
right sort." They do not allow one to be sufficiently contemplative or
thoughtful. They have little depth, and cause inharmonious bodily
commotions, and too much intensify the life-struggle and anguish.
The general effect of the statues here is much like that of the
simple forms above. Both not only call for something to be done by
the subject, but some action more or less already definitely outlined.
The Einfühlung for little wooden figures, such as cones, columns,
pyramids, etc., was clear and decided. The tipping character or the
straight erectness caused a feeling which seemed describable in
terms of the way in which the bodily position, as one naturally
adapted himself to the object, took place. Statues afford richer
experiences, but the principle is not different. They seem full of
suggestions of abstractions, such as strength, wisdom, grace,
beauty, power, and, in general, what are often called spiritual
feelings. These are not so easily imitated in detail. Subjects have
their own ways of adapting themselves. They want to carry out the
suggestion or impulse in their own way. These impulses are
projected into the figure, and all of the vigor inhibited in one's own
body becomes a living part of the figure. The impulses thus from the
colors may or may not be of such a character as to bring about the
same proportionate adjustment as a desirable intensification equally
of all the feeling-elements. Whether desirable or not, however, these
feeling-combinations furnish additional illustrations of the various
mutual relations of coexisting feelings.
The Angelus or the Shepherdess Knitting bring about feelings in
striking contrast to the feeling for the Horse Fair picture. The latter
arouses suggestions of a tumultuous bodily condition, increased
muscular tonicity, muscles twitching everywhere, breathing heavier,
shoulders strained, and in comparison, great general innervation.
When the characteristic feeling had been aroused, the subjects were
requested to close their eyes and observe if possible to what extent
the feeling already aroused was dependent upon the retained
images. The results were clear. If the feeling is slight, as it is for
some subjects, the feeling tended to vanish and return with the
recurring images. If it is fairly strong, the feeling persists for some
time after visual imagery is lost. If very strong, the feeling is
constant for a still longer period and still less dependent upon the
original peripheral excitation. The feeling is always more constant
than any imagery. Not often for example is the whole picture
retained. Sometimes one prominent part only remains. Often again
various kinds of imagery aid in preserving the feeling. Besides visual,
auditory, the sounds of the horses' hoofs, of the tones of the
Angelus bell, are chiefly prominent in preserving the situation and
the condition for the feeling. Articulatory impulses again, in the
tendency to repeat to one's self such words as are descriptive of the
moral meaning of the pictures, offer sufficient clues to keep the
desired feeling aroused. When the feeling has "struck deep,"
subjects report motor imagery pervading the whole system. In such
cases the recurring visual imagery has little effect upon the feeling.
On the whole, the feelings for the more quiet pictures last longer
and are more easily retained than is the case with the more exciting
ones, if the original feelings are, as to mere intensity, approximately
equal.
The character and strength of these feeling-tones determine also
to a large extent the lines of association followed. Here the mutual
influences of feelings are clearly recognized. The character of the
new associated images and situations is colored by the feelings
which were connected with the original stimulations. The pictures,
such, for example, as the Angelus and the Horse Fair, were
presented to the subjects in quick succession. These were to be
merely starting-points for association. For all the subjects who were
able to report anything definite, the feeling-tone for one was read
into the associations which were aroused by the other. The second
of the two starting-points as a rule controls the imagery. A few
examples will illustrate how both feeling-tones are retained. The
Angelus was presented first in these cases, and the Horse Fair
second.
For subject K, the parts of the picture of the Horse Fair remained.
The feeling of seriousness and quietness, foreign to it itself, was
projected into it. Solemnity and the feeling of strength and power
was accentuated. The gaiety originally present was very much
lessened, and finally not noticed at all.
For subject C, a sacred feeling was aroused. Wars of the Bible
were recalled. There was a fusion of the imagery. He saw the church
on a battlefield near a cavalry fight. The feeling of active earnestness
and the sacred moral character was reported as due to the retained
feeling first brought about by the Angelus. The influence of the other
starting-point is clear.
Subject B found the incongruity between the two feelings very
strong. The Angelus was the stronger in influence. The other caused
one to stress the lighter, more trivial character of the former.
Meadows, streams, pools, and enchanted regions typified the
fanciful mood thus brought about.
 It is not a question as to whether such trains of thought would
have occurred if only one starting-point had been used. It is rather
that, in such cases as the above, two distinct feeling-tones were
actually detected as playing their part in the resulting complex
experiences. It is with some effort that both feeling-tones can be
thus at first retained. The resulting undertone or general mood,
however brought about, colors and determines to a certain extent
the associations which follow. The feeling is more deeply seated than
the image, and here also it is retained longer.
The above recorded account of the behavior of simple feelings
fairly represents the accumulated data at our disposal. How they can
be adjusted to modern theories of the relation of consciousness to
movement may be briefly suggested. Yet the rudimentary state both
of the psychology and of the physiology of feeling makes the present
task a hazardous one. Psychologists are not agreed as to the best
way to conceive of the relation of feelings to sensations. Feeling-
tone is in some ways dependent upon sensations; and at the same
time, in comparison with other sensation attributes, it is relatively
independent. Physiologists are still farther from agreement with
regard to the nervous processes involved.
But the deeply organic seat of feelings is unquestioned. However
the concept of feeling itself may differ, all are looking for
corresponding bodily processes by means of which to classify these
affective states. Clearly, to say that feeling is of such a nature that
one need never hope to be able to predict it from psycho-physical
conditions, is no more justified than to say that we can never predict
exactly the intensity nor the vividness of any stimulation. Feeling-
tone is here simply on a par with other attributes ascribed to
sensation.
According to Münsterberg's Action Theory the intensity of the
sensation depends upon the strength of the incoming current. Its
quality depends upon the position or location of this current in its
particular neurone. The vividness depends upon the "openness" or
"closedness" of the neurone conditioning the outgoing current. And
finally to the feeling-tone shall correspond the local difference of this
discharge in outgoing currents. For instance, the pleasant feelings
have, related to them, central outgoing paths which lead to
approach, and thus to the continuation of the stimulus, and the
unpleasant feelings have related to them in turn central neurones
which lead to withdrawal or escape, and thus to the breaking-up of
the stimulus.
Our empirical data gathered from the experiments above
reported demand not so much a modification as an elaboration of
this theory. The tridimensionality of the feeling-tone itself must be
physiologically described. We must conceive the feeling-tone itself as
possessed of its own vividness, intensity, and quality.
It seems clear indeed that any explanation of the affective or
feeling-character of experience must be sought somewhere in the
outgoing currents from the motor region. This alone will serve to
account for the inevitable volitional or "intent" aspect which
invariably accompanies feeling, and I think may serve to account
also for the organic or necessarily coördinating or functioning aspect
required by some writers who so stoutly object to "barren atomistic
or structural" psychological explanations.
The Action Theory might then be specialized in the following
way:
The intensity of the feeling will depend upon the force or amount
of the outgoing currents from the motor cells. This would enable one
to explain that state of mind when a sensation only is experienced
from a stimulus which ordinarily has a characteristic feeling-tone, but
which feeling-tone in the special instance is lacking. Many cases
have been cited above where one feeling seemed to efface another.
The nerve-energy called for in arousing the unpleasant feeling-tone
for the sandpaper inhibited the process of the discharge from the
cells conditioning any response to the ordinarily pleasing red color.
Others again can reënforce or at least not seriously interfere with
each other. All cases already cited where two feeling-tones were
detected as existing simultaneously are examples in point. It is quite
clear of course that the intensity of feeling is not at all
commensurate with the intensity of sensation. Commotion is not the
only condition for emotion. Yet where there is no tendency to do
anything, as is so noticeable in the reported introspections above,
there is no feeling. A mere shock, even though intense as a
sensation, simply benumbs one. In thus describing any feeling for a
particular stimulation, one should include, besides the original results
of the chosen peripheral excitation, all the reënforcing factors that
accumulate by reason of the sensory counterparts to this originally
called-for movement. When one is, for example, feeling sandpaper,
the feeling for the soft red, when it exists at all, is less intense.
Subjects say, "It ought to be more pleasant than it is. The trouble is
in me, not in the color." The suggested movement which conditions
the intensity is lessened in amount, or partially inhibited. One could
scarcely say, so far as the sensation is concerned, that it has lost
some of its brightness, or that it is not strong enough to arouse its
customary feeling-tone. This is distinctly reported as not the case. It
is of course almost always recognized as the same shade of color.
The recorded examples, showing that intensity of feeling is itself one
dimension of a feeling-tone in no way necessarily related to the
intensity of the sensation, are numerous.
The vividness of the feeling-tone is likewise a relatively
independent phenomenon, and it, too, is not commensurate with the
vividness of the sensation as such, and hence demands a different
explanation. It can then be dependent upon the actual stage in the
process of completing the movements suggested by the color or
tone or form in question. All feelings dealt with in this investigation
one can describe by relating them to the actual stage in the process
of completing the coördinated adjustments. Without some progress
in such a process no feeling would cross the threshold of awareness.
In Part III above are recorded many illustrations, where degrees of
vividness for feelings are noted by the subjects. When they were
attempting to report the actual time when a feeling became definite
enough to be called such at all, there was much difficulty in knowing
just when to give the signal. Feelings develop much more slowly
than do perceptions. Subjects often give the signal too soon, at once
correcting themselves by saying that it was too vague at that
moment. It grows in definiteness, and has degrees of vividness. A
movement in the first stages of the process, before the feeling-tone
has sufficiently developed, is a state of vague feeling. Again, many
states of so-called indifferent feeling meant, according to the
subjects, not lack of feeling, but rather vagueness, lack of vividness.
Three or more stimulations from different sources resulted in
confusion where no feelings were vivid. When the color again, for
example, is pronounced "dead" so far as feeling is concerned, other
feelings and other movements are too prominent. The sensations
are in such cases unchanged. The intensity and vividness of the
feeling-tone for the color are at a minimum.
And thirdly the quality of the feeling-tone must be dependent
upon, and must be described in terms of the particular kind of
coördinated movements suggested or actually carried out. Thus the
characters of the feeling-tones for the yellow color above described,
for the upright ovals, for the very high tones, for the Laocoön group,
and for the Horse Fair, are in some respects alike. They have the
same general Gefühlsgrundlage. The qualities of the feelings for soft
deep red, for tactual plush, for low tones, and for the Angelus, and,
for most subjects, for Venus, would represent another class having
the same Gefühlsgrundlage. This admits of all the uniqueness
specific feelings may have, and at the same time permits of a
general classification and description. Some subjects, D and F, for
example, may have a feeling whose quality is disgust at some color-
form combination. The accompanying sensations may be localized,
as they frequently are, in the arms, with impulses to "ward off" the
displeasing influence. Subject B often for the same feeling finds
sensations of contraction in the throat most prominent, and subject
A a stiffening of the features and incipient scowl. The most
prominent localization depends upon the habits of the person and
the habitual kind of reaction he has acquired and developed during
his lifetime. The localization of muscular activity may differ, but the
kind of coördination does not, so far as our introspection shows. The
regularity, the rate, the smooth light ease, or the heavy, ponderous,
deep-seated character of the suggested responses indicate some of
the terms which would serve as aids in classifying kinds of processes
which are physiological conditions for feelings of definite character.
Again, feelings of pleasant repose, of depression, or of sudden
collapse are still changes also in innervation tonus. These are
adaptations for situations just as are the more positive or aggressive
kinds illustrated above. Feelings where quick collapse occurs differ in
quality from feelings of calm repose. All can be conceived as kinds of
adaptations or responses, and clearly correspond to the characters
of feeling-tones rather than to any other dimension of feelings or
sensations.
Certainly the central preparedness for discharge largely
determines the feelings. The external excitations are merely the
clues. The internal apparatus is set vibrating in a constant manner if
no other external or central stimulus is present to demand other
adjustments or to intensify the same kind. When such synergetic or
antagonistic stimuli are also present the mutual influences of feelings
do seem to be, indeed, of great significance.
 THE ÆSTHETICS OF REPEATED
SPACE FORMS
BY ELEANOR HARRIS ROWLAND

PART I
The object of this paper is to discover some of the sources of our
pleasure in repeated space forms, and the laws which govern this
repetition. The repetition of an object, and its regular recurrence
subject to certain possible variations, is one of the basal principles of
art, and of architecture in particular.
It is necessary at the outset to define our use of the word
repetition more exactly, for there are obviously different meanings of
the word, which may lead to confusion.
1. The term repetition may be applied to the existence of any
two objects similar to each other, whether they are near together or
widely sundered. Our pleasure in such a repetition would be merely
that of re-seeing and recognizing the two as counterparts of each
other. This kind of repetition I call conceptual, for it requires only
that the memory-picture of the object be held in mind and the two
recognized as similar when met again. This is not the kind of
repetition which I have in mind, and I shall never use the word in
this sense during the discussion.
2. In any one work of art there may be some feature repeated,
some motif which is taken up and carried out in different ways
throughout the whole, and these features we recognize as having an
orderly relation to one another in the unity. This might be termed
repetition of content, and be applied to the recurrence of some type
of decoration over a window or a peculiar arch taken up in various
ways throughout a cathedral. I do not use the word in this sense,
but limit it still further.
3. By repetition is meant during this discussion the regular
recurrence of an object, and an equally regular recurrence of
intervals. The repeated object must come at uniform intervals, and
this restricts us to the consideration of that repetition alone which
consists of recurrence at regular intervals of some object more or
less beautiful in itself, and the description of the nature of our
æsthetic feeling in experiencing such a series.
Although this discussion is divided into the two divisions of
experiments and analysis of architectural examples, and the
experiments are described first, the investigation was not carried out
separately in this order. The two went along together, the art-
analysis suggesting experiments, and the experiments in turn
throwing light on the analysis. The two parts of the discussion are
kept separate merely for the convenience of the reader, and in the
experimental discussion all allusions to the art-illustrations are
excluded in order to avoid confusion. In reality the two went hand in
hand, but the connection between the experiments and art-analysis
will be reserved for the latter half of the paper.
The experiments were begun in the following manner: In a velvet
screen about a foot high was cut a window 460 mm. by 35 mm. in
size. Behind the window was a metre measure and a rod from which
hung small strips of cardboard 10 mm. wide. First two, three, and
four strips were hung behind the window, and the subjects were
required to arrange them at the intervals where they preferred to
see them repeated. The results were uniform in certain particulars
and very suggestive. In their arrangements of two, three and four
strips, the subjects were guided by considerations of symmetry or
proportion. They insisted that although they knew that the strips
were repeated, they did not feel the repetition, but the strips
seemed like parts of some larger unity to be arranged with reference
to the unity of the whole. With the addition of the fifth strip came a
difference in their apperception. Instead of the strips seeming parts
of a whole including figure they seemed like repeated units.

FAVORITE ARRANGEMENTS
2 strips 3 strips 4 strips 5 strips
J. 30 mms. 4 mms. { mid. sp. = 25 any symmetrical
{ ends = 10 arrangement better than equality
S. 170 12 { mid. sp. = 15 { mid. sp. = 40
{ ends = 12 { ends = 30
U. 40 20 30 35
R. 30 130 { mid. sp. = 30
{ ends = 10 10
L. 23 40 70 70
W. 40 10 30 30
V. 20 10 { mid. sp. = 100
{ ends = 60 15

It will be seen, from the table, that with two exceptions they
preferred five strips equally distant from one another, while with four
strips, four subjects had preferred a symmetrical arrangement.
These gave as their reason that with five strips the latter appeared
more definitely to be repetitions of one another, while the four strips
seemed more like parts of a whole which required symmetry in its
arrangement. Moreover the two subjects who preferred five strips in
symmetrical arrangement instead of at equal distances affirmed that
a distinct feeling of repetition came with five strips that had not been
felt before, only they did not enjoy this feeling of repetition as well
as one of symmetry. After having seen the five strips, some subjects
could feel the repetition with four strips, but none with three. The
question naturally arose, what is this feeling of repetition which
makes one say that four or five repeated objects deserve the name,
while three or less are regarded in a different light? The analogy
between the apperception of this visual repetition and auditory
rhythm seemed so strong as to deserve attention.
 In auditory rhythm it is necessary that there be recurrence of
more than two elements; they must come at a certain rate and
within a certain temporal space to seem connected with each other,
and they may be subjectively grouped in different ways. The
apperception of both kinds of repetition had so many analogies as to
suggest that some of the factors in both experiences were identical.
To focus the problem I took a definite thesis in regard to it. Our
apperception of repeated space forms is due to the rhythm of our
own motor adjustments which are excited in face of repetition,
harmoniously if they accord with certain rhythmic laws in us,
inharmoniously if they do not. It was then necessary to find what
facts would support such a thesis, to see if in reality such facts could
be marshalled, and if the explanation and support they offered was
conclusive enough to make it needless to look farther.
It would seem, if our pleasure in repetition depended on
temporal motor responses in us, that if the amount of time normally
taken to traverse a repeated series were shortened, or if the eyes
were fixed and not allowed to move over the field at all, our
enjoyment would cease altogether, or at least be seriously
diminished. If we found it impossible to enjoy the series except
when seen for a certain time, long enough for the eyes to go over it
in the rhythm peculiar to each subject, we should then conclude that
our enjoyment did depend, to some extent, on such temporal
rhythm.
I experimented on this question with nine subjects, and the
results brought out different ways of apperceiving repetition, which
divided the observers into two rather well-marked types.
The apparatus was of the simplest, consisting of white silk strings
hung on a wire against a black background across one side of the
room. The strings were attached to the wire by little hooks, which
enabled one to change their position easily, while a cloth hid the
weights on the ends of the strings, so that nothing but the vertical
white lines were visible.
 Fifty strings (50 mm. apart) were hung before the subjects, and
they were asked to survey the field and give a signal as soon as the
experience became pleasant. Then having found the average length
of time for each subject to enjoy these simple repetitions, a shorter
period was given when they were to shut their eyes at a given
signal, and see if in that shortened time they were still able to enjoy
the series. Next they fixated the eyes and kept the whole body rigid,
to see if pleasure was still possible when all outward motor response
was checked, so far as possible.
The results of this experiment were very suggestive. Of nine
subjects, all felt pleasure when allowed to move the eyes over the
series at random; with eyes fixed, five felt their pleasure much
altered in its quality as well as lessened, while with one it was
altogether destroyed. With four, however, although there was
considerable alteration in the quality of the pleasure, its amount was
increased rather than lessened.

B. (1) Average time necessary to enjoy the series: 4.7

seconds.
(2) Three-second exposure. No pleasure, needs more time
during the movement.
(3) Eyes fixed: 4 secs. = Av. time necessary to enjoy it.
Lines bunch toward centre and fade away at sides, giving a
kind of unity, but he feels constraint.
R. (1) Av. time: 4.3. Sees them in pairs.
(2) Two-sec. exposure. Very faint pleasure; feels that only a
part is perceived.
(3) Eyes fixed: 4.3. One pair fixated, the others fade away,
making a kind of figure. Pleasure faint and constrained.
L. (1) Av. time: 2.1.
(2) 1-sec. exposure. Pleasure faint and incomplete. He feels
the pleasure comes from memory of the previous experience.
(3) Eyes fixed: 2.2. Great effort to find any pleasure. It
consists mainly in seeing a few strings, and feeling there are
others, even though they are not distinguished.
V. (1) Av. time: 2.2. Sees them in pairs.
(2) 1.5-sec. exposure. Enjoys the experience in memory
after the eyes are shut again.
(3) Eyes fixed: 1.9. Still sees them in pairs, but cannot see
enough of them, hence they are less pleasant.

W. (1) Av. time: 4.3.

(2) 2-sec. exposure. Not enough time to feel any relation
between the strings, most of the pleasure supplied by the
memory.
(3) Eyes fixed: 5.3. Pleasure is very faint, and consists in
having the strings appear to converge to a central point, and
fade at the sides.
J. (1) Av. time: 2.3. Sees them in pairs.
(2) 1.5 exposure. Less pleasant.
(3) Eyes fixed: 2.7. Series seems more like a unity and he
enjoys it more, since no time is spent in exploring the field, but
it is one unified experience.
U. (1) Av. time: 28. Only enjoys it by ignoring all except
those in the centre—does not want so many.
(3) Eyes fixed: 18 secs. Enjoys it when eye lights on one
string, so that the others can fade away equally at the sides, in
one figure.
S. (1) Av. time: 5.
(2) 3-sec. exposure. Less pleasant.
(3) Eyes fixed: 8.8. Pleasure consists in converging of lines
toward central point. It appears like one figure and is more
intense than (1).
H. (1) Av. time: 9. Sees them in pairs.
(2) 1 sec. Just as pleasant as before.
(3) Eyes fixed: 4.6. Pleasure in unity of whole series with
 centre of fixation emphasized. Only felt pleasure anyhow when
the eyes had stopped moving, so now it comes all the sooner.

From these introspections it is obvious that there are two distinct

ways of apperceiving repetition: One in which the rhythmic element
is pronounced, so that when the time necessary for such a rhythm is
shortened, or by fixating the eyes the motor response is hindered,
the pleasure in the repetition is either altered or destroyed
altogether. The other type takes a repeated series in the sense of a
unified presentation and wants it all at once in a symmetrical whole.
The rhythmic factor is present in both, as is shown by the fact that
the quality of the pleasure was changed in every case when the time
of exposure was shortened. But in the latter type of subject the
pleasure felt in the presentation of the whole at once, and the
feeling of symmetry around a middle point, are more intense than a
rhythmic apperception. These two kinds of apperception remain
fairly constant throughout the experiments, and for convenience'
sake we shall call them spatial and temporal types. With the former,
the value of the experience consists especially in having a central
fixation-point from which the repeated elements fade away equally
on the sides, making a symmetrical whole. With the temporal type,
the pleasure is felt by means of the rhythmical passage from one
element of the series to the other. In passing from point to point the
rest of the field still remains in indirect vision, so to the distinctly
temporal a distinctly spatial factor is also present. For this reason the
temporal type of apperception is the richer of the two, and a
description of it comes more nearly to the essence of repetition as
such.
Up to this time, the repeated element had always been a single
string. This was varied and the strings hung in pairs (50 mm. wide,
100 mm. between pairs). When the strings had hung at equal
distances from each other, six out of the nine subjects had seen
them in pairs while enjoying them, and had found such grouping
more or less essential to enjoyment. In seven cases the pleasure
was increased by this grouping. They expressed their preference in
various ways: "Easier to keep track of where we are going." "Can go
quicker over field, for repetitions are more well-marked." "Single line
is too thin to rest on, this gives broader space for repose." All these
introspections instanced the necessity of the rhythm being marked
and made plain, so that there should be no confusion of point with
point. The two who disliked this grouping were of the spatial type,
who found no pleasure in traversing the field, hence too little
content in it, in this arrangement, at any one time. Grouping of some
kind would seem to faciliate the apperception to a certain class of
subjects, while with others the amount and quality of the content of
the field is of more consequence.
Since accents are such an important factor of auditory rhythm,
the next experiment was to see if the apperception of a series of
repeated elements would be facilitated by accenting every other
one.
 Another string was hung in every other pair thus making it more
striking, but here came a difference between the feeling of accent in
auditory and visual rhythms. The subjects declared the pairs in
which a third line was hung were not intensified alone, as when a
greater stress is put on a tone in auditory rhythm, but the pairs were
changed qualitatively. The group of three became the repeated
element, while the pair was only an alternating figure different from
the principal unit. This unanimous testimony brought up a variety of
questions. 1. Is any purely intensive accent, without involving
qualitative changes, possible in visual repetition? 2. What factor
makes us choose one object rather than another as the repeated
element? 3. What is the value of the alternating figure in such a
series? 4. What is the value of the empty space between repeated
figures, and does it have as distinct a value as an alternating figure?
5. Are all the recurring objects and spaces felt as separate
repetitions; if so, how many can be carried on at once?
These questions were put to the subjects in regard to the series
just described with considerable uniformity of answer.
(1) No such thing as purely stress accent seemed possible. The
word, signifying greater intensity without change of quality, did not
apply. If one attempted to intensify the repeated object in any way,
either hanging another string, thickening the strings, or any similar
device, it ceased to be the old unit but became a new one, whose
repetition was followed for its own sake, while the weaker one
retired into the background, and was not felt as the element
repeated in the series.
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